The most common a specific feature of this style of speech is the logic of presentation .
Any coherent statement must have this quality. But the scientific text is distinguished by its emphasized, strict logic. All parts in it are strictly connected in meaning and are arranged strictly sequentially; conclusions follow from the facts presented in the text. This is done by means typical for scientific speech: linking sentences using repeated nouns, often combined with a demonstrative pronoun.
Adverbs also indicate the sequence of thought development: first, first of all, then, then, next; as well as introductory words: firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, so, therefore, vice versa; unions: since, because, so that, therefore. Predominance union communications emphasizes the greater connection between sentences.
Another typical sign scientific style speech is precision .
Semantic accuracy(unambiguity) is achieved by careful selection of words, the use of words in their direct meaning, wide use of terms and special vocabulary. In scientific style, repetition is considered the norm. keywords.
Distraction And generality necessarily permeate every scientific text.
Therefore, they are widely used here abstract concepts that are difficult to imagine, see, feel. Such texts often contain words with an abstract meaning, for example: emptiness, speed, time, force, quantity, quality, law, number, limit; formulas, symbols, symbols, graphs, tables, diagrams, diagrams, drawings.
It is characteristic that even specific vocabulary here acts to denote general concepts .
For example: The philologist must carefully, that is, a philologist in general; Birch tolerates frost well, i.e. not a single object, but a tree species - a general concept. This is clearly manifested when comparing the features of the use of the same word in scientific and artistic speech. In artistic speech, a word is not a term; it contains not only a concept, but also a verbal artistic image(comparison, personification, etc.).
The word of science is unambiguous and terminological.
Compare:
The scientific style of speech is characterized by the plural form of abstract and real nouns: length, magnitude, frequency; frequent use of neuter words: education, property, meaning.
Not only nouns, but also verbs are usually used in the context of scientific speech not in their basic and specific meanings, but in a generalized abstract meaning.
Words: go, follow, lead, compose, indicateь and others do not denote movement itself, etc., but something else, abstract:
IN scientific literature, especially mathematical, the form of the future tense is often devoid of its grammatical meaning: instead of a word will are used is, is.
Present tense verbs also do not always receive the meaning of concreteness: regularly used; always indicate. Widely used forms Not perfect form.
Scientific speech is characterized by: the predominance of 1st and 3rd person pronouns, while the meaning of the person is weakened; frequent use of short adjectives.
However, the generality and abstractness of texts in the scientific style of speech do not mean that they lack emotionality and expressiveness. In this case, they would not have achieved their goal.
The expressiveness of scientific speech differs from the expressiveness of artistic speech in that it is associated primarily with the accuracy of the use of words, the logic of presentation, and its persuasiveness. Most often, figurative means are used in popular science literature.
Do not mix terms that are established in science and formed according to the type of metaphor (in biology - tongue, pestle, umbrella; in technology - clutch, paw, shoulder, trunk; in geography - base (mountains), ridge) using terms for figurative and expressive purposes in journalistic or artistic style speech when these words cease to be terms ( pulse of life, political barometer, negotiations are stalled etc.).
To enhance expressiveness in a scientific style of speech , especially in popular science literature, in works of a polemical nature, in discussion articles, are used :
1) intensifying particles, pronouns, adverbs: only, absolutely, only;
2) adjectives like: colossal, most advantageous, one of the greatest, most difficult;
3) “problematic” questions: In fact, what kind of bodies does a cell find in the environment?, What is the reason for this?
Objectivity- another sign of a scientific style of speech. Scientific theories and laws scientific facts, phenomena, experiments and their results - all this is presented in texts related to the scientific style of speech.
And all this requires quantitative and qualitative characteristics, objective and reliable. Therefore, exclamatory sentences are used very rarely. In a scientific text, the personal is unacceptable, Subjective opinion, it is not customary to use the pronoun I and verbs in the first person singular. Here, indefinite personal sentences are used more often ( think that...), impersonal ( it is known that...), definitely personal ( let's look at the problem....).
In the scientific style of speech, several substyles or varieties can be distinguished:
a) actually scientific (academic) - the most strict, precise; they write dissertations, monographs, articles in scientific journals, instructions, GOST standards, encyclopedias;
b) popular science (scientific and journalistic) they write science articles in newspapers, popular science magazines, popular science books; this includes public performance on radio, television scientific topics, speeches by scientists and specialists before mass audiences;
c) scientific and educational (educational literature on different subjects For different types educational institutions; reference books, manuals).
| Addressee purpose | Academic Scientist, specialist Identification and description of new facts and patterns | Scientific and educational Student Training, description of the facts necessary to master the material | Popular science Wide audience Give general idea about science, interest |
| Selection of facts, terms | Academic New facts are selected. Well-known facts are not explained. Only new terms proposed by the author are explained. | Scientific and educational Typical facts are selected All terms are explained | Popular science Intriguing ones are selected fun facts Minimum terminology. The meaning of the terms is explained through analogy. |
| Leading type of speech Title | Academic Reasoning Reflects the topic, problem of research by Kozhin M.N. “On the specifics of artistic and scientific speech” | Scientific and educational Description Reflects the type educational material Golub I.B. "Stylistics of the Russian language" | Popular science Narrative Intriguing, arouses interest Rosenthal D.E. "Secrets of Stylistics" |
Language features scientific style are determined by the fact that the main task of the author scientific text is a description of the world as an object of knowledge. This means that the author must present information related to the subject of the study and prove that it is true. Therefore, a scientific text must, on the one hand, be informative and not “emotional,” and on the other, it must be structured in such a way as to convince the reader that the author is right.
The main features of the scientific style. A scientific text is characterized by information richness, objectivity, rigor and simplicity, regulation, official character, a certain standardization and predominantly written form presentation. At the same time, regulation should be understood as the use of a limited set of linguistic means that reflect the process of scientific knowledge and the logic of the development of scientific thought. Standardization indicates that scientific texts are constructed in accordance with a certain model and using cliché formulas.
TO lexical features A scientific text includes terms - words and phrases that name the concepts of a particular science. As you know, each science has its own terminological apparatus. Knowledge of terms makes it possible to understand a scientific text. In most cases, the terms are international. Scientific knowledge is the result of the work of scientists from different countries, so scientists must have special language, where they could communicate and develop their science together. It is no coincidence that, for example, oil and gas texts are filled with terms borrowed from English and German languages: fittings, vibration, gas lift, hydraulic drill, deformation, sump, cable, cardan, crown block, overshot, packer, preventer, reducer, swab, scraper, turbolizer and etc.
Many of the words we use in Everyday life, in scientific texts receive special, terminological meanings: mantle, muff, apron, cheek, jaw, tower, chasing, connecting rod, wedge, table, glass, scraper, candle, heel.
Morphological features. Scientific texts are characterized by nouns formed from verbs and adjectives, expressing abstraction and generality: knowledge, research, drilling, fossil, deposit, origin, production, storage, feature, exploration, processing, occurrence and etc.
Contrary to general pattern Russian language is widely used in scientific speech short adjectives to express permanent sign subject ( Space is homogeneous and isotropic).
Scientific speech is characterized only by third-person pronouns (he, she, they). The pronoun “we” performs strictly limited two functions: 1) the so-called function of modesty ( Based on the results of the experiments, we came to the conclusion...); 2) function of the population of participants in the study ( We search and explore offshore oil and gas fields).
The number of verbs used in scientific texts is relatively small. They mainly describe the signs of phenomena ( last, persist, originate, follow), establish the identity of phenomena ( appear, serve, relate to, represent) indicate cause-and-effect relationships ( condition, provide, explain, underlie), prescribe any actions ( highlight, distinguish, mark, describe, classify, subdivide).
Verb forms present tense express the abstraction and generality of the scientific style ( Chloride decomposes. The directions of oil refining depend on the chemical composition of the oil). Past tense forms are used to describe the history of the issue, the history of the occurrence of the phenomenon being studied ( Previously, oil fields were often discovered by accident through natural oil seeps to the surface.). When forecasting, the preferred form of the future tense ( In a few years, oil will be produced in the Arctic Ocean).
The present tense forms of imperfective verbs in scientific texts account for about 80%, and perfective verbs are characteristic of stable repeating phrases ( The equation will take the form... Let's consider some conditions for the formation and occurrence of oil and gas). In scientific speech, imperfective verbs are deprived of paired perfective verbs ( Acid corrodes - it is not allowed to use " Acid will corrode").
Participial and participial phrases are used for the purpose of text compression, in order to avoid cluttering the text with complex sentences ( An anticline, consisting of a layer of oil-permeable formation, is a trap for oil and gas).
Features of scientific texts V syntactically are passive constructions, often without indicating the subject of the action ( Oil is used as a raw material for petrochemical synthesis), stringing forms genitive case nouns ( Establishing the dependence of the waveline length x-rays atom).
Complex sentences are widely used in scientific texts, mainly with subordinate clauses time, causes and conditions, the means of communication in which are denominate (complex) conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, introductory words and particles ( as a result of, in connection with, while, in case if, as, in view of, so, thus, therefore, hence, therefore).
At the text level Scientific style is represented by description and reasoning. Compositionally, the texts are of the same type: they consist of an introduction, a main part and a conclusion, which adequately reflects the laws of the process of cognition and the formation of knowledge. The structure of the text represents the dynamics of the stages of cognition, the movement from the known to the new according to the law of “negation of negation.”
Many scientific texts, depending on the genre, are built according to a certain model (template) and have a certain text structure, the optimality of which has been proven by many generations of scientists. The specificity of scientific information requires the author to systematically present the material; in connection with this, scientific texts are characterized by clear and detailed headings - dividing the text into sections, paragraphs, paragraphs and subparagraphs, which may contain figures, tables, graphs and large enumerations.
A scientific text has a generally accepted strict composition: title, introduction, main part, conclusion, references. The title reflects the topic of the text. The introduction, or introductory part, includes the rationale for relevance, the purpose and objectives of the work, and research methods. The main part contains abstracts and illustrative material. The conclusion represents the conclusions and the finally formulated concept.
When creating scientific texts, like texts of any other style, various ways of presenting material. Most common following methods:
1) inductive method– presentation of material from specific to general, to generalizations and conclusions;
2) deductive method– presentation from general position to particular ones, explaining the meaning of the general concrete examples, facts, details;
3) method of analogy - comparison of various phenomena, events, facts in parallel, while the new is compared with the already known;
4) concentric method - placing the material around main problem, the author consistently moves from a general consideration of the central issue to a more specific and in-depth analysis of it;
5) stepwise method - sequential presentation of one issue after another;
6) historical method– presentation of the material in chronological sequence, a description and analysis of changes that may have occurred in something over time.
Along with the ways of presenting material in the text, you need to know types of connection between statements in the text. There are parallel and serial communication. The most common is a sequential (chain) connection, which involves a sequential presentation of thoughts - each subsequent thought develops from the previous one: The next day in the evening he went to the Turkins to propose. But this turned out to be inconvenient, since Ekaterina Ivanovna was being combed by a hairdresser in her room. She was going to a club for a dance party. This connection is made using lexical repetition, repetition of synonyms or pronouns. When the order of sentences is changed, the meaning of the statement is destroyed.
In a parallel connection, sentences are compared or contrasted with each other due to the parallelism of constructions, anaphora: We stand on high mountain. From our feet to the very ground stretches a sloping plane, into which the sun looks like in a mirror. Near us is a small sleigh, upholstered in bright red cloth. The main sentence in the text is the first sentence. The second and third sentences depend in parallel on the first. When changing the order of the second and third sentences, the meaning of the statement does not change significantly.
Genres of scientific style are divided into the following substyles: scientific (monograph, dissertation, article, theses, review), educational and scientific (textbook, lecture, Toolkit, coursework and diploma work), scientific and informative (abstract, annotation, essay, review, synopsis, reference book, catalog, summary), popular science (essay, book, popular lecture).
Let us present two texts of a scientific style, the first of which belongs to the scientific substyle itself, and the second to the popular science one.
1 Oil – compound. The main chemical elements that make up oil are carbon and hydrogen. Depending on the location of oil production, they differ in their composition and properties. There are several options for classifying oils. Based on density, oils are divided into light, heavy and heavy. Based on the chemical composition, oils can be divided into paraffin, naphthenic (paraffin-free) and intermediate.
For of this text characterized by accuracy, logic and information content. Among the linguistic features of the text, the following stand out: lexical: predominance of terms ( element, extraction, carbon, hydrogen, option, classification, density, chemical composition etc.) and words with abstract meaning ( property, composition, dependence).
To morphological features include: verbal passive designs (differ, divide), clarification of concepts with adjectives ( complex substance, chemical element, heavy oil), the use of the plural form of real nouns ( oil, oils).
From syntactic features one can note the presence complex sentence with a subordinate clause (with union word « which"), the use of denominate prepositions ( depending on the), the predominance of proposals with homogeneous members (light, weighted and heavy; paraffin, naphthenic and intermediate). Based on the content of the text, you can determine who it is addressed to.
2 People have known oil for about four thousand years. They say that oil is the basis of the “life” of technology, just as water is the basis of all life on earth. Just as all life on earth is impossible without water, technology cannot exist without oil. “Black gold”, “the blood of modern civilization” - this is how oil is often called.
Oil is a complex mixture chemical compounds. Its composition, in addition to carbon and hydrogen, includes sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen and others chemical elements. Oil is a flammable substance that has the ability to burn.
The second text belongs to the popular science substyle. Its content is accessible to anyone interested in news in the world of science. The linguistic features of this text do not differ from the features of texts of the scientific substyle of the corresponding genre.
It's hard to imagine educational process without a scientific style, which serves to process and reproduce information using so-called secondary texts. These include: plan, thesis, abstract, review, summary, abstract. Secondary texts are created on the basis of the primary text with a certain degree of processing of its content and linguistic structure. Each type of secondary text has its own textual and linguistic features.
Annotation. An annotation is a brief description of a text, article, book from the point of view of purpose, content and form. The volume of the abstract should not exceed 400–500 printed characters. The annotation indicates the topic of the source, lists the issues covered in the text, but does not disclose the content of the questions.
There are reference and advisory annotations. The reference annotation gives a brief description of subject matter of the text, any information about the text is provided without critical assessment. Advisory annotations are aimed at assessing the suitability of a text for a specific category of readers.
The annotation uses generally accepted speech standards, which are typical for all types of annotations. Here is a sample reference annotation.
Lysenko V.D. Development design oil fields. – M.: Nedra, 1987. – 247 p.
Formulas are given for calculating the dynamics of changes in the main technological indicators when various systems drilling out deposits and carrying out geological and technical activities on them. The conditions for the application of specific measures to intensify oil production and increase the final oil recovery factor and determine their effectiveness are considered. Special attention devoted to the design methodology for developing oil fields in heterogeneous reservoirs.
For engineering and technical workers involved in the design of oil field development and oil production.
Contains 38 tables, 9 illustrations and a bibliography of 23 titles.
The abstract must begin with bibliographic description annotated source. Then follows the topic of the source ( the author poses and highlights the following questions, touches the following questions ). In the annotation text, passive constructions are preferred ( What does the article cover? / what is it talking about? / summarizes what? / provides an analysis, assessment, generalization of what? / point of view presented etc.). In conclusion, it is indicated to whom the annotated source is addressed and a brief description of the structure of the source is given.
The annotation does not use emotionally expressive or figurative means; it contains evaluative elements that reflect the author’s critical approach to the annotated source.
Ermakova, E.V. About oil in Russian: a guide for foreign students on teaching the language of their specialty (oil and gas profile). Book for students / E.V. Ermakova, O.V. Konstantinova, A.A. Muravyova. – M.: Russian language. Courses, 2011. – 120 p.
This textbook is addressed to foreign students in the oil and gas field who speak Russian at a basic level.
The purpose of the proposed manual is to study the sublanguage of the specialty, form communicative competence students for communication in the professional field.
The book uses texts of a highly specialized nature.
Review is a special genre of written scientific speech. IN scientific field reviews are written on articles, monographs, textbooks and teaching aids, theses (projects) and dissertations. The review is characterized by a small volume and brevity.
A review involves commenting on the main provisions of the text (interpretation of the author’s thoughts), the reviewer’s additions to the thoughts expressed by the author, an expression of attitude towards the formulation of the problem, a generalized reasoned assessment and conclusions about the significance of the work.
Compositionally, the review should be compiled according to standard plan:
1. Subject of analysis.
2. Relevance of the topic.
3. Formulation of the main thesis.
4. Summary
5. Overall rating.
6. Disadvantages, shortcomings.
7. Conclusions.
The reviewer must use in his text linguistic means and speech standards characteristic of this genre of scientific style.
When describing the subject of analysis (1), clichés such as in the article..., in the author's work..., in the reviewed work..., in the dissertation... etc.
To reflect the relevance of the topic (2), the following constructions are used: the work is dedicated to current topic..., the author devoted his work to an actual problem..., the relevance of the topic of the work under review is due to..., the relevance of the topic follows directly from the title of the work and so on.
The formulation of the main thesis (3) is built using such constructions as in an article / work / monograph central issue is..., the work brings to the fore the question of..., the main issue in solving which the author achieved significant / tangible / significant results,... etc.
Usually only a positive review is written, in which an overall rating (5) must be given. When writing a review to express positive assessment The following formulations are used: the unconditional / obvious / main advantage of the work is..., the work is valuable because it reconsiders the theory..., the work is highly informative / rich in factual material..., the author rightly notes / convincingly proves / clearly defines / analyzes in detail..., the author is right , arguing that..., the unconditional merit of the author is the new methodical approach/ proposed classification / some clarifications of existing concepts... etc .
When expressing an ambiguous assessment, the reviewer must adhere to certain ethical rules and give his assessment in a friendly manner: It is necessary to note a number of controversial points, this formulation of the question seems not controversial, but some of the author’s theses remain unsubstantiated, some statements are not supported by facts, the author cites a number of not always convincing arguments. But after such expressions, it should be pointed out that the reviewer does not at all impose his tastes on the author of the work: Despite disagreement with the basic concept of this work, its significance and relevance cannot be underestimated...
The general assessment of work is formulated by such constructs as assessing the work as a whole,..., summing up the results of the author's research,..., thus, the work in question...
When pointing out the shortcomings and shortcomings (6) of the work, the reviewer must remember that he is not an auditor or a judge, but a benevolent and competent “co-author” who ethically expresses his position, therefore categorical comments are unacceptable. In this case, the following clichés are appropriate: There is doubt about the appropriateness of this approach to..., the author overlooks..., the author failed to show/prove/convince..., the shortcomings of the work include..., some questions regarding... remained unexplained, however, the noted shortcomings do not reduce the significance of the work...
Conclusions (7) indicate the originality of the work, its relevance and practical significance: in general, in our opinion, the work under review deserves a positive assessment... it seems that the work / article / book / monograph / dissertation has important and can contribute significant contribution V…
Here is a sample review of scientific article:
Review
to the article by Ivanov M.S. "Security environment during the construction and operation of gas and oil pipelines", published in the collection " Actual problems technical, natural and humanities: materials of the International Scientific and Technical Conference. – Ufa: Publishing House of USNTU, 2012. – Issue. 5. – P.85-91.
The article under review provides a description of the components of the environment: the biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere, which are subject to pollution.
Their protection from the effects of waste is considered in detail. industrial enterprises. This topic is quite relevant, since the problem of environmental pollution during the construction of pipelines is very important. Impact on the environment can change its composition and upset the balance in the ecosystem. The author considers direct and indirect impacts and the types of their consequences – reversible and irreversible.
Assessing the work as a whole, we can say that the author most fully revealed the essence this issue and opportunities to reduce impacts on nature. With a detailed study of environmental components, it is possible to determine the degree of impact, as well as take measures to protect the environment.
In general, the work can be assessed positively, since the presented study of individual components of the environment will help to find effective methods environmental protection.
Essay- This analytical review or a detailed review, which substantiates the relevance of the topic under study, briefly outlines and analyzes the substantive and formal positions of the texts being studied, and formulates generalizations and conclusions. The structure of the abstract is determined by its type.
Depending on the type of content information (a distinction is made between factual, logical-theoretical and evaluative information) and the completeness of the presentation of the content, two types of abstracts are distinguished: informative and indicative. And according to the number of referenced sources, a distinction is made between review and monographic abstracts.
Informative abstract contains in a generalized form: all the main provisions of the source being reviewed; the most important argument; information about the research methodology, the equipment used, and the scope of application.
Indicative abstract sometimes called an index or summary abstract. It briefly characterizes the subject of the study and its results. The abstract contains only those main provisions that are closely related to the topic of the text being reviewed. The text of this type of abstract consists essentially of a set of keywords, so it can be used by the reader only to clarify the question of whether he needs to refer to the primary text. The abstract does not contain a detailed statement of the results and conclusions of the study.
Review abstract, Unlike monographic abstract compiled from one source is written from several sources on the same topic.
The volume of the abstract can range from 10 to 15 printed pages (without attachments). The text is printed on one side of the page; footnotes and notes are printed on the same page to which they refer (1 spaced or more small print than text).
Abstract structure. Title page is the first page and is designed according to certain rules which should be followed. After title page fits table of contents, which lists all the headings of the abstract text and indicates the pages from which they begin. In administered the essence of the problem under study is formulated, the choice of topic is justified, its significance and relevance are determined, the purpose and objectives of the abstract are indicated, and a description of the literature used is given. Main part may contain illustrative material (drawings, photographs, diagrams, tables, etc.). IN conclusion the results are summed up or a generalized conclusion is given on the topic of the essay, recommendations are offered. At the end of the abstract there is list of used literature. In addition, in order not to overload the main part, some tables, graphs and diagrams can be transferred to applications.
Summarizing is based on the assessment of source information from the point of view of its significance for conveying the main content of the text, which is achieved during language transformations during text compression. As is known, collapsing the text requires lexical-semantic transformations, when performing which it is necessary to operate with various linguistic means, select linguistic forms that are adequate communicative task and communication situations.
It is necessary to know the structures that connect all the compositional parts of the abstract: In this(present, proposed, considered, reviewed)work(book, article, monograph...) author(scientist, researcher, applicant...)puts(lifts, examines, puts forward...) row(some) the following(important, basic, main, essential, controversial, interesting...) questions(problems).
When listing the main issues of the text under review, constructions such as the author examines (analyzes, reveals, expounds, dwells on..., talks about...). The following verbs are used to denote research or experimental material: research, find out, develop, prove, assert etc. When indicating incidentally raised issues, the following constructions are used: In addition, the author touches (what), notices (what), mentions (what). The verbs that capture the author’s argumentation (figures, examples, illustrations, experimental results) include: the author cites, refers, relies, argues, illustrates, confirms, compares, juxtaposes, correlates, contrasts. To formulate generalizations, conclusions and summing up the following constructions are used: the author comes to a conclusion, summarizes, draws a conclusion, generalizes, summarizes... etc . To list questions, topics, problems, use combinations with introductory words or adverbs of time and place: so, thus, firstly, secondly, further, then, in addition, after that, in conclusion etc.
When summarizing articles of a polemical or critical nature, the author can express his positive attitude using verbs approve, defend, agree, be on the side, share (whose) opinion, defend, prove (to whom). The author of the essay conveys a negative attitude using verb combinations: polemicize, argue with someone about what, reject, refute, question, revise, doubt something, revise, deny, accuse of distorting scientific truth and so on.
Samples of abstracts can be found in the abstract journal (RJ) in scientific library any higher education institution or research institute.
Abstract. Note-taking can be defined as special kind analytical and synthetic processing of information. The purpose of the summary is to extract, systematize and summarize the most essential content of the source and write it down in a form that eliminates the need to refer to it again. Note-taking is the process of mental processing and written recording of the text being read.
From the point of view of completeness of presentation, notes are divided into brief, detailed and mixed. Brief summary represents only the main provisions of the source with minimum quantity arguments, explanations and explanations. In a detailed summary not only the main provisions are reflected, but also the course of evidence and detail of the main provisions, supported by illustrative material. Mixed notes may contain both detailed statement basic information and common problem in abstract form. In terms of the number of sources used, a distinction is made between a monographic summary (one source) and a summary summary (several sources).
It should be borne in mind that a summary of any of the types listed above should allow the author of the summary after some time to restore the source information with the necessary completeness. Note-taking is closely related to introductory and educational types of reading. If during introductory reading the author seeks to understand the general line of content of the text, then the student reading must ensure the most complete and accurate understanding of the information contained in the text and memorization of its verbal expression.
When taking notes, the same language formulas and structures are used as when compiling an abstract, such as: language structures to convey the content of the text; linguistic formulas expressing agreement/disagreement with the author of the source; constructions expressing methods of comparison; constructions expressing a conclusion. The effectiveness of note-taking depends on the development of the skill of quickly identifying informative units of the source text, the speed of selection, evaluation and extraction of information necessary for a given topic.
It should be noted that the summary as a secondary text is a written product creative activity a person who perceives the content of the source purely individually. In addition, an indispensable condition for successful note-taking is the use of abbreviated words, common abbreviations, abbreviations, symbols and self-abbreviated words.
Plan- this is a pre-planned order, sequence in the presentation of the content of any work, text, article or speech. The form of recording in the form of a plan helps to restore and store in memory and later reproduce the content of what was read. There are several types of plans: question, title, thesis and plan - reference diagram.
When compiling question plan each information center must correspond to one question containing question words, not phrases with a particle whether (1. What methods of transporting oil currently exist? 2. What are the disadvantages and advantages of water transport?).
Name plan is a list of plan points from sentences of the nominal structure (1. Physicochemical characteristics oils. 2. Molecular mass oils and petroleum products), while thesis plan made up of sentences of the verb structure ( 1. The physical and chemical properties of oil characterize its ability to be pumped through pipelines. 2. The molecular weight of oil and petroleum products is determined experimentally).
Plan - reference diagram consists of supports, i.e., words and sentence fragments that carry the greatest semantic load. Using such supports it is easy to reconstruct the text of a speech or report. The choice of supports usually depends on the characteristics of the writer’s memory, his goals and objectives.
Before writing thesis(graduation project), various research work, dissertations are detailed plan, which is implemented by dividing the text into compositional blocks (introduction, main part, conclusion). A formally developed plan expresses the development of the logic of thought of the author of a scientific work.
Theses is a set of briefly formulated main provisions of a report, lecture, message, article or other text material. In this case, it is often implied that the proof of logically interconnected individual provisions takes place in the text of the main publication. The main difference between theses and other scientific texts is the small volume in which all the main ideas of scientific work are presented. Based on the quality of the abstract, the reader decides whether it is necessary to get acquainted with the material in in full
There are certain requirements for writing abstracts. Each statement (thesis) should be brief but succinct. In addition, it must be justified either by logic or empirics. The thesis does not address the solution to the problem, since the thesis is an analytical work on a selected topic. When writing, you should strictly adhere to the scientific style, avoiding emotions. The text should be understandable even to an untrained reader.
Sample abstracts of reports (articles) can be found in the materials of any scientific conferences, which are regularly conducted by universities and research centers.
Scientific style is one of the functional styles of the general literary language, serving the sphere science and production. It is also called the scientific-professional style, thereby emphasizing the scope of its distribution.
Each style appears in its own time - when the conditions for its formation are ripe in society, when the language reaches high degree development. The time of appearance of the scientific style varies in different countries. So, in the Middle Ages, in the era of feudalism, “ scholarly language» all Western Europe was Latin - international language Sciences. On the one hand, this was convenient: scientists, regardless of their native language could read each other's works. But, on the other hand, this situation prevented the formation of a scientific style in each country. Therefore, its development took place in the struggle with Latin. Based national languages the means necessary to express were formed scientific provisions, thoughts.
First Science Magazine was published only on January 5, 1655 under French Academy(“Journal of Scientists”). Currently, more than 50 thousand scientific journals are published in the world.
The beginning of the formation of the language of Russian science dates back to the first third of the 18th century. It was during this period Russian Academy published a number of works in Russian. In the 30s of the 18th century, the language scientific books was the most processed and perfect among various literary genres. And this is not surprising if we recall the scientific creations of such prominent scientists as M.V. Lomonosov, S.P. Krashennikov, P.I. Rachkov, I.I. Lepekhin and others. However, during this period and later – until the beginning of the twentieth century – the language of science had not yet emerged as an independent functional style. He was very close to the language fiction descriptive in nature. The works of scientists and writers were difficult to distinguish, they were so similar. For example, here is an excerpt from scientific work Vl. Wagner's On Coloration and Mimicry in Animals, written in 1901.
And during all the years of my observations, I found a spider of this species only once and found it completely by accident: looking at a branch for a different purpose and noticing a creature quickly flashing along the branch, which immediately disappeared from my eyes; After a thorough search at the animal's research site, I finally spotted a spider - a kidney.
It is easy to notice how far this text is from modern works similar on the topic, which are dry and laconic. The author is present in it not only as a researcher, but also as a writer describing his impressions and experiences.
In the same way, the works of the famous Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov differed from works of descriptive fiction only in terminology. Build the works, set syntactic constructions, vocabulary and phraseology did not have significant differences.
Further development scientific speech sought to form own system linguistic means, isolated and closed, strived for a strict and clear presentation of thoughts, to exclude everything emotional and figurative. Thus, imagery, widely used in ancient times, in the Middle Ages, later began to be expelled from scientific works. Standard scientific prose becomes a strict, logical, dry presentation of Newton’s “Principles of Mathematics.” This is how the modern appearance of the scientific style was formed.
Fast development society, the rapid progress of science and technology create a need for the formation special language, the best way adapted for the expression and transmission of scientific knowledge.
Currently, the scientific style is divided into substyles: scientific proper (its genres are monograph, article, report), scientific and informative (genres - abstract, abstract, patent description), scientific reference (genres - dictionary, reference book, catalogue), educational -scientific (genres - textbook, methodological guide, lecture), popular science (essay, etc.).
Distinctive feature the actual scientific style is an academic presentation addressed to specialists. The characteristics of this substyle are the accuracy of the information conveyed, the persuasiveness of the argument, the logical sequence of presentation, and conciseness.
The popular science substyle has other characteristics. It is addressed to a wide readership, so scientific data should be presented in an accessible and in an entertaining way. He does not strive for brevity or laconism, but uses linguistic means close to journalism. Terminology is also used here.
The scientific and informative substyle must accurately convey scientific information with a description of scientific facts.
The educational and scientific substyle is addressed to future specialists, and therefore there is a lot of illustrative material, examples, explanations.
The scientific style is distinguished by a number of common features, due to the features scientific thinking. The specificity of scientific thinking dictates the generality and abstractness of the language of scientific prose. Science uses concepts and expresses abstract thought, so its language is devoid of concreteness. And in this respect it is opposed to the language of fiction. Hypotenuse is the side of a right triangle that lies opposite right angle. The sensor records temperature changes.
These proposals are from different fields of science and technology, but they are united by their extreme generality and abstractness. The first sentence is from the field of mathematics, in it we're talking about not about the specific hypotenuse of a particular given right triangle. On the contrary, it speaks of all existing and possible right triangles. The second sentence characterizes not a specific sensor, but all sensors of this type, of this class. And the use of a special timeless, i.e., is very characteristic. also generalized, the meaning of the present tense: fixes (changes) - that means not now, in this moment fixes, but always, constantly – is able to fix.
Abstraction and generality permeate every scientific text. This is reflected primarily in the widespread use of abstract vocabulary (including terminology), in the fact that almost every word acts as a designation of a general concept or abstract object.
The intellectual nature of scientific knowledge determines such important feature the language of science, as its logic. It is expressed in preliminary thinking through the message, monologue character and strict sequence of presentation. In this regard, the scientific style, like some others book styles, opposed colloquial speech.
The collective nature of modern scientific research determines the objectivity of the language of science. The role of the speaker, the author’s “I” in scientific presentation, in contrast, for example, to artistic speech, journalism, conversational style, is very insignificant. The main thing is the message itself, its subject, the results of a study or experiment, presented clearly, clearly, objectively, regardless of the feelings that the researcher experienced during the experiment, in the process of writing a scientific work. Author's feelings and experiences scientific communication are taken out of brackets and do not participate in speech. Subjectivity and emotionality are excluded.
Scientific research objectively, which is expressed, as a rule, in the impersonality of linguistic expression, in the absence primarily of the author’s “I” and the emotions accompanying it. The main task of the scientific style is to convey the information being communicated to the reader as clearly and accurately as possible.
Another feature scientific presentation- accuracy. Accuracy in scientific speech presupposes the selection of linguistic means that have the quality of unambiguity and the ability to best express the essence of concepts.
The vocabulary of scientific speech consists of three main layers: common words, general scientific and terminological, as well as nomenclature names and peculiar function words, organizing scientific thought.
Commonly used vocabulary includes words common language, which are most often found in scientific texts. For example: The device operates at both high and low temperatures. There is not a single special word here, but this is scientific speech. In any scientific text, such words predominate and form the basis of the presentation.
Thanks to the commonly used vocabulary, the language of science retains its connection with the general literary language and does not turn into the language of sages or, as they sometimes say, into the language of priests, understandable only to initiates and scientists.
Depending on the composition of the readership, the proportion of commonly used vocabulary changes: it decreases in works intended for specialists (it may amount to less than more than a half of all words), and increases in works addressed to a wide audience.
The scientific style does not simply take words from the general literary language. It makes a significant selection of words - primarily those that most optimally fulfill main function, installation of scientific style. A word in scientific speech usually names not a specific, individually unique object, but a class homogeneous objects, i.e. expresses not the particular, the individual, but the general scientific concept. Therefore, first of all, words with a generalized and abstract meaning are selected. For example: The possibility of quantitative determination is based on the following position. Chemistry deals only with homogeneous bodies.
Here almost every word denotes a general concept or abstract phenomenon: chemistry at all, body at all. The scientific style emphasizes the general, abstract, abstract in the word.
However, scientific speech not only selects words with general and abstract meaning from the language. It changes the meaning of commonly used words in accordance with its principles.
Thus, for many verbs in scientific speech (to compose, to serve, to count, to characterize, to conclude, etc.), the meaning is weakened, erased and generalized. And they turn into peculiar linking verbs that allow you to connect any concepts and formulate almost any scientific message.
For example, verb make up according to the dictionary of I.S. Ozhegova has 7 meanings. However, in scientific speech the verb make up is realized only in one, broadest and most general meaning: “to form oneself.” For example: The cost is 400 rubles. Labor costs account for a significant portion of the cost of goods. This is how a change occurs, an adaptation of the meaning of commonly used words to the tasks of scientific speech.
General scientific speech is the second significant layer of the vocabulary of scientific speech. This is already a direct part of the language of science, or, as scientists say, the metalanguage of science, i.e. language for describing scientific objects and phenomena.
Using general scientific words, phenomena and processes in different areas science and technology. These words are assigned to certain concepts, but are not terms, for example: operation, question, task, phenomenon, process, based, absorb, abstract, accelerate, acceleration, adaptation and etc.
Yes, word question as a general scientific concept it has the meaning of “this or that situation, circumstance as an object of study and judgment, a task requiring a solution, a problem.” It is used in various branches of science in the following contexts: Research the issue; Key issues; National question; Peasant question; Raise the issue; Leave the question open; The issue requires an immediate solution.
The third layer of scientific style vocabulary is terms.
The history of the word term itself, told by A.A., is interesting. Vvedenskaya and N.P. Kolesnikov. Terminus, according to legend, is the name of the Roman god, guardian of borders, boundary pillars, boundary markers and stones considered sacred. The legendary Roman king Numa Pompilius built the Temple of Terminus in Rome and established a holiday in honor of God - terminalia. Residents of the surrounding villages came to the boundary sign, decorated the stone, made sacrifices and had fun. Initially, the word term meant “boundary sign, boundary stone”, later – “end, end, boundary”, even later – “term, period” and finally it began to be used in its modern meaning.
Terminology is the core of scientific style, the last, most inner circle, the leading, most essential feature of the language of science. We can say that the term embodies the main features of the scientific style and is extremely consistent with the tasks of scientific communication.
What is the term?
A term is a word or phrase that accurately and unambiguously names an object, phenomenon or concept of science and reveals its content. The term is based on a scientifically constructed definition. The term has a strict, clearly defined meaning. He names all the essential features necessary to reveal the concept designated by the word-term: shows the generality this concept with others, as well as the specificity of this concept. For example: Chemistry is the science of substances, their composition, structure, properties and mutual transformations.
First, from this definition, we learn that chemistry is a science, and by this we combine chemistry with other sciences - physics, geography, mathematics, etc. But, on the other hand, the definition reveals the specificity of the concept contained in the term: unlike others natural sciences chemistry studies substances, their structure, composition, etc.
The fact that the term is based on a scientifically constructed definition is one of its main features, giving it rigor, clarity, and exhaustiveness of meaning, thanks to the precise disclosure of all necessary components concepts.
Due to the fact that the term denotes a strict scientific concept, it is included in the system of concepts of the science to which it belongs. And often the systematicity of terms is formalized by linguistic and word-forming means. So, in medical terminology using a suffix –it denote inflammatory processes in human organs, for example: appendicitis - inflammation of the appendix; bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi. Wed. Also dermatitis, sinusitis, radiculitis, tracheitis etc. The existence of a term in the system is also an important feature of it.
A term can be truly understood and mastered only in a system, in connection with other terms in a given field of science and technology. The terminological system distinguishes between terms denoting generic and species concepts. Let's take for example the term metalworking production - Workbench. If we take it as generic concept, then the specific terms will be the terms denoting parts, components of the workbench.
The same word can be used as a term in different fields of science, but in different terminological systems it will have different meanings. For example, the word reaction as a term can be used primarily in chemistry, as well as in physiology, and in history. In chemistry, it denotes the interaction between substances. In physiology - a response to irritation. In the historical text - the policy of harsh suppression social progress. Now let's give an example of using this word in a phrase: chemical reaction, child's reaction to antibiotics, chain reaction, political reaction etc. Terms should be distinguished from their commonly used homonyms. So, for example, the word finger can be a commonly used term (a finger) and a term (a machine part that serves as the axis of rotation of the mechanism); apron(type of clothing) in the meaning of the term – component screw cutting machine.
Linguistic scientists believe that special vocabulary should be precise, definite, and unambiguous. Uniqueness – most important quality term. It should not have synonyms. However, in practice this happens, for example, pneumonia - pneumonia, putty - putty; hepatitis - jaundice etc. According to scientists, this reduces the accuracy and rigor of terminology.
A special group within the vocabulary of the scientific style consists of nomenclature signs. They differ sharply and significantly from the terms. If the terms are based on general concepts, then nomenclature signs are based on singular ones. Nomenclature marks include serial brands of machines, mechanisms, machine tools, instruments, geographical names, names of power plants, enterprises, institutions, organizations, for example: Moskvich - 408; South Atlantic Ridge; SM-8 – mobile crushing and screening plant.
The lexical composition of the scientific style lacks colloquial, evaluative, and emotionally expressive vocabulary. Scientific style texts use compound abbreviations and abbreviations: PS (software), ZhC ( life cycle); contain not only language information, but also graphics, formulas, and symbols.
The scientific style is constantly in need of new units to denote newly emerging concepts, so the processes of word creation are active.
As a rule, more than 50% of new words entering a language are terms. Often the emergence of new special words associated with specific events. For example, terms seismicity, seismic came into use after the earthquake in Tashkent on April 26, 1966.
Terms, like other words, are formed: a) using prefixes, b) using suffixes, c) suffix-prefix method, d) adding roots and stems.
Widely used prefixes: anti-(antibodies, anti-criminal), bi- (bicolor, bipolar), quasi-(quasi-quantitative), above- (supernova) and etc.; suffixes – ist(impressionist), - awn(oil and gas content, lake content), - change(mysticism, symbolism), - from-a(longitude), - m-a(morpheme), - no(cloning), etc.
One of the very productive ways The formation of terms is compounded (in this case, even parts designated by special symbols can be used: Fe - core, oil and gas content).
Scientific speech has also developed its own means of organizing scientific presentation. They perform functions common to scientific analysis and scientific reasoning: 1) confirm the previously given reasoning (therefore, therefore, thus, thereby, etc.); 2) deny these considerations (however, on the other hand, nevertheless, still, on the contrary, in contrast to this); 3) expand the above considerations (in addition, in turn, and in in this case); 4) limit considerations, indicate the time of the research, the sequence of argumentation, introduce examples, state the degree of objectivity of the information (consider, believe, assert, perhaps, probably, of course, apparently, of course).
The structure of the scientific style can be represented in the following way. The basis and core of it is terminology. Next, a layer that is similar in function and important is general scientific vocabulary. And then common vocabulary, quantitatively constituting at least half of all words.
There are some features of scientific speech in the field of morphology. The main one is the predominance of names (nouns and adjectives) over verbs. The high percentage of nouns is due to the substantive rather than dynamic nature of scientific presentation. Science first of all interprets and explains the essence of things, objects and phenomena, for which nouns are needed - the names of these things. The role of verbs is reduced to the function of communication, connecting concepts. Relatively a large number of adjectives are explained by the tasks of description, characteristics, which are important in the scientific style.
An interesting morphological feature of scientific speech is its use in plural abstract and real nouns. Words clay, steel, darkness, length, alcohol, minimum, cost and other material nouns in all styles except scientific do not have a plural. In scientific speech, they acquire the plural meaning of species or variety. If we say: Our region is rich in clay, this means that there are large reserves of clay in the area. The phrase Our region is rich in clays talks about different varieties and types of clay. (“variety, species”) have the same meaning steels, alcohols, resins.
The meaning of abstract nouns also changes in the plural. So, power is a quantity that determines the amount of energy developed by the engine, for example: Engine power – 100 horsepower. In the plural, this noun becomes specific meaning, it denotes specific production facilities - factories, machines, etc. For example: New energy capacities have been put into operation.
Similar capacity is the ability to contain something, for example: The capacity of the vessel is 1.5 liters. In the plural in scientific and technical speech, the word does not mean capacity, but the specific objects themselves that serve as a container for liquid or granular bodies. For example: We need containers for bulk products.
Singular nouns denoting individual countable objects usually serve to express a generalized concept: Further inland, oak and hornbeam predominate.(L.S. Berg). Why did the author write oak and hornbeam, but not oaks and hornbeams?
The fact is that plural forms are specific in meaning and indicate individual countable objects. It was important for the author to express himself in general terms, to indicate the type of tree, the class of trees, and not the multitude of specific oaks and hornbeams. Wed. Also: Birch belongs to the light-loving species. The singular number emphasizes: birch in general, any birch.
The syntax of scientific speech has significant features.
The need to prove, justify the thoughts expressed, to discover the causes and consequences of the analyzed phenomena leads to the predominant use of complex sentences, and among the types of complex sentences, the complex predominates as the most capacious and characteristic of scientific speech language form. Complex sentences with explanatory clauses express a generalization, reveal a typical phenomenon, one or another pattern. Complex sentences with subordinate reasons are widely used in scientific speech because science reveals causal connections phenomena of reality. These sentences use both common conjunctions (because, since, because, since) and book conjunctions (due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, for).
Frequent use of participial and participial phrases.
Are used simple sentences type what is what(hydrogen is a gas), indefinitely personal and impersonal sentences.
A feature of scientific speech is the active use of the genitive case. This is caused by the need for consistent actions in description, characteristics, and explanation. Using this form several times in one phrase is called stringing together the genitive case. For example: method for determining chemical and physical composition any zone of the lunar mantle.
The scientific style is characterized by a generally impersonal manner of presentation. The author's "I", as a rule, is excluded, replaced by a more modest and objective author's "we", meaning "you and me", "me and the audience". We call a long sound musical. So we have a theorem... Personal pronoun meaning We here it is so weakened that it can be completely excluded: we call - it is called, we have a theorem - there is a theorem.
Thus, modern scientific speech is distinguished by an impersonal manner of presentation.
However, it would be wrong to think that the language of science is dry, inexpressive, that it is not of interest to the stylist and stylistics. Of course, the main thing for a scientist is to express his thoughts accurately and clearly. And yet the language of science is inherent, if not grace, then expressiveness and beauty. And they do not lie in external verbal decorations - bright metaphors, catchy epithets, or a variety of rhetorical exercises. The beauty and expressiveness of the language of scientific prose lies in the brevity and accuracy of expression of thought with maximum informative richness of the word, in the energy of thought.
The generality and abstractness of scientific speech does not mean that imagery is in principle contraindicated for it. Analysis specific items and phenomena is an integral part of scientific knowledge. Verbal images help express the concepts of thought.
Of all figurative means comparison turns out to be most consonant with the style of scientific speech, since it acts as one of the forms logical thinking. Comparisons are widely used to explain the phenomena being characterized, for illustration, without specifically pursuing expressive purposes. In these cases, the comparisons are accurate and often contain already known terms.
Naturally, scientific works of a polemical nature, popular science literature, but also works of theoretical in nature with particular novelty of the topic and problematics, part of the works of a historical and bibliographic nature (“history of the issue”) and various kinds deviations from the main presentation.
Of course, we are talking here about exemplary scientific texts, about expressive possibilities, scientific speech resources, about aesthetic ideal the language of science to which everyone should strive.
However, practice is often far from ideal. Often scientific writings are prone to verbosity, overload with special vocabulary, and unreasonably complicated language.
So, the scientific style is a unique and influential variety of the modern Russian literary language. The influence of scientific speech lies in its strong and constant impact on the entire literary language. If earlier it was enriched mainly due to dialects, now the main source of its replenishment is terminology and special vocabulary. Following new objects and concepts, new words flow into our language with a powerful stream: accelerators, algorithm, antibodies, hydroponics, hologram, carcinogenic, computer, laser, rocket carrier, stress, resuscitation and thousands of others.
But the point is not even that thousands of new words are appearing, which is growing rapidly lexicon literary language. Not only quantitative, but also qualitative change literary language under the influence of special vocabulary. Scientific terms organically grow into the literary language, as evidenced by their rethinking: mental trauma, public outcry, moral vacuum, money-grubbing virus.
The use of terms in everyday colloquial speech has become very noticeable, when there are everyday words to express the corresponding content, but a specialist will prefer to use the term to accurately express the thought: “How delicious the porridge was today, so homogeneous.” (From the doctor’s speech).
All these facts, the massive rethinking of terms indicate a change in consciousness modern man. The line between a term and a common literary word is blurring. The connections between scientific and everyday consciousness are strengthened. And this, in turn, changes the quality of the literary language, which tends to be strict and exact expression thoughts, becomes more capacious, informative, expressive.
Summary
The development of society, the progress of science and technology create a need for the formation of a special language that is best suited for the expression and transmission of scientific knowledge.
The main features of the scientific style in both writing and orally are accuracy, abstractness, logic and objectivity. It is they who organize into a language system all the linguistic means that form this functional style, and determine the choice of vocabulary in works of the scientific style.
The structure of scientific style vocabulary can be presented as follows. It is based on terminology, followed by general scientific vocabulary. And then - commonly used, quantitatively making up at least half of all words.
A feature of using vocabulary in a scientific style is that polysemantic lexically neutral words are not used in all their meanings, but only in one. In scientific speech, compared to other styles, there is more wide use abstract vocabulary compared to concrete.
The lexical composition of the scientific style is characterized by single-style homogeneity and isolation, which is expressed, in particular, in the lesser use of synonyms.
In the scientific style there is no vocabulary with a colloquial and colloquial coloring.
Features of scientific speech in the field of morphology:
· predominance of nouns and adjectives over verbs;
· use of abstract and real nouns in the plural;
· the use of singular nouns in scientific speech usually serves to express a generalized concept or an indivisible totality and integrity.
The syntax of scientific speech has significant features. In the syntactic structures in the scientific style of speech, the detachment of the author and the objectivity of the information presented are maximally demonstrated. The desire for logical presentation of material in scientific speech leads to active use complex sentences, and among the types of complex sentences, complex sentences predominate as the most capacious and characteristic linguistic form for scientific speech. Constructions complicated by introductory words and phrases, participles and participial phrases etc.
The beauty and expressiveness of the language of scientific speech lies in the brevity and accuracy of expression of thought with maximum informative richness of the word.
Questions for control and self-control
1. Tell us about the origin and formation of the scientific style in Russia.
2. What is the main trend in the development of scientific style?
3. What are the main style features language of science?
4. What is the vocabulary of scientific speech? What layers does it consist of?
5. What is terminology? What are the features of the term?
6. Describe morphological features scientific speech.
7. Tell us about the syntax of scientific speech.
8. What is the ideal of the language of scientific prose?
9. What is the influence of scientific style on literary language?
LITERATURE
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