Scientific research is purposeful knowledge, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. When characterizing scientific research, they usually point to the following distinctive features:
This is necessarily a purposeful process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;
This is a process aimed at searching for something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at putting forward original ideas, at new coverage of the issues under consideration;
It is characterized by systematicity: here both the research process itself and its results are ordered and brought into a system;
It is characterized by strict evidence, consistent substantiation of the generalizations and conclusions made.
The object of scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their totality.
The goal, the immediate tasks of scientific and theoretical research are to find what a number of individual phenomena have in common, to reveal the laws according to which such phenomena arise, function, and develop, i.e., to penetrate into their deep essence.
Basic means of scientific and theoretical research:
A set of scientific methods, comprehensively substantiated and combined into a single system;
A set of concepts, strictly defined terms, interconnected and forming characteristic language Sciences.
The results of scientific research are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and only then, after a comprehensive assessment, are used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and, in a distilled, generalized form, included in governing documents.
Human activity in any form (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process occurs, what methods, techniques, and means are used. These are the problems of the method.
Method (Greek - way of cognition) - in the broadest sense of the word - “the path to something”, the method of activity of the subject in any of its forms.
The concept of “methodology” has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (in science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action.
History and the current state of knowledge and practice convincingly show that not every method, not every system of principles and other means of activity provides a successful solution to theoretical and practical problems. Not only the result of the research, but also the path leading to it must be true.
The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of a particular object. Therefore, the method (in one form or another) comes down to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of cognition and action.
It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should guide the solution of a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a particular field of activity.
It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if correct) to save energy and time, and move towards the goal in the shortest way. The true method serves as a kind of compass along which the subject of cognition and action makes his way and allows him to avoid mistakes.
F. Bacon compared the method to a lamp that illuminates a road in the dark, and believed that one cannot count on success in studying any issue by following the wrong path.
He considered induction to be such a method, which requires science to proceed from empirical analysis, observation and experiment in order to understand the causes and laws on this basis.
G. Descartes called the method “exact and simple rules”, the observance of which contributes to the growth of knowledge and allows one to distinguish the false from the true. He said that it was better not to think about finding any truths than to do it without any method, especially without a deductive-rationalistic one.
Problems of method and methodologists occupy an important place in modern Western philosophy - especially in such directions and movements as philosophy of science, positivism and post-positivism, structuralism and post-structuralism, analytical philosophy, hermeneutics, phenomenology and others.
Each method will turn out to be ineffective and even useless if it is used not as a “guiding thread” in scientific or other forms of activity, but as a ready-made template for reshaping facts.
The main purpose of any method is, on the basis of relevant principles (requirements, instructions, etc.), to ensure the successful solution of certain cognitive and practical problems, the increase in knowledge, the optimal functioning and development of certain objects.
It should be borne in mind that questions of method and methodology cannot be limited only to philosophical or internal scientific frameworks, but must be posed in a broad sociocultural context.
This means that it is necessary to take into account the connection between science and production at this stage of social development, the interaction of science with other forms public consciousness, the relationship between methodological and value aspects, " personal characteristics"subject of activity and many other social factors.
The use of methods can be spontaneous and conscious. It is clear that only the conscious application of methods, based on an understanding of their capabilities and limits, makes people’s activities, other things being equal, more rational and effective.
Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods, tools and techniques that were discovered in philosophy, science and other forms of human activity. Historically, the problems of methodology were initially developed within the framework of philosophy: the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, inductive method F. Bacon, the rationalistic method of G. Descartes, the dialectical method of G. Hegel and K. Marx, the phenomenological method of E. Husserl. Therefore, methodology is closely connected with philosophy - especially with such sections as epistemology (theory of knowledge) and dialectics.
Methodology in a certain sense is “broader” than dialectics, since it studies not only the general, but also other levels methodological knowledge, as well as their relationship, modifications, etc.
The close connection between methodology and dialectics does not mean that these concepts are identical and that materialist dialectics acts as a philosophical methodology of science. Materialistic dialectics is one of the forms of dialectics, and the latter is one of the elements of philosophical methodology, along with metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, etc.
The methodology, in a certain sense, is “narrower” than the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of the forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the problems of the nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the subject and object of knowledge, the possibilities and boundaries of knowledge, the criteria of its truth, etc. On the other hand, methodology is “broader” than epistemology, since it is interested not only in methods of cognition, but also in all other forms human activity.
The logical study of science is the means of modern formal logic, which are used for analysis scientific language, identifying the logical structure of scientific theories and their components (definitions, classifications, concepts, laws, etc.), studying the possibilities and completeness of the formalization of scientific knowledge.
Traditional logical means were used mainly to analyze the structure of scientific knowledge, then the center of methodological interests shifted to the problems of growth, change and development of knowledge.
This change in methodological interests can be viewed from the following two perspectives.
The task of the logic of time is to build artificial (formalized) languages that can make reasoning about objects and phenomena that exist in time clearer and more accurate, and therefore more fruitful.
The task of the logic of change is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages capable of making clearer and more accurate reasoning about the change of an object - its transition from one state to another, about the formation of an object, its formation.
At the same time, it should be said that the truly great achievements of formal logic have given rise to the illusion that only its methods can solve all methodological problems of science without exception. This illusion was supported especially for a long time by logical positivism, the collapse of which showed the limitations and one-sidedness of such an approach - despite all its importance “within its competence.”
Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which thereby serves as its necessary prerequisite.
The effectiveness and strength of a particular method is determined by the content, depth, and fundamental nature of the theory, which is “compressed into a method.”
In turn, “the method expands into a system,” that is, it is used for the further development of science, the deepening and deployment of theoretical knowledge as a system, its materialization, objectification in practice.
Thus, theory and method are simultaneously identical and different. their similarity lies in the fact that they are interconnected and in their unity reflect reality.
Being united in their interaction, theory and method are not strictly separated from each other and at the same time are not directly the same thing.
They mutually transfer, mutually transform: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed, transformed into a method through the development, formulation of principles, rules, techniques arising from it, which return to theory (and through it - to practice), because the subject applies them as regulators, prescriptions, in the course of cognition and change of the surrounding world according to its own laws.
Therefore, the statement that the method is a theory addressed to the practice of scientific research is not accurate, because the method is also addressed to practice itself as a sensory-objective, socially transformative activity.
The development of theory and the improvement of methods of research and transformation of reality is, in fact, one and the same process with these two inextricably related parties. Not only is theory summarized in methods, but also methods are developed into theory and have a significant impact on its formation and on the course of practice.
The main differences between theory and method are as follows:
a) theory is the result of previous activity, method is the starting point and prerequisite for subsequent activity;
b) the main functions of theory are explanation and prediction (with the aim of searching for truth, laws, causes, etc.), method - regulation and orientation of activity;
c) theory - system ideal images, reflecting the essence, patterns of the object, method - a system of regulations, rules, instructions, acting as a tool for further cognition and changing reality;
d) the theory is aimed at solving a problem - what is this item, method - to identify methods and mechanisms of its research and transformation.
Thus, theories, laws, categories and other abstractions do not yet constitute a method. In order to perform a methodological function, they must be appropriately transformed, transformed from explanatory provisions of the theory into orientational-active, regulatory principles (requirements, instructions, settings) of the method.
Any method is determined not only by its predecessors and by other methods, and not only by the theory on which it is based.
Each method is determined primarily by its subject, i.e., what exactly is being studied (individual objects or their classes).
A method as a method of research and other activities cannot remain unchanged, always equal to itself in all respects, but must change in its content along with the subject to which it is directed. This means that not only must it be true final result knowledge, but also the path leading to it, that is, a method that comprehends and holds precisely the specifics of a given subject.
A method of any level of generality is not only purely theoretical, but also practical in nature: it arises from the real life process and goes back into it.
It should be borne in mind that in modern science the concept of “object of knowledge” is used in two main meanings.
Firstly, as a subject area - aspects, properties, relations of reality that have relative completeness, integrity and oppose the subject in his activity (object of knowledge). For example, a subject area in zoology is a set of animals. Various sciences about the same object various items knowledge (for example, anatomy studies the structure of organisms, physiology - the functions of its organs, etc.).
Objects of knowledge can be both material and ideal.
Secondly, as a system of laws to which a given object is subject. You cannot separate the subject and the method and see in the latter only an external means in relation to the subject.
The method is not imposed on the subject of cognition or action, but changes in accordance with their specificity. Research involves a thorough knowledge of the facts and other data relevant to its subject. It is carried out as movement in a certain material, the study of its features, connections, relationships.
The method of movement (method) is that the research must become familiar with specific material (factual and conceptual), analyze various shapes its development, trace their internal connection.
The variety of types of human activity determines a diverse range of methods that can be classified according to a variety of criteria.
First of all, we should highlight the methods of spiritual, ideal (including scientific) and methods of practical, material activity.
It has now become obvious that the system of methods and methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere scientific knowledge, it must go beyond its limits and certainly include it in its orbit and scope of practice. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.
As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for dividing them into groups. Thus, depending on the role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can distinguish formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation.
The content of objects studied by science serves as a criterion for distinguishing between the methods of natural science and the methods of social sciences and humanities. In turn, the methods of natural sciences can be divided into methods for studying inanimate nature and methods for studying living nature. There are also qualitative and quantitative methods, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative.
To the number characteristic features scientific method most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristics, necessity, specificity, etc.
In modern science, the multi-level concept of methodological knowledge works quite successfully. In this regard, all methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into the following main groups.
1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a unique way mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two mentioned. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.
2. General scientific approaches and research methods that have been widely developed and used in science. They act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.
To general scientific concepts most often include such concepts as information, model, structure, function, system, element, optimality, probability.
On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.
To the number general scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.
Recently, such a general scientific discipline as synergetics - the theory of self-organization and development of open integral systems of any nature - natural, social, cognitive - has been developing especially rapidly in recent years.
Among the basic concepts of synergetics are order, chaos, nonlinearity, uncertainty, and instability.
Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as being, development, formation, time, the whole, chance, possibility.
3. Private scientific methods - a set of methods, principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science corresponding to a given basic form of movement of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences.
4. Disciplinary methods - a system of techniques used in one or another scientific discipline, part of some branch of science or that arose at the intersections of sciences. Each basic science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.
5. Methods of interdisciplinary research - a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods, aimed mainly at the intersections of scientific disciplines. These methods have found wide application in the implementation of complex scientific programs.
Thus, methodology cannot be reduced to any one, even very important method.
Methodology is also not a simple sum of individual methods, their mechanical unity. Methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, focus, heuristic capabilities, contents, structures.
The fundamentals of scientific research methodology are outlined, different levels scientific knowledge. The stages of scientific research work are covered, including the choice of research direction, formulation of a scientific and technical problem, carrying out theoretical and experimental research, recommendations for the presentation of the results of scientific work. The basics of inventive creativity, patent search and an approximate plan for a master's thesis are also discussed.
Complies with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education, training direction 270800.68 - “Construction” master’s program “Underground and urban construction”. Corresponds to the content of the discipline “Methodology of Scientific Research”.
Designed to systematize and deepen students' knowledge in preparation for the test.
Chapter 1. METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE.
1.1. Definition of science
Science is a field of research aimed at obtaining new knowledge about nature, society and thinking. Science is the most important component of spiritual culture. It is characterized by the following interrelated features:
- a set of objective and substantiated knowledge about nature, man, society;
- activities aimed at obtaining new reliable knowledge;
- a set of social institutions that ensure the existence, functioning and development of cognition and knowledge.
The term “science” is also used to designate certain areas of scientific knowledge: mathematics, physics, biology, etc.
The goal of science is to obtain knowledge about the subjective and objective world.
The objectives of science are:
- collecting, describing, analyzing, summarizing and explaining facts;
- discovery of the laws of motion of nature, society, thinking and knowledge;
- systematization of acquired knowledge;
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction.
Chapter 1. Methodological foundations of scientific knowledge.
1.1. Definition of science.
1.2. Science and other forms of mastering reality.
1.3. The main stages of the development of science.
1.4. The concept of scientific knowledge.
1.5. Methods of scientific knowledge.
1.6. Ethical and aesthetic foundations of the methodology.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 2. Choosing the direction of scientific research.
Statement of the scientific and technical problem and stages of research work.
2.1. Methods of selection and goals of the direction of scientific research.
2.2. Statement of a scientific and technical problem. Stages of research work.
2.3. Relevance and scientific novelty of the research.
2.4. Nomination working hypothesis. Questions for self-control.
Chapter 3. Search, accumulation and processing scientific information.
3.1. Documentary sources of information.
3.2. Document analysis.
3.3. Search and accumulation of scientific information.
3.4. Electronic forms of information resources.
3.5. Processing of scientific information, its recording and storage. Questions for self-control.
Chapter 4. Theoretical and experimental studies.
4.1. Methods and features of theoretical research.
4.2. Structure and models of theoretical research.
4.3. General information about experimental research.
4.4. Methodology and experimental planning.
4.5. Metrological support for experimental studies.
4.6. Organization of the experimenter's workplace.
4.7. The influence of psychological factors on the course and quality of the experiment.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 5. Processing of experimental research results.
5.1. Fundamentals of the theory of random errors and methods for estimating random errors in measurements.
5.2. Interval estimation of measurements using confidence probability.
5.3. Methods of graphical processing of measurement results.
5.4. Presentation of scientific research results.
5.5. Oral presentation of information.
5.6. Presentation and argumentation of the conclusions of scientific work.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 6. Concept and structure of the master's thesis.
6.1. Concept and characteristics of a master's thesis.
6.2. Structure of the master's thesis.
6.3. Formulation of the purpose and objectives of the study.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 7. Fundamentals of inventive creativity.
7.1. General information.
7.2. Objects of the invention.
7.3. Conditions for patentability of an invention.
7.4. Conditions for patentability of a utility model.
7.5. Conditions for patentability of an industrial design.
7.6. Patent search.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 8. Organization of the scientific team. Peculiarities scientific activity.
8.1. Structural organization of the scientific team and methods of scientific research management.
8.2. Basic principles of organizing the activities of a scientific team.
8.3. Methods for uniting the scientific team.
8.4. Psychological aspects relationship between leader and subordinate.
8.5. Features of scientific activity.
Questions for self-control.
Chapter 9. The role of science in modern society.
9.1. Social features Sciences.
9.2. Science and morality.
9.3. Contradictions in science and practice.
Questions for self-control.
Bibliography.
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INTERREGIONAL ACADEMY OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT
A. Ya. Baskakov, N. V. Tulenkov
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
as a teaching aid for higher education students educational institutions
ÁÁÊ 72â6ÿ73
Reviewers: G. A. Dmitrenko, ä-ð Econ. sciences, prof. N. P. Lukashevich, philosoph. sciences, prof. V. I. Sudakov, ä-ð sociol. sciences, prof.
Approved by the Academic Council of the Interregional Academy of Personnel Management (minutes No. 9 of 10.28.03)
Baskakov A. Ya., Tulenkov N. V.
B27 Methodology of scientific research: Textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., rev. - K.: MAUP, 2004. - 216 p.: ill. - Bibliography: p. 208–212.
ISBN 966-608-441-4
The manual examines the current, complex and insufficiently developed problem of the methodology of scientific research activities in the organization and study of phenomena and processes of reality. The problems of logic and methodology of scientific research, questions of the typology of methods of scientific knowledge, the dialectics of the process of scientific research, the main methods, methods and techniques of the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge, as well as the methodology and technology of their practical use in research and practical activities.
For graduate students, teachers and students specializing in economics, management, sociology, social work, psychology, political science, law and cultural studies, as well as for anyone interested in topical issues of modern logic and methodology of scientific research.
ÁÁÊ 72â6ÿ73
ISBN 966-608-441-4
© A. Ya. Baskakov, N. V. Tulenkov, 2002
© A. Ya. Baskakov, N. V. Tulenkov, 2004, rev.
© Interregional Academy of Personnel Management (IAUP), 2004
INTRODUCTION
We live in an era of radical transformations that are changing the social picture of the world and the driving forces for the development of social production. Science plays a significant role in these processes. Over the past century, its importance in the life of society has increased immeasurably. It has become a direct productive force of society, an important element of socio-economic and technical progress, into the most important means social management. The application of scientific achievements has allowed humanity to rapidly develop material and spiritual production and create material and spiritual values. At the same time, science itself turned into a huge and complex social organism. Under these conditions, issues of further development of science, streamlining the system of scientific knowledge, and increasing the efficiency of scientific research have acquired a fundamentally new meaning from the standpoint of not only science itself, but also social practice.
One of the most important conditions ensuring the acceleration of scientific research is the further development of the theory and methodology of scientific knowledge and research, which is explained, on the one hand, by the needs of modern scientific, technical and social progress society, and on the other - the complication of the very process of scientific knowledge and research and, in addition, further differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge.
These significant changes lead to an increase in the scientific role of philosophy as a general worldview, general theoretical and general methodological scientific discipline. At the same time, the experience of modern development of science shows that philosophy alone is not able to carry out the complex tasks of synthesis and methodological processing of the entire system of scientific knowledge. There is a noticeable complication and expansion of the study of problems in the methodology of scientific knowledge. On the one hand, now each scientific discipline carries out the primary synthesis of special
knowledge, comprehends its interaction with related disciplines, participates in the development of general problems of theory and methodology of scientific research. On the other hand, within the framework of philosophy, along with the development of a general theory of dialectics, logic and methodology of scientific knowledge, theoretical and methodological problems of natural science, technology, and social science are increasingly being studied.
The development of problems in the methodology of scientific knowledge is carried out in two main directions - subjective and objective dialectics. In the first case, the general theoretical and logical-epistemological foundations of the methodology of scientific research are explored. In the second case, the object of study is objects and phenomena of reality, and the logic of knowledge in this regard should be determined based on the specifics of the object and the tasks of its research.
Based on these provisions, the manual analyzes in a generalized form the general theoretical, logical-epistemological and logical-methodological foundations of scientific research, and also defines the logic, technology and methodology of the process of scientific knowledge, the main levels and methods of scientific research.
When presenting a specific educational material The authors relied on the works of domestic and foreign researchers published in recent years.
Chapters 1–7 were written by A. Ya. Baskakov, chapters 11–17 by N. V. Tulenkov, and chapters 8–10, introduction and conclusion - jointly.
PHILOSOPHICAL FUNDAMENTALS
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Chapter 1. THE ESSENCE OF ORDINARY AND SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Getting started philosophical foundations methodology of scientific research, it is necessary first of all to clarify what should be understood by everyday and scientific knowledge of the objective reality surrounding us.
There is a variety of both methods and forms cognitive activity people, thanks to whom the natural and social world around us can be perceived in different ways: not only with the eyes and mind of a scientist or the heart of a believer, but also with the feelings or ears of a musician. It can also be perceived through the eyes of an artist or sculptor, or simply from the position of an ordinary person.
Currently, the main form of knowledge of the real or surrounding reality is, as a rule, scientific knowledge. However, in addition to scientific knowledge, there is also everyday knowledge.
It should be noted that ordinary knowledge, which is sometimes also called “everyday” or “everyday”, is accessible to every normal modern person. The whole point is that everyday knowledge reflects both the immediate and immediate conditions of human existence - natural environment, everyday life, economic, political, social and other phenomena and processes in which every modern person is involved every day and directly. The core of such everyday knowledge is, first of all, common sense, which includes elementary and “true” information.
knowledge or knowledge about the real natural or social world. In addition, everyday cognition includes elements of social psychology, as well as the experimental and industrial knowledge of people. This knowledge is acquired by a person, as a rule, during Everyday life and serve the purposes of more effective orientation in the world
è practical activities. For example, every person needs to know that water boils when heated to 100° C, and it is dangerous to touch a bare electrical wire.
Thus, everyday knowledge allows modern man not only to acquire the simplest knowledge about the real world, but also to develop beliefs and ideals. It seems to “grasp” the simplest connections and relationships of reality that lie on the surface. For example, if birds fly low above the ground, it means rain; if there are a lot of red rowan trees in the forest, it means cold winter. Within the framework of everyday cognition, people are able to come
è to deeper generalizations and conclusions regarding their relationship to other people, social groups, political system, the state, etc. At the same time, everyday knowledge, especially of modern man, may also contain elements of scientific knowledge. And yet, everyday cognition develops and functions spontaneously.
 Unlike everyday knowledge, scientific knowledge does not proceed mainly spontaneously, but purposefully and in essence is a scientific research that has a certain nature, structure and characteristics. Scientific knowledge or research, thus, allows a person to acquire true knowledge about the most important aspects of the objects, phenomena or processes being studied, as well as about the essential features, properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of reality. Its results appear, as a rule, in the form of a system of concepts, categories, laws or theories.
In a word, scientific knowledge is aimed primarily at obtaining objective and true knowledge about the object, phenomenon or process being studied and does not allow a biased and tendentious attitude towards them. For scientific knowledge, the surrounding world appears as a reality given to man in his sensory and logical images. The main task of scientific knowledge is to identify the objective laws of the surrounding reality - natural, social, as well as the laws of knowledge and thinking itself. This
è determines the researcher's orientation mainly towards
general, essential properties of objects and phenomena and their expression in a system of abstractions. Otherwise, we will have to state the actual absence of science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes, first of all, the discovery of laws, as well as a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied.
The main goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is the discovery of objective truth, which is achieved primarily through rational means and methods, of course, not without the active participation of living contemplation. Hence, a characteristic feature of scientific knowledge in terms of content is its objectivity, which presupposes the elimination, if possible, of all subjective aspects. At the same time, we must keep in mind that the activity of the subject of knowledge, his constructive-critical attitude to reality is the most important condition and prerequisite for scientific knowledge.
Along with this, the main function of scientific knowledge or research is primarily to serve the needs and requirements of practice. After all, science, to a much greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is focused on being embodied in practice, or, in other words, being a “guide to action” for changing the surrounding reality and managing real processes. Life meaning scientific research can be expressed the following formula: “Know in order to foresee, foresee in order to act practically” not only in the present, but also in the future. For example, posing scientific problems and solving them within the framework basic research theoretical physicists contributed to the discovery of the laws of the electromagnetic field and the prediction of electromagnetic waves, the discovery of the laws of fission of atomic nuclei and quantum laws of the study of atoms during the transition of electrons from one energy level to another. These important theoretical achievements laid the conceptual basis for future applied engineering research and development, the introduction of which, in turn, significantly revolutionized engineering and technology, i.e., contributed to the creation of modern electronic equipment, nuclear power plants and laser installations.
In addition, in epistemological terms, scientific knowledge or research also acts as a complex, contradictory process of reproduction of knowledge that forms a coherent system of ideal forms and logical images, enshrined primarily in language -
natural or - what is more typical - artificial (for example, in the form mathematical symbols, chemical formulas, etc.). Scientific knowledge not only records its elements, but also continuously reproduces them on its own basis, that is, it forms in accordance with its norms and principles. This process of continuous self-renewal by science of its conceptual arsenal is not only a process of its development, but also an important indicator of the scientific nature of knowledge.
At the same time, scientific knowledge is always carried out using various research methods, which are certain methods, techniques and procedures that the subject of knowledge must own and be able to use in the process of scientific research. In the process of scientific knowledge, various devices, instruments and other “scientific equipment” are also used, often quite complex and expensive (synchrophasotrons, radiotelephones, rocket and space technology and much more). In addition, science, to a much greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is characterized by the use of such ideal (spiritual) means and methods as modern logic, methods of mathematical, dialectical, systems and cybernetic analysis, as well as other general scientific techniques and methods, about which will be discussed further.
Scientific knowledge is always systemic in nature. The fact is that science not only obtains knowledge and records it using various methods, but also seeks to explain it through existing hypotheses, laws and theories. This distinctive feature of scientific knowledge or research allows us to better understand the systematic, consistent and controlled nature of scientific knowledge, which is characterized by strict evidence and validity of the results obtained, as well as the reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, there are many hypotheses, conjectures, assumptions and probabilistic judgments. In this regard, the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, their constant improvement of their thinking, and the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles are of utmost importance.
In modern scientific methodology, various criteria of scientific character are distinguished. In addition to those mentioned, these include such as the internal systematicity of knowledge, its formal consistency and experimental verifiability, reproducibility and openness
for criticism, freedom from bias, etc. Scientific knowledge, like any other social phenomenon, has its own specific and rather complex structure, which is expressed in the dialectical unity of stable relationships among its constituent elements. The main structural elements of scientific knowledge include the subject of knowledge, the object of scientific research, the means and methods of scientific knowledge. With a different cross-section of scientific knowledge, one can distinguish such structural elements, as empirical and theoretical levels of scientific research, formulation of scientific problems
è hypotheses, as well as the formulation of various scientific laws, principles and theories.
Scientific knowledge also has its own ideals and norms, which act as a set of certain values, conceptual, methodological and other attitudes characteristic of science at each specific historical stage of its development. Their main purpose is to organize and regulate the process of scientific research, as well as focus on more effective ways, methods and forms of achieving true results. When switching to new stage scientific research (for example, from classical to non-classical science), its ideals and norms change radically. Their character is determined primarily by the volume of knowledge, its specificity, and their content is always formed in a specific sociocultural context. The integral unity of the norms and ideals of scientific knowledge, dominant at a certain stage of the development of science, thus expresses the concept of “thinking style.” It performs a regulatory function in scientific knowledge and always has a multi-layered, value-based character. Expressing generally accepted stereotypes of intellectual activity inherent in at this stage, the style of thinking is always embodied in a certain concrete historical form. Most often distinguish between classical and neoclassical
è post-neoclassical (modern) styles of scientific thinking. Finally, scientific knowledge requires special preparation of the subject
knowledge, during which he masters the basic means of scientific research, learns the techniques and methods of their application. The inclusion of the subject of knowledge in scientific activity also presupposes the assimilation of a certain system of value orientations and goal settings. One of the main goals of scientific activity is the orientation of the scientist (researcher) to the search, first of all, for objective truth, which is perceived by the latter as the most
the highest value of science. This attitude is embodied in a number of ideals and standards of scientific knowledge. An equally important role in scientific knowledge and research is also played by the attitude towards the constant growth of scientific knowledge and the acquisition of new knowledge, expressed in the system regulatory requirements to scientific creativity, which are aimed at the formation of scientists and specialists. In turn, the need for high-quality training of subjects of knowledge determines the creation of special specialized scientific and educational organizations and institutions that provide training of highly qualified scientific personnel.
Thus, characterizing the nature of scientific knowledge, we can highlight the following main features: objectivity, objectivity, consistency and truth of scientific knowledge; the emergence of scientific knowledge beyond the framework of everyday experience and its study of objects with the aim of the need for the practical application of acquired knowledge, since science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is focused on practice and the practical activities of people.
Chapter 2. CONCEPT OF METHOD AND METHODOLOGY
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
As the volume and scope of scientific knowledge increases, as well as the deepening of scientific knowledge in revealing the laws and patterns of functioning of the real natural and social world, the desire of scientists to analyze the techniques and methods by which knowledge is acquired becomes more and more obvious. At the dawn of ancient culture, the monopoly on the study of problems of knowledge in general and scientific knowledge in particular belonged entirely to philosophy. And this is not accidental, because at that time science had not yet largely separated itself from philosophy. Even at the turn of the 16th–17th centuries, when experimental natural science was formed, it was mainly philosophers who studied various problems of the methodology of knowledge, although the greatest contribution to this period was made by those who, simultaneously with philosophy, were also engaged in other special branches of scientific knowledge (Galileo, Descartes, Newton, Leibniz, etc.).
1. The concept of methodology and methods of scientific research.
2. Methodology of theoretical research.
3. Fundamentals of empirical research methodology.
4. Cognitive techniques and forms of scientific research.
1. The concept of methodology and methods of scientific research
The process of cognition, as the basis of any scientific research, is complex and requires a conceptual approach based on a specific methodology.
The methodology comes from Greek word menthoges - knowledge and logos - teaching. So, these are teachings about research techniques, about the rules of thinking when creating a theory of science. The concept of methodology is complex and is explained differently in different literature sources. In many foreign literary sources, the concepts of methodology and research techniques are not differentiated. Domestic scientists consider methodology as a doctrine of scientific methods of cognition and as a system of scientific principles on the basis of which research is based and the selection of cognitive tools, methods and research techniques is carried out. The most appropriate is to define methodology as a theory of research techniques, the creation of scientific concepts as a system of knowledge about the theory of science or a system of research techniques. According to the definition of the authors of the textbook “Organization and Methodology of Scientific Research Activity” V. Sheiko and N. Kushnarenko, methodology is a conceptual presentation of the purpose, content, and research techniques that provide the most objective, accurate, systematized information about processes and phenomena. So, in this definition, the main functions of the methodology are precisely formulated, which boil down to the following:
Determining ways to obtain scientific knowledge that reflect dynamic processes and phenomena;
Determining a specific path along which the research goal is achieved;
Ensuring comprehensive receipt of information regarding the process or phenomenon being studied;
Introduction of new information to the foundation of the theory of science;
Clarification, enrichment, systematization of terms and concepts in science;
Creation of a system of scientific information, which is based on objective facts, and a logical and analytical tool for scientific knowledge.
Methodology is the science of structure, logical organization, means and methods of activity in general. Usually, methodology is understood primarily as the methodology of scientific knowledge, which is a set of theoretical provisions on the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific and cognitive activity.
Methodology can also be considered as a certain system of fundamental ideas.
The set of methods that are used when conducting scientific research within the boundaries of a particular science constitute its methodology. This concept has two meanings: firstly, methodology is a set of means, methods, techniques that are used in a certain science, and secondly, it is a field of knowledge that studies the means and principles of organizing cognitive and practically transformative human activity.
So, methodology is a philosophical doctrine about methods of cognition and the transformation of reality, the use of worldview principles in the process of cognition and practice.
The development of methodology is one aspect of the development of science as a whole. Any scientific discovery has not only substantive, but also methodological content, since it is associated with a critical rethinking of the existing apparatus of concepts, prerequisites and approaches to the interpretation of the object, phenomenon that is being studied.
Methodology is a set of rules for defining concepts, the derivation of some knowledge from others, methods, techniques, and operations of scientific research in all fields of science and at all stages of research.
Nowadays, methodology acts as a separate scientific discipline that studies the technology of conducting scientific research; description and analysis of research stages and a number of other problems.
Methodology is the doctrine of a system of scientific principles and methods of research activity. It includes fundamental, general scientific principles that serve as its basis, specifically scientific principles that underlie the theory of a particular discipline or scientific field, and a system of specific methods and techniques that are used to solve special research problems.
The main goal of the methodology of science is the study and analysis of methods, means, techniques with the help of which new knowledge in science is obtained both at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. Methodology is a scheme, a plan for solving the assigned problems of scientific research.
The methodology of scientific research examines the most significant features and characteristics of research techniques, reveals them behind the generality and depth of analysis. For example, by studying specific methods of conducting experiments, observations, measurements, the methodology of science identifies those features that are inherent in any experiment.
The most important thing for the methodology of science is to define the problem, construct the subject of research and scientific theory, and verify the truth of the results.
Outstanding scientists of both the past and the present were engaged in understanding the methods of scientific knowledge and developing its methodology: Aristotle, F. Bacon, G. Galileo, I. Newton, G. Leibniz, M. Lomonosov, C. Darwin, D. Mendeleev, I. Pavlov, A. Einstein, N. Bor, Yu. Drohobych and others.
During the period of ancient culture, the first sprouts of a methodology for obtaining new knowledge appeared. Thus, the ancient Greeks recognized discussions as the most expedient way to discover new truths, as a result of which a contradiction about the subject of discussion was revealed, inconsistency of interpretations that allowed unreliable and unlikely guesses to be defended.
The formation of the basic ideas of the methodology of science began in the Renaissance, which was greatly facilitated by successes in natural history and the beginning of the demarcation of philosophy and special sciences - both fundamental and applied. In this regard, research techniques, which are an integral part of the cognitive process and will play an important role in science, have acquired particular importance.
Everything in the structure of science scientific disciplines, which form a system of sciences, are divided into main groups: natural, humanities and technical sciences.
Different scientific disciplines differ from one another not only in the nature and content of the object of study, but also in specific, so-called specific scientific methods. In science, the final results of the study as a whole often depend on the category, research techniques and generalization.
The complexity, versatility and interdisciplinary status of any scientific problem requires a specific research methodology. Methodology is a teaching about the peculiarities of using a particular method or system of methods. A methodology is a systematic set of research techniques; it is a system of rules for using methods, techniques and research techniques. If this set is strictly consistent from the beginning of the study to the obtaining of results, then it is called an algorithm. The choice of specific research techniques is dictated by the nature of the material, conditions and purpose of a particular study. Methods are a well-organized system in which their place is determined according to a specific stage of research, use techniques and carrying out operations with theoretical and practical material in a certain sequence.
The creation of scientific methodology and research techniques is a great victory of the human mind.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Concept of method and methodology
Scientific activity, like any other, is carried out using certain means, as well as special techniques and methods, i.e. methods, the correct use of which largely determines success in implementing the research task.
Method it is a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality. The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of an object.
At the level of everyday practical activity, the method is formed spontaneously and only later is it realized by people. In the field of science, the method is formed consciously and purposefully.The scientific method only corresponds to its status when it provides an adequate reflection of the properties and patterns of objects in the external world.
Scientific method this is a system of rules and techniques with the help of which objective knowledge of reality is achieved.
The scientific method has the following characteristics:
1) clarity or accessibility;
2) lack of spontaneity in application;
4) fruitfulness or the ability to achieve not only the intended, but also no less significant side results;
5) reliability or ability with high degree ensure reliability desired result;
6) efficiency or the ability to produce results with the least amount of money and time.
The nature of the method is significantly determined by:
Subject of research;
The degree of generality of the tasks assigned;
Accumulated experience and other factors.
Methods that are suitable for one area of scientific research are not suitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, we are witnessing many outstanding achievements as a consequence of the transfer of methods that have proven themselves in some sciences to other sciences to solve their specific problems. Thus, opposing trends in the differentiation and integration of sciences based on the methods used are observed.
Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which, thus, acts as its prerequisite. The effectiveness and strength of a particular method is determined by the content and depth of the theory on the basis of which it is formed. In turn, the method is used to deepen and expand theoretical knowledge as a system. Thus, theory and method are closely interrelated: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed into a method through the development of rules, techniques, and operations arising from it; methods contribute to the formation, development, clarification of the theory, and its practical verification.
The scientific method contains a number of aspects:
1) objective-substantive (expresses the conditionality of the method by the subject of knowledge through theory);
2) operational (fixes the dependence of the content of the method not so much on the object, but on the subject of cognition, his competence and ability to translate the corresponding theory into a system of rules and techniques that together constitute the method);
3) praxeological (properties of reliability, efficiency, clarity).
Main functions of the method:
Integrative;
Epistemological;
Systematizing.
Rules occupy a central place in the structure of the method. Rule this is a prescription that establishes the procedure for achieving a certain goal. A rule is a provision that reflects a pattern in some subject area. This pattern forms basic knowledge rules. In addition, the rule includes some system of operational norms that ensure the connection of means and conditions with human activities. In addition, the structure of the method includes some techniques , carried out on the basis of operational norms.
Concept of methodology.
In the most general sense, methodology is understood as a system of methods used in a certain field of activity. But in the context of philosophical research, methodology is, first of all, the doctrine of methods of scientific activity, the general theory of the scientific method. Its objectives are to study the possibilities and prospects for the development of appropriate methods in the course of scientific knowledge. The methodology of science seeks to streamline, systematize methods, and establish the suitability of their application in various fields.
Methodology of scienceis a theory of scientific knowledge that studies the cognitive processes occurring in science, the forms and methods of scientific knowledge. In this sense, it acts as metascientific knowledge of a philosophical nature.
Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods that arose in philosophy and science. Historically, the problems of the methodology of science were initially developed within the framework of philosophy (the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of Bacon, the dialectical method of Hegel, the phenomenological method of Husserl, etc.). Therefore, the methodology of science is very closely connected with philosophy, especially with such a discipline as the theory of knowledge.
In addition, the methodology of science is closely related to such a discipline as the logic of science, which developed in the second half of the 19th century. Logic of science a discipline that applies the concepts and technical apparatus of modern logic to the analysis of systems of scientific knowledge.
The main problems of the logic of science:
1) study of the logical structures of scientific theories;
2) study of the construction of artificial languages of science;
3) study of various types of deductive and inductive inferences used in the natural, social and technical sciences;
4) analysis of the formal structures of fundamental and derivative scientific concepts and definitions;
5) consideration and improvement of the logical structure of research procedures and operations and the development of logical criteria for their heuristic effectiveness.
Since the 17th-18th centuries. methodological ideas are developed within the framework of special sciences. Each science has its own methodological arsenal.
In the system of methodological knowledge, main groups can be distinguished, taking into account the degree of generality and breadth of application of the individual methods included in them. These include:
1) philosophical methods (set the most general regulations of research - dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, hermeneutic, etc.);
2) general scientific methods (typical for a number of branches of scientific knowledge; they depend little on the specifics of the object of research and the type of problems, but at the same time depend on the level and depth of the research);
3) private scientific methods (used within certain special scientific disciplines; distinctive feature of these methods is their dependence on the nature of the object of study and the specifics of the problems being solved).
In this regard, within the framework of the methodology of science, philosophical and methodological analysis of science, general scientific and specific scientific methodology are distinguished.
Specifics of philosophical and methodological analysis of science
Essentially every philosophical system has a methodological function. Examples: dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, analytical, hermeneutic, etc.
The specificity of philosophical methods is that it is not a set of strictly fixed regulations, but a system of rules, operations, and techniques that are general and universal in nature. Philosophical methods are not described in strict terms of logic and experiment, and do not lend themselves to formalization and mathematization. They set only the most general regulations of research, its general strategy, but do not replace special methods and do not directly and directly determine the final result of knowledge. Figuratively speaking, philosophy is a compass that helps determine the right path, but not a map on which the path to the final goal is outlined in advance.
Philosophical methods play big role in scientific knowledge, setting a predetermined view of the essence of an object. All other methodological guidelines originate here, and critical situations in the development of a particular fundamental discipline are comprehended.
The set of philosophical regulations acts as an effective means if it is mediated by other, more specific methods. It is absurd to assert that, knowing only the principles of dialectics, one can create new types of machines. The philosophical method is not a “universal master key”; from it one cannot directly obtain answers to certain problems of particular sciences by simply logical development general truths. It cannot be a “discovery algorithm”, but gives the scientist only the most general orientation for research. As an example, the application of the dialectical method in science scientists are not interested in the categories of “development”, “causality”, etc., but in the regulatory principles formulated on their basis and how they can help in real scientific research.
The influence of philosophical methods on the process of scientific knowledge is always carried out not directly and directly, but in a complex, indirect way. Philosophical regulations are translated into scientific research through general scientific and specific scientific regulations. Philosophical methods do not always make themselves felt explicitly during the research process. They can be taken into account and applied either spontaneously or consciously. But in any science there are elements of universal significance (laws, principles, concepts, categories), where philosophy is manifested.
General scientific and specific scientific methodology.
General scientific methodologyrepresents the body of knowledge about the principles and methods used in any scientific discipline. It acts as a kind of “intermediate methodology” between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. General scientific concepts include such concepts as “system”, “structure”, “element”, “function”, etc. Based on general scientific concepts and categories, appropriate methods of cognition are formulated, which ensure optimal interaction of philosophy with specific scientific knowledge and its methods.
General scientific methods are divided into:
1) general logical, applied in any act of cognition and at any level. These are analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, generalization, analogy, abstraction;
2) methods of empirical research used at the empirical level of research (observation, experiment, description, measurement, comparison);
3) methods of theoretical research used at the theoretical level of research (idealization, formalization, axiomatic, hypothetico-deductive, etc.);
4) methods of systematization of scientific knowledge (typologization, classification).
Characteristic features of general scientific concepts and methods:
The combination in their content of elements of philosophical categories and concepts of a number of special sciences;
Possibility of formalization and clarification by mathematical means.
At the level of general scientific methodology, a general scientific picture of the world is formed.
Private scientific methodologyis a body of knowledge about the principles and methods used in a particular scientific discipline. Within its framework, special scientific paintings peace. Each science has its own specific set of methodological tools. At the same time, the methods of some sciences can be translated into other sciences. Interdisciplinary scientific methods are emerging.
Scientific Research Methodology.
The main attention within the methodology of science is directed to scientific research as a type of activity in which the application of various scientific methods is embodied.Scientific researchactivities aimed at obtaining true knowledge about objective reality.
Knowledge applied at the objective-sensory level of some scientific research forms the basis of its techniques . In empirical research, the methodology ensures the collection and primary processing of experimental data, regulates the practice of research work and experimental production activities. Theoretical work also requires its own methodology. Here its prescriptions relate to activities with objects expressed in symbolic form. For example, there are techniques various kinds calculations, deciphering texts, conducting thought experiments, etc.On modern stage development of science both on its empirical andand on a theoretical level, computer technology plays an extremely important role. Without it, modern experimentation, situation modeling, and various computational procedures are unthinkable.
Any technique is created on the basis of more high levels knowledge, but is a set of highly specialized installations, which includes quite strict restrictions instructions, projects, standards, technical specifications etc. At the level of methodology, installations that exist ideally, in a person’s thoughts, seem to merge with practical operations, completing the formation of the method. Without them, the method is something speculative and does not receive access to the outside world. In turn, the practice of research is impossible without control from ideal settings. Good command of the methodology is an indicator of the high professionalism of the scientist.
Structure of scientific research
Scientific research contains a number of elements in its structure.
Object of studya fragment of reality to which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed, and which exists outside and independently of the consciousness of the knowing subject. Objects of research can be both material and intangible in nature. Their independence from consciousness lies in the fact that they exist regardless of whether people know or don’t know anything about them.
Subject of researchis a part of the object directly involved in the study; these are the main, most significant features of an object from the point of view of a particular study. The specificity of the subject of scientific research is that at first it is defined in general, vague terms, anticipated and predicted to an insignificant extent. It finally “emerges” at the end of the study. When approaching it, the scientist cannot imagine it indrawings and calculations. What needs to be “torn out” from an object and synthesized in a research product? The researcher has superficial, one-sided, incomplete knowledge about this. Therefore, the form of fixing the subject of research is a question, a problem.
Gradually transforming into a product of research, the subject is enriched and developed due to initially unknown signs and conditions of its existence. Outwardly, this is expressed in a change in questions that additionally confront the researcher, are consistently resolved by him and are subordinate to the general goal of the study.
We can say that individual scientific disciplines are engaged in the study of individual “slices” of the objects under study. The variety of possible “slices” of studying objects gives rise to a multi-subject nature of scientific knowledge. Each of the subjects creates its own conceptual apparatus, its own specific research methods, and its own language.
Purpose of the study ideal, mental anticipation of the result for the sake of which scientific and cognitive actions are taken.
The characteristics of the subject of research directly affect its purpose. The latter, concludingthe image of the subject of research is distinguished by the inherent uncertainty of the subject at the beginning of the research process. It becomes more specific as we get closer to the final result.
Research objectivesformulate questions that must be answered to achieve the goals of the study.
The goals and objectives of the study form interconnected chains in which each link serves as a means of holding other links. The final goal of the study can be called its general task, and particular tasks that act as means of solving the main one can be called intermediate goals, or second-order goals.
The main and additional objectives of the study are also identified: The main objectives correspond to its target setting, additional ones are put in place to prepare future studies, test side (possibly very relevant) hypotheses not related to this problem, to solve some methodological issues, etc.
Ways to achieve the goal:
If the main goal is formulated as theoretical, then when developing the program, the main attention is paid to the study of scientific literature on this issue, a clear interpretation original concepts, construction of a hypothetical general concept of the subject of research, identification of a scientific problem and logical analysis of working hypotheses.
A different logic governs the actions of the researcher if he sets himself directly practical purpose. He begins work based on the specifics of the given object and an understanding of the practical problems to be solved. Only after this does he turn to the literature in search of an answer to the question: is there a “standard” solution to the problems that have arisen, that is, a special theory related to the subject? If there is no “standard” solution, further work unfolds according to the scheme of theoretical research. If such a solution exists, applied research hypotheses are constructed as different options for “reading” standard solutions in relation to specific conditions.
It is very important to keep in mind that any solution-oriented research theoretical problems, you can continue as applied. At the first stage we get some standard solution problems, and then we translate it into specific conditions.
Also an element of the structure of scientific research aremeans of scientific and educational activities. These include:
Material resources;
Theoretical objects(ideal constructs);
Research methods and other ideal regulations of research: norms, samples, ideals of scientific activity.
The means of scientific research are in constant change and development. The fact that some of them are successfully used at one stage of the development of science is not a sufficient guarantee of their agreement with new spheres of reality and therefore require improvement or replacement.
Systematic approach as a general scientific methodological program and its essence.
Working with complex research problems involves using not only different methods, but also different research strategies. The most important of them, playing the role of a general scientific methodological program of scientific knowledge, is the systems approach.Systems approachis a set of general scientific methodological principles based on the consideration of objects as systems. System a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming something whole.
The philosophical aspects of the systems approach are expressed in the principle of systematicity, the content of which is revealed in the concepts of integrity, structure, interdependence of the system and environment, hierarchy, and multiplicity of descriptions of each system.
The concept of integrity reflects the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements and the irreducibility of the properties of the whole from the properties of the parts and, at the same time, the dependence of each element, property and relationship of the system on its place and functions within the whole.
The concept of structurality captures the fact that the behavior of a system is determined not so much by the behavior of its individual elements as by the properties of its structure, and that it is possible to describe the system by establishing its structure.
The interdependence of the system and the environment means that the system forms and manifests its properties in constant interaction with the environment, while remaining the leading active component of the interaction.
The concept of hierarchy focuses on the fact that each element of the system can be considered as a system, and the system being studied in this case is one of the elements of a broader system.
The possibility of multiple descriptions of a system exists due to the fundamental complexity of each system, as a result of which its adequate knowledge requires the construction of many different models, each of which describes only a certain aspect of the system.
The specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the research on revealing the integrity of the developing object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical system. Wide use systematic approach in modern research practice due to a number of circumstances and, above all, the intensive development in modern scientific knowledge of complex objects, the composition, configuration and principles of operation of which are far from obvious and require special analysis.
One of the most striking embodiments of systems methodology issystem analysis, which is a special branch of applied knowledge applicable to systems of any nature.
Recently, a nonlinear methodology of knowledge has been emerging, associated with the development of interdisciplinary scientific concepts of the dynamics of nonequilibrium states and synergetics. Within the framework of these concepts, new guidelines for cognitive activity are emerging, which set the consideration of the object under study as a complex self-organizing and, thereby, historically self-developing system.
The systems approach as a general scientific methodological program is also closely related tostructural-functional approach, which is a variation of it. It is built on the basis of identifying in integral systems their structure totality sustainable relationships and the relationships between its elements and their roles (functions) relative to each other.
Structure is understood as something unchanged under certain transformations, and function as the purpose of each of the elements of a given system.
Basic requirements of the structural-functional approach:
Study of the structure, structure of the object being studied;
Study of its elements and their functional characteristics;
Consideration of the history of the functioning and development of the object as a whole.
The guidelines for cognitive activity, concentrated in the content of general scientific methods, are detailed, systematically organized complexes characterized by a complex structure. In addition, the methods themselves are in a complex relationship with each other. In the actual practice of scientific research, cognitive methods are used in combination, setting a strategy for solving assigned problems. At the same time, the specificity of any of the methods allows for a meaningful consideration of each of them separately, taking into account their belonging to a certain level scientific research.
General scientific methods of scientific research.
Analysis division of an integral object into its component parts (signs, properties, relationships) for the purpose of their comprehensive study.
Synthesis combination of previously identified parts (sides, characteristics, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.
Abstractionmental abstraction from a number of signs, properties and relationships of the object being studied while simultaneously highlighting for consideration those of them that interest the researcher. As a result, “abstract objects” appear, which are both individual concepts and categories, and their systems.
Generalization establishing general properties and characteristics of objects. General philosophical category reflecting similar, repeating characteristics, features that belong to individual phenomena or all objects of this class. There are two types of general:
Abstract general (simple sameness, external similarity, similarity of a number of individual objects);
Specific-general (internal, deep, repeating basis essence in a group of similar phenomena).
In accordance with this, two types of generalizations are distinguished:
Identification of any features and properties of objects;
Identification of essential features and properties of objects.
On another basis, generalizations are divided into:
Inductive (from individual facts and events to their expression in thoughts);
Logical (from one thought to another, more general).
Method opposite to generalization limitation (change from more general concept to the less general).
Induction a research method in which the general conclusion is based on particular premises.
Deduction a research method through which a particular conclusion follows from general premises.
Analogy a method of cognition in which, based on the similarity of objects in some characteristics, they conclude that they are similar in other characteristics.
Modeling study of an object by creating and studying its copy (model), replacing the original from certain aspects of interest to knowledge.
Methods of empirical research
At the empirical level, methods such asobservation, description, comparison, measurement, experiment.
Observation this is a systematic and purposeful perception of phenomena, during which we gain knowledge about the external aspects, properties and relationships of the objects being studied. Observation is always not contemplative, but active, active in nature. It is subject to the decision of a specific scientific problem and therefore is focused, selective and systematic.
Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design, the presence of strictly defined means (in technical sciences - instruments), objectivity of the results. Objectivity is ensured by the possibility of control through either repeated observation or the use of other research methods, in particular experiment. Observation is usually included as part of the experimental procedure. An important point in observation is the interpretation of its results interpretation of instrument readings, etc.
Scientific observation is always mediated by theoretical knowledge, since it is the latter that determines the object and subject of observation, the purpose of observation and the method of its implementation. During observation, the researcher is always guided by a specific idea, concept or hypothesis. He does not simply register any facts, but deliberately selects those that either confirm or refute his ideas. In this case, it is very important to select the most representative group of facts in their interrelation. The interpretation of observation is also always carried out with the help of certain theoretical principles.
The implementation of developed forms of observation involves the use of special means and, first of all, instruments, the development and implementation of which also requires the use of theoretical concepts of science. In the social sciences, the form of observation is the survey; to create survey tools (questioning, interviewing) also requires special theoretical knowledge.
Description recording by means of natural or artificial language the results of an experiment (observation or experiment data) using certain notation systems accepted in science (schemes, graphs, drawings, tables, diagrams, etc.).
During the description, phenomena are compared and measured.
Comparison a method that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. But this method makes sense only in a collection of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in a class is carried out according to characteristics that are essential for this consideration. At the same time, characteristics that are compared on one basis may not be comparable on another.
Measurement a research method in which the relationship of one quantity to another, which serves as a standard, is established. Measurement is most widely used in the natural and technical sciences, but since the 20s and 30s of the 20th century. it also comes into use in social research. Measurement presupposes the presence of: an object on which some operation is performed; properties of this object, which can be perceived, and the value of which is established using this operation; the instrument by which this operation is performed. The general goal of any measurements is to obtain numerical data that allows us to judge not so much the quality as the quantity of certain states. In this case, the value of the resulting value should be so close to the true one that for this purpose it can be used instead of the true one. Errors in measurement results (systematic and random) are possible.
There are direct and indirect measurement procedures. The latter include measurements of objects that are distant from us or are not directly perceived. The value of the measured quantity is established indirectly. Indirect measurements are feasible when the general dependence between quantities, which allows you to derive the desired result from already known quantities.
Experiment a research method through which active and purposeful perception occurs specific object under controlled and controlled conditions.
Main features of the experiment:
1) an active attitude towards the object up to its change and transformation;
2) repeated reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher;
3) the possibility of detecting properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;
4) the possibility of considering the phenomenon “in its pure form” by isolating it from external influences, or by changing the experimental conditions;
5) the ability to control the “behavior” of an object and check the results.
We can say that an experiment is an idealized experience. It makes it possible to monitor the progress of changes in a phenomenon, actively influence it, and recreate it, if necessary, before comparing the results obtained. Therefore, experiment is a stronger and more effective method than observation or measurement, where the phenomenon under study remains unchanged. This is the highest form of empirical research.
An experiment is used either to create a situation that allows one to study an object in its pure form, or to test existing hypotheses and theories, or to formulate new hypotheses and theoretical concepts. Every experiment is always guided by some theoretical idea, concept, hypothesis. Experimental data, as well as observations, are always theoretically loaded, from its setup to the interpretation of the results.
Stages of the experiment:
1) planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, etc.);
2) control;
3) interpretation of the results.
Experiment structure:
1) object of study;
2) creation of necessary conditions (material factors influencing the object of study, elimination of undesirable effects interference);
3) experimental methodology;
4) a hypothesis or theory that needs to be tested.
As a rule, experimentation involves the use of simpler practical methods of observation, comparison and measurement. Since an experiment is not carried out, as a rule, without observations and measurements, it must meet their methodological requirements. In particular, as with observations and measurements, an experiment can be considered demonstrative if it can be reproduced by any other person in another place in space and at another time and gives the same result.
Types of experiment:
Depending on the objectives of the experiment, there are research experiments (the task is the formation of new scientific theories), verification experiments (testing existing hypotheses and theories), decisive experiments (confirmation of one and refutation of another of the competing theories).
Depending on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, social and other experiments are distinguished.
There are also qualitative experiments aimed at establishing the presence or absence of an expected phenomenon, and measurement experiments that reveal the quantitative certainty of a certain property.
Methods of theoretical research.
At the theoretical stage, they are usedthought experiment, idealization, formalization,axiomatic, hypothetico-deductive methods, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, as well as methods of historical and logical analysis.
Idealization a research method consisting in the mental construction of an idea of an object by excluding the conditions necessary for its real existence. In essence, idealization is a type of abstraction procedure, specified taking into account the needs of theoretical research. The results of such construction are idealized objects.
The formation of idealizations can go in different ways:
Consistently carried out multi-stage abstraction (so, mathematical objects are obtained - a plane, a straight line, a point, etc.);
Isolation and fixation of a certain property of the object being studied in isolation from all others (ideal objects of natural sciences).
Idealized objects much simpler than real objects, which makes it possible to apply mathematical methods of description to them. Thanks to idealization, processes are considered in their purest form, without accidental additions from the outside, which opens the way to identifying the laws according to which these processes occur. An idealized object, unlike a real one, is characterized not by an infinite, but by a very specific number of properties, and therefore the researcher gets the opportunity to have complete intellectual control over it. Idealized objects model the most essential relationships in real objects.
Since the provisions of the theory speak about the properties of ideal, and not real objects, there is a problem of testing and accepting these provisions based on correlation with the real world. Therefore, to take into account the introduced circumstances that influence the deviation of indicators inherent in the empirical data from the characteristics of an ideal object, rules of concretization are formulated: checking the law taking into account the specific conditions of its operation.
Modeling (a method closely related to idealization) is a method for studying theoretical models, i.e. analogues (schemes, structures, sign systems) of certain fragments of reality, which are called originals. The researcher, transforming these analogues and managing them, expands and deepens knowledge about the originals. Modeling is a method of indirectly operating an object, during which it is not the object itself that interests us that is directly studied, but some intermediate system (natural or artificial), which:
Is in some objective correspondence with the cognizable object (a model is, first of all, what is compared with - it is necessary that there be similarity between the model and the original in some physical characteristics, or in structure, or in functions);
In the course of cognition, at certain stages, it is capable of replacing in certain cases the object being studied (in the process of research, temporarily replacing the original with a model and working with it allows in many cases not only to discover, but also to predict its new properties);
In the process of its research, ultimately provide information about the object of interest to us.
The logical basis of the modeling method is conclusions by analogy.
There are different types of modeling. Basic:
Subject (direct) modeling, during which research is carried out on a model that reproduces certain physical, geometric, and other characteristics of the original. Subject modeling is used as a practical method of cognition.
Sign modeling (models are diagrams, drawings, formulas, sentences of natural or artificial language, etc.). Since actions with signs are simultaneously actions with some thoughts, any sign modeling is inherently a mental modeling.
IN historical research There are reflective-measuring models (“as it was”) and simulation-prognostic models (“as it could be”).
Thought experimenta research method based on a combination of images, the material implementation of which is impossible. This method is formed on the basis of idealization and modeling. In this case, the model turns out to be an imaginary object, transformed in accordance with the rules suitable for a given situation. States that are inaccessible to practical experiment are revealed with the help of its continuation - a thought experiment.
As an illustration, we can take the model built by K. Marx, which allowed him to thoroughly explore the capitalist mode of production of the mid-nineteenth century. The construction of this model was associated with a number of idealizing assumptions. In particular, it was assumed that there is no monopoly in the economy; all regulations that prevent the movement of labor from one place or from one sphere of production to another have been abolished; labor in all spheres of production is reduced to simple labor; the rate of surplus value is the same in all spheres of production; the average organic composition of capital in all branches of production is the same; the demand for each product is equal to its supply; the length of the working day and the monetary price of labor power are constant; agriculture carries out production in the same way as any other branch of production; there is no trading and banking capital; exports and imports are balanced; there are only two classes - capitalists and wage workers; the capitalist constantly strives for maximum profit, while always acting rationally. The result was a model of a certain “ideal” capitalism. Mental experimentation with it made it possible to formulate the laws of capitalist society, in particular, the most important of them - the law of value, according to which the production and exchange of goods are carried out on the basis of the costs of socially necessary labor.
A thought experiment allows us to introduce new concepts into the context of a scientific theory and formulate the fundamental principles of a scientific concept.
Recently, to carry out modeling and conduct thought experiments, it has increasingly been used.computational experiment. The main advantage of a computer is that with its help, when studying very complex systems, it is possible to deeply analyze not only their current states, but also possible, including future states. The essence of a computational experiment is that an experiment is carried out on a certain mathematical model of an object using a computer. Based on some parameters of the model, its other characteristics are calculated and on this basis conclusions are drawn about the properties of the phenomena represented by the mathematical model. Main stages of the computational experiment:
1) construction of a mathematical model of the object being studied under certain conditions (as a rule, it is represented by a system of high-order equations);
2) determination of the computational algorithm for the solution basic system equations;
3) construction of a program for implementing the assigned task for a computer.
A computational experiment based on the accumulated experience of mathematical modeling, a bank of computational algorithms and software allows you to quickly and effectively solve problems in almost any area of mathematical scientific knowledge. Appeal to computational experiment in some cases, it makes it possible to sharply reduce the cost of scientific developments and intensify the process of scientific research, which is ensured by the versatility of the calculations performed and the ease of modifications to simulate certain experimental conditions.
Formalization a research method based on the display of content knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages. The use of special symbols allows you to eliminate ambiguity, inaccuracy, and figurativeness of words natural language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous. Formalization serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby the computerization of knowledge.
The main thing in the formalization process is that operations can be performed on the formulas of artificial languages, and new formulas and relationships can be obtained from them. Thus, operations with thoughts are replaced by actions with signs and symbols (the boundaries of the method).
The formalization method opens up the possibility of using more complex methods of theoretical research, for examplemathematical hypothesis method, where the hypothesis is some equations representing a modification of previously known and tested states. By changing the latter, they create a new equation expressing a hypothesis that relates to new phenomena.Often the original mathematical formula is borrowed from a related or even unrelated field of knowledge, values of a different nature are substituted into it, and then the coincidence of the calculated and real behavior of the object is checked. Of course, the applicability of this method is limited to those disciplines that have already accumulated a fairly rich mathematical arsenal.
Axiomatic method a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which certain provisions that do not require special proof (axioms or postulates) are taken as its basis, from which all other provisions are derived using formal logical proofs. The set of axioms and propositions derived on their basis forms an axiomatically constructed theory, which includes abstract iconic models. Such a theory can be used to model not one, but several classes of phenomena, to characterize not one, but several subject areas. To derive propositions from axioms, special rules for deriving propositions are formulated mathematical logic. Finding the rules for correlating the axioms of a formally constructed knowledge system with a specific subject area is called interpretation. In modern natural science, examples of formal axiomatic theories are fundamental physical theories, which entails a number of specific problems of their interpretation and justification (especially for theoretical constructions of non-classical and post-non-classical science).
Due to the specificity of axiomatically constructed systems of theoretical knowledge for their justification special meaning acquire internal theoretical criteria of truth: the requirement of consistency and completeness of the theory and the requirement of sufficient grounds for proving or refuting any position formulated within the framework of such a theory.
This method is widely used in mathematics, as well as in those natural sciences where the formalization method is used. (Limitations of the method).
Hypothetico-deductive methoda method of constructing a scientific theory, which is based on the creation of a system of interrelated hypotheses, from which then, through deductive development, a system of particular hypotheses is derived, subject to experimental testing. Thus, this method is based on deduction (derivation) of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the true meaning of which is unknown. This means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably be probabilistic in nature.
Structure of the hypothetico-deductive method:
1) putting forward a hypothesis about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;
2) assessment of the validity of hypotheses and selection of the most probable one from among them;
3) deriving consequences from the hypothesis deductively with clarification of its content;
4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, confirmation of individual consequences does not guarantee its truth or falsity as a whole. The best hypothesis based on the test results becomes a theory.
Method of ascent from abstract to concretea method that consists in initially finding the original abstraction (the main connection (relation) of the object being studied), and then, step by step, through successive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge, tracing how it changes in different conditions, new connections are discovered, their interactions are established and, thus, the essence of the studied object is displayed in its entirety.
Method of historical and logical analysis. Historical method requires a description of the actual history of the object in all the diversity of its existence. Boolean method this is a mental reconstruction of the history of an object, cleared of everything random, unimportant and focused on identifying the essence. Unity of logical and historical analysis.
Logical procedures for substantiating scientific knowledge
All specific methods, both empirical and theoretical, are accompanied by logical procedures. The effectiveness of empirical and theoretical methods is directly dependent on how correctly the corresponding scientific reasoning is constructed from a logical point of view.
Rationale a logical procedure associated with the assessment of a certain product of knowledge as a component of a system of scientific knowledge from the point of view of its compliance with the functions, goals and objectives of this system.
Main types of justification:
Proof a logical procedure in which an expression with an as yet unknown meaning is derived from statements whose truth has already been established. This allows you to eliminate any doubts and recognize the truth of this expression.
Proof structure:
Thesis (expression, truth, which is established);
Arguments, arguments (statements with the help of which the truth of the thesis is established);
Additional assumptions (expressions of an auxiliary nature, introduced into the structure of the proof and eliminated when moving to the final result);
Demonstration (logical form of this procedure).
A typical example of a proof is any mathematical reasoning, the results of which lead to the adoption of a new theorem. In it, this theorem acts as a thesis, previously proven theorems and axioms as arguments, and the demonstration is a form of deduction.
Types of evidence:
Direct (the thesis directly follows from the arguments);
Indirect (the thesis is proven indirectly):
Apagogical (proof by contradiction establishing the falsity of the antithesis: it is assumed that the antithesis is true, and consequences are derived from it; if at least one of the resulting consequences contradicts existing true judgments, then the consequence is recognized as false, and after it the antithesis itself the truth of the thesis is recognized);
Dividing (the truth of a thesis is established by excluding all alternatives opposing it).
Closely related to proof is the logical procedure of refutation.
Refutation a logical procedure that establishes the falsity of the thesis of a logical statement.
Types of rebuttal:
Proof of antithesis (a statement that contradicts the thesis being refuted is independently proven);
Establishing the falsity of the consequences arising from the thesis (an assumption is made about the truth of the thesis being refuted and consequences are derived from it; if at least one consequence does not correspond to reality, i.e. is false, then the assumption the thesis being refuted will also be false).
Thus, with the help of refutation, a negative result is achieved. But he also has positive effect: the search for the true position is narrowed.
Confirmation partial justification for the truth of a certain statement. It plays a special role in the presence of hypotheses and the absence of sufficient arguments for their acceptance. If during proof a complete justification for the truth of a certain statement is achieved, then during confirmation it is partial.
Statement B confirms hypothesis A if and only if statement B is a true consequence of A. This criterion is true in cases where what is confirmed and what confirms refers to the same level of knowledge. Therefore, it is reliable in mathematics or in testing elementary generalizations that can be reduced to observational results. However, there are significant reservations if the confirmed and the confirming are at different cognitive levels confirmation of theoretical positions by empirical data. The latter are formed under the influence of a variety of factors, including random ones. Only taking them into account and reducing them to zero can bring confirmation.
If a hypothesis is confirmed by facts, this does not mean that it should be immediately and unconditionally accepted. According to the rules of logic, the truth of consequence B does not mean the truth of reason A. Each new consequence makes a hypothesis more and more probable, but in order to become an element of the corresponding system of theoretical knowledge, it must go through a long path of testing for applicability in a given system and the ability to fulfill its defined requirements. the nature of the function.
Thus, when confirming the thesis:
Its consequences act as arguments;
The demonstration is not of a necessary (deductive) nature.
Objection a logical procedure opposite to confirmation. It is aimed at weakening a certain thesis (hypothesis).
Types of objections:
Direct (direct examination of the shortcomings of the thesis; as a rule, by citing a true antithesis, or by using an antithesis that is not sufficiently substantiated and has a certain degree of probability);
Indirect (directed not against the thesis itself, but against the arguments given to support it or the logical form of its connection with the arguments (demonstration).
Explanation a logical procedure that reveals the essential characteristics, causal connections or functional relations of some object.
Types of explanation:
1) Object (depending on the nature of the object):
Essential (aimed at revealing essential characteristics some object). Scientific theories and laws serve as arguments;
Causal (the arguments are statements about the causes of certain phenomena;
Functional (the role performed by some element in the system is considered)
2) Subjective (depends on the orientation of the subject, historical context one and the same fact can receive different explanations depending on the specific conditions and orientation of the subject). Used in non-classical and post-non-classical science the requirement to clearly record the features of observation means, etc. Not only the presentation, but also the selection of facts bears traces of subjective activity.
Objectivism and subjectivism.
The difference between explanation and evidence: evidence establishes the truth of the thesis; when explaining, some thesis has already been proven (depending on the direction, the same syllogism can be both a proof and an explanation).
Interpretation a logical procedure that assigns some meaningful meaning or meaning to the symbols or formulas of a formal system. As a result, the formal system turns into a language that describes a particular subject area. This subject area itself, like the meanings assigned to formulas and signs, is also called interpretation. A formal theory is not justified until it has an interpretation. A previously developed substantive theory may also be endowed with new meaning and interpreted in a new way.
Classic example interpretations finding a fragment of reality, the properties of which were described by Lobachevsky’s geometry (surfaces of negative curvature). Interpretation is used primarily in the most abstract sciences (logic, mathematics).
Methods for systematizing scientific knowledge
Classification a method of dividing a set of studied objects into subsets based on strictly recorded similarities and differences. Classification a way of organizing an empirical body of information. The purpose of classification is to determine the place in the system of any object, and thereby establish the presence of certain connections between objects. A subject who masters the classification criterion gets the opportunity to navigate the diversity of concepts and/or objects. The classification always reflects the available this moment time level of knowledge, summarizes it. On the other hand, classification allows you to detect gaps in existing knowledge, serve as the basis for diagnostic and prognostic procedures. In the so-called descriptive science, it was the result (goal) of knowledge (systematics in biology, attempts to classify sciences on various grounds, etc.), and further development was presented as its improvement or the proposal of a new classification.
There are natural and artificial classifications depending on the significance of the feature that forms its basis. Natural classifications involve finding a meaningful discrimination criterion; artificial ones can, in principle, be built on the basis of any characteristic. Variant of art c The main classifications are various auxiliary classifications such as alphabetical indexes, etc. In addition, a distinction is made between theoretical (in particular, genetic) and empirical classifications (within the latter, establishing a classification criterion is largely problematic).
Typology a method of dividing a certain set of objects under study into those with certain properties ordered and systematized groups using an idealized model or type (ideal or constructive). The typology is based on the concept of fuzzy sets, i.e. sets that do not have clear boundaries, when the transition from elements belonging to the set to not belonging to the set occurs gradually, not abruptly, i.e. elements of a certain subject area relate to it only with a certain degree of belonging.
Typology is carried out according to a selected and conceptually justified criterion(s), or according to an empirically discovered and theoretically interpreted basis(s), which makes it possible to distinguish between theoretical and empirical typologizations, respectively. It is assumed that the differences between the units forming the type in the relation of interest to the researcher are random in nature (due to factors that cannot be taken into account) and are insignificant in comparison with similar differences between objects classified as different types.
The result of typologization is a typology that is justified within it. The latter can be considered in a number of sciences as a form of knowledge representation, or as a precursor to the construction of a theory of any subject area, or as a final one when it is impossible (or the scientific community is not ready) to formulate a theory adequate to the field of study.
Connection and difference between classification and typologization:
Classification involves finding a clear place for each element (object) in a group (class) or row (sequence), with clear boundaries between classes or rows (one individual element cannot simultaneously belong to different classes (rows), or not be included in any or none of them at all). In addition, it is believed that the classification criterion can be random, and the typologization criterion is always essential. The typology identifies homogeneous sets, each of which is a modification of the same quality (an essential, “root” feature, or rather the “idea” of this set). Naturally, in contrast to the sign of classification, the “idea” of typologization is far from being visual, externally manifested and detectable. Classification is less closely related to content than typology
At the same time, some classifications, especially empirical ones, can be interpreted as preliminary (primary) typologizations, or as a transitional procedure for ordering elements (objects) on the way to typologization.
The language of science. Specifics scientific terminology
In both empirical and theoretical research, the language of science plays a special role, revealing a number of features in comparison with the language of everyday knowledge. There are several reasons why ordinary language is insufficient to describe the objects of scientific research:
His vocabulary does not allow him to record information about objects that go beyond the sphere of direct practical activity of a person and his everyday knowledge;
The concepts of everyday language are vague and ambiguous;
The grammatical structures of everyday language develop spontaneously, contain historical layers, are often cumbersome in nature and do not allow one to clearly express the structure of thought and the logic of mental activity.
Due to these features, scientific knowledge involves the development and use of specialized, artificial languages. Their number is constantly increasing as science develops. The first example of creating special linguistic means serves as Aristotle's introduction of symbolic notation into logic.
The need for an accurate and adequate language led, in the course of the development of science, to the creation of special terminology. Along with this, the need to improve linguistic means in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages of science.
Features of the language of science:
Clarity and unambiguity of concepts;
The presence of clear rules defining the meaning of the original terms;
Lack of cultural and historical layers.
In the language of science, a distinction is made between object language and metalanguage.
Object (subject) languagea language whose expressions relate to a certain area of objects, their properties and relationships. For example, the language of mechanics describes the properties mechanical movement material bodies and interactions between them; the language of arithmetic speaks about numbers, their properties, operations on numbers; language of chemistry about chemicals and reactions, etc. In general, any language is usually used, first of all, to talk about some extra-linguistic objects, and in this sense, every language is objective.
Metalanguage is a language used to express judgments about another language, an object language. With the help of mathematics, they study the structure of expressions of an object language, its expressive properties, its relationship to other languages, etc. Example: in an English textbook for Russians, Russian is a metalanguage, and English is an object language.Along with this, the need to improve linguistic means in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages of science.
Of course, in a natural language, the object language and metalanguage are combined: we speak in this language both about objects and about the language expressions themselves. Such a language is called semantically closed. Linguistic intuition usually helps us avoid the paradoxes that the semantic closure of natural language leads to. But when constructing formalized languages, care is taken to ensure that the object language is clearly separated from the metalanguage.
Scientific terminologya set of words with an exact, unique meaning within a given scientific discipline.
The basis of scientific terminology is scientific definitions
There are two meanings of the term “definition”:
1) definition an operation that allows you to distinguish an object from other objects, to clearly distinguish it from them; this is achieved by indicating a feature inherent in this, and only this, object (distinctive feature) (for example, to distinguish a square from the class of rectangles, one points to a feature that is inherent in squares and not inherent in other rectangles, such as equality of sides);
2) definition a logical operation that makes it possible to reveal, clarify or form the meaning of some linguistic expressions with the help of other linguistic expressions (for example, a tithe is an area equal to 1.09 hectares since a person understands the meaning of the expression “1.09 hectares”, for The meaning of the word “tithe” becomes clear to him.
A definition that gives a distinctive characteristic of a certain object is called real. A definition that reveals, clarifies or forms the meaning of some linguistic expressions with the help of others is called nominal. These two concepts are not mutually exclusive. The definition of an expression can simultaneously be a definition of the corresponding subject.
Nominal:
Explicit (classical and genetic or inductive);
Contextual.
In science, definitions play an essential role. By giving a definition, we gain the opportunity to solve a number of cognitive problems related, firstly, to the procedures of naming and recognition. These tasks include:
Establishing the meaning of an unfamiliar linguistic expression using expressions that are familiar and already meaningful (registering definitions);
Clarification of terms and, at the same time, development of an unambiguous characteristic of the subject under consideration (clarifying definitions);
Introduction into scientific circulation of new terms or concepts (postulating definitions).
Secondly, definitions allow the construction of inferential procedures. Thanks to definitions, words acquire precision, clarity and unambiguity.
However, the meaning of definitions should not be exaggerated. It must be borne in mind that they do not reflect the entire content of the subject in question. The actual study of scientific theory is not limited to mastering the sum of definitions that are contained in them. Question about the accuracy of terms.