MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR ADDITIONAL CHILDREN'S EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH TOURISM AND EXCURSIONS"

Meeting of young geographers and local historians

Measuring natural objects

The memo has been compiled

methodologist of Municipal Educational Establishment of Children's Education and Science "CDYUTE"

Stary Oskol

2011.

Determining the width of the river

The width of a small river is determined using a rope or cord that is pulled from the water's edge from one bank to the other. The length of the cord is then measured with a tape measure. The width of the river can also be determined using simple geometric constructions. For example, you can use the triangle similarity theorem or simple trigonometric calculations.

To measure the width of the river, you stand on the edge at point A, mark it with a peg and select some clearly visible landmark D (tree, bush, stone, etc.) on the opposite bank (edge). Then, going in a direction perpendicular to line AD, go to point B, which is more distant from point A than the expected width of the river. At point B, install a peg and, walking in the same direction, go to point C, which is located from point B at the same distance as point B from point A (Fig. 1).

Then from point C go at right angles to line AC to point F, which is on the same straight line with the peg at point B and landmark D on the opposite bank.

From the equality of triangles ВСF = BAD it is clear that the segment CF = AD

Rice. 1 Determination of river width

Determining river flow speed

Current speed is the distance traveled by water particles per unit time and is measured in meters per second (m/s). Knowing the flow speed is necessary to calculate water flow.

Floats and hydrometric turntables are used to measure speed. Floats can measure speed both in the surface layer and at various depths. Therefore, there are surface and deep floats.

Surface floats can take the form of circles with a diameter of 10-15 cm and a thickness of 3-5 cm, sawn off from a log. Surface floats can also be bottles partially filled with water and sealed with a stopper with a colored flag (Fig. 2). The size and shape of the floats should be selected so that they do not have a large windage, that is, they rise above the water as little as possible, and at the same time are clearly visible from the shore. For better visibility, the floats are painted white or red (orange). As a rule, they are limited to 3-5 floats.

It is recommended to measure current speed with surface floats in calm weather. A straight section of the river is selected and divided into sections. It is necessary to have four gates: launch, upper, main and lower. At each of the sections, 4 milestones are installed, in pairs on each bank. Each pair of milestones should

https://pandia.ru/text/78/650/images/image004_58.jpg" width="192" height="128">
Rice. 2.Bottle float

Rice. 3. Location of sections

be placed perpendicular to the direction of the river flow. The distance between the milestones for all pairs is taken the same (for example, 5 m).

The sites should also be located at an equal distance from each other, equal to 1-3 river widths each (Fig. 3). The floats are thrown from the launch point sequentially: first closer to the left bank, then in the middle of the river, then closer to the right bank. Each subsequent float is launched after the previous one has passed all three alignments. The time of passage of the floats through the downstream and upstream sections is noted on a stopwatch according to signals given by the observers stationed at each section. To determine the speed of a float, its path is divided by the time it moves.

Measuring water flow with floats

No. of floats	Place of passage through the middle alignment from post. start, m	Counting the time of passage of floats through the target	passing floats,	Note

Distance between alignments:
Upper and middle m;

Middle and lower__________ m;

Upper and lower__________ m;

Total path length__________ m.

The average speed is calculated by adding the speed of all floats And by dividing by their number. The results are recorded in a logbook for measuring surface river flow velocities.

Sample log of measuring surface river flow velocities

Float no.	Distance, m		Current speed, m/s	Average speed, m/s

To measure current speed at different depths, use double floats. Two bottles can be used as deep floats. The bottles are tied to one another with a rope, the length of which depends on the depth of the speed measurement. The bottom bottle is filled with water and sealed with a stopper. Sand is poured into the top bottle in such an amount that its upper part is above the water, and it is also sealed with a stopper (Fig. 4). The speed of the top bottle indicates the average speed of both bottles. To determine the speed at a certain depth, for example at 0.2h (h is the depth of the river), you need to know the surface speed (Vpov) and the average speed of two bottles (Vav), of which the lower one descends to a depth of 0.2 h. Then the speed at this depth is determined by the formula: V0.2h = 2 Vsr - Vrev.

https://pandia.ru/text/78/650/images/image006_44.jpg" align="left" width="264" height="202 src=">

N = n T + T - b or N = (n+1) T - b

With a level height of 150 cm, the calculation formula looks like this:

H = (n+1)150cm-b

You can also measure the height of a hill, the slope of a ravine, or a valley using the following method. Prepare two slats 2 m long, divided into centimeters, and an ordinary carpenter’s spirit level. Poles or pegs, branches, stones indicate the direction in which measurements are to be taken (Fig. 5). At the foot of the slope, at the starting point, a rail with divisions is placed vertically, and another is installed horizontally between the first rail and the slope. The vertical position of the rack is determined using a spirit level. Using the first staff, the height at which the upper surface of the horizontal staff is located is measured, and according to the second, the distance that has formed between the staff and the hillside. The results are recorded. Then the vertical batten is moved higher up the slope and placed at the point on the slope that the horizontal batten touched. The second staff is again installed horizontally between the vertical staff and the slope, and such measurements are continued the required number of times, rising higher and higher along the slope.

https://pandia.ru/text/78/650/images/image008_28.jpg" width="274" height="179">
To measure the steepness of a slope, the tube must take a position parallel to the slope, and the plumb line will show a certain value β (Fig. 3). To calculate the angle α, this value b, obtained by measurement, should be subtracted from 90°. α=90о-β

Determining distances

Determining distances when conducting research in nature is of great importance. But if small distances can be measured without any difficulty using a ruler, tape measure or other measuring instrument, then determining large distances in this way is very difficult, and sometimes simply impossible.

It is not always possible to use direct measurements, and in such cases the measuring “devices” will be steps, eye level (distance from the ground to the eyes) or any suitable objects that are “at hand”. You can mark the area with pegs

Tree (hill) height

a) Determining the height of a tree by the length of the shadow falling from it

Since the rays of the sun can be considered practically parallel, the shadow from the tree is the same number of times longer than the shadow from a pole of known length a, how many times the tree is taller than the pole. Therefore, by determining the ratio of the length of the shadow from the tree to the length of the shadow from the pole k, we can calculate the height of the tree Ka.

b) Determining the height of a tree using a pole

Having installed a vertical pole at some distance from the tree,

you need to stand at a point from which the upper end of the pole blocks the top of the tree (Fig. 8). Then, if the height of part of the pole above eye level is equal to a, and the horizontal distances from the eyes to the pole and to the tree are equal to b and y, respectively, then from the similarity of triangles one can find the height of the tree x above eye level. Finally, knowing your height h to eye level, we get the total height of the tree H:

x = ya / b

Rice. 8 Determining the height of a tree (hill)

using a pole

Н = h + x = h+уа/b

Calculations and measurements can be simplified if we achieve the equality b = a, which is achieved by choosing the location of the pole. Alternatively, you can lie on the ground, which will allow you to read h = 0, and as a result the height of the tree will be equal to x = y.

Measuring tree height (folk method) The measurement is carried out by two or more people. From point A at a distance. from the tree we measure its height using any elongated object, held at arm's length at eye level. Then we direct the hand with the recorded result into a space not far from the tree. One of the team walks in this direction until (point C) until the height of his figure (h) conditionally becomes equal to the fixed height of the tree. The AC distance traveled can be measured (in steps, tape measure, centimeter, etc.). Knowing the height and length of the AC, we determine the height of the tree using the formula AC: h.

The surface of the Earth is very relief. Among its irregularities there are mountains and hills. These elevations can create stunning views of the surrounding area. However, not everyone knows the difference between a mountain and a hill. Let's try to figure this out.

Definition

Mountain

Mountain- a form of relief protruding above the surface of the Earth, a sharp elevation of the area. This formation has pronounced slopes and foothills. Another part is the top. Depending on its nature, mountains are divided into peak-shaped, plateau-shaped and others. There is another classification, it is related to the origin of these natural objects. According to it, mountains can be volcanic and solid, as well as vaulted and folded.

Mountain

Hill

Hill- another form of relief that has the appearance of a hill. It has the same parts as a mountain, but a number of features make a noticeable difference between a hill and a mountain.

Hill

Comparison

The main criterion that helps to distinguish between these natural formations is height. A mountain is a surface elevation of 200 m. Formations below this level are hills.

Another difference is the nature of the slopes. Near the mountain they are quite steep and have sharp ledges. The hills are gentle, gradually descending, with softer outlines. The smoothness of the lines gives the hill a round or oval shape. As for the foot of the hill, it is weakly expressed, and the mountain is most often separated from the adjacent plain by a clear line of the foot.

What is the difference between a mountain and a hill, other than the height and nature of the main parts? It lies in the composition of formations. In different parts of the mountains you can find stone deposits - rocks. There are no representatives of the flora in such places. The hill has soil and is covered with vegetation.

A hill is a natural or artificial elevation. Hills are fundamentally different from mountains. First of all, they are not that tall. The height of the largest hill cannot exceed several hundred meters. In addition, isolated hills or a chain of such hills are called hills. They are located at a distance from mountain ranges and cannot be foothills.

What is the name of the highest point on the hill?

To understand what the highest place on a hill is called, you need to understand similar concepts. All of them are associated with the names of the highest points of certain geographical objects:

• peak. This concept applies exclusively to the highest places in the mountains. Peak means just such a point. But in relation to a hill, it would be incorrect to use the word “peak”. The word "peak" is used only for high mountains. For example, Everest can be called a peak. Or any high place on a mountain that has a pointed shape can be called a peak. But not a hill;
• height won't work either. This concept means the distance from sea level to the top point of an object. Therefore, the height of a hill is the result of its measurement;
• the correct answer is top. This term applies to low mountains or hills. Therefore, the top is the correct answer to the question about the top point of the hill.

Thus, the highest point of the hill is called the top.

How the hills were formed

They can form for natural reasons. For example, as a result of geological processes. Earthquakes can destroy high mountains. They collapse and become hills that are less tall than mountains.

Often, hills are created by man. For example, during mining, high soil dumps are formed. Over time, they become overgrown with grass, shrubs and become hills. Some hills are burial mounds. Such mounds were poured over the graves of ancient rulers. Many of them disappeared, becoming level with the ground. But many continue to surprise with their size.

HILL, hillock, husband. A small hill, a hillock; a hill at the foot of a mountain. Climb the hill. Stand on the hill. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

HILL, Rka, husband. A small hill, a hillock. Run up to Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

hillock- HILL, river, m Same as hillock. Finally, I got over this swamp, climbed a small hillock and now could get a good look at the hut (Kupr.) ... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns

M. Small hill, knoll. Ephraim's explanatory dictionary. T. F. Efremova. 2000... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Efremova

Hillock, hillocks, hillock, hillocks, hillock, hillocks, hillock, hillocks, hillock, hillocks, hillock, hillocks (Source: “Full accentuated paradigm according to A. A. Zaliznyak”) ... Forms of words

hillock- prig orok, rka... Russian spelling dictionary

hillock- (2 m), R. hillside; pl. prigo/rki, R. prigo/rkov... Spelling dictionary of the Russian language

hillock- div. prigorok... Ukrainian Tlumach Dictionary

hillock- noun Fast. ex: vernacular; inanimate; conc.; m.r.; 2 cl. The streams are noisier, the clearings and hills drier2. LZ Small hill, knoll. Word-formation analysis, Morphemic analysis: To enlarge, click on the picture Nepost. ex: pl. number; Them. n. Basis... ... Morphemic-word-formation dictionary

Rka; m. Small hill, slide. Climb, run up to the village. House on a hill. ◁ Hillock, chka; m. Reduce… encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• Watch, Akhmet Khataev. WATCH is a Kazakhstani series of stories about post-war children who lived and grew up in the steppe village of Zenkovka. These children had a difficult childhood, but they did not complain about their fate and did not...
• The Twirly Tail, or The Life of Forty-Mink Hill, Full of Songs, Gingerbread, Kidnappings and Deeds, Egner Thorbjörn. Morten the mouse was the smallest of all in his forest, Hill-Forty-Minks. A little gray fluff with a tail, and that’s all. But he was a good guy, he worked honestly, diligently, and didn’t meddle in other people’s lives. I wish...