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TEST
on the topic: “Fundamentals of nanotechnology”
1. List the areas in which nanotechnology is used. Give examples of materials received
Nanotextiles
Nanotextiles occupy one of the leading places in the global production of nanoproducts after nanoelectronics, nanopharmaceuticals and nanocosmetics.
Production volume ~ 50 billion DS (2006)
Growth ~ 10% per year
US leader ~40%
The Russian Federation purchases ~ 1.5 billion DS (technical, hygiene, sports)
Hygienic textiles
(diapers, hospital underwear)
200 million people - consumers (children, elderly) of diapers. The world's population is aging, the diaper market is expanding.
Hygienic textiles = nanotechnology: Nanofibers (supersorbents), nanosilver?, nanoperfume, etc.
Chemical fibers
Nanofibers by diameter< 100 нм.
The most common technology for producing nanothin fibers is electrospinning, when, at the exit from the spinneret, a solution or melt of the polymer enters the zone of action of an electric field. In an electric field, the outflowing polymer stream is thinned to nanosizes, as shown in the diagram:
Conventional chemical fibers containing nanoparticles of various chemical natures and shapes (carbon-fullerenes, metals, metal oxides, aluminosilicates, etc.), fibers filled with nanoparticles are composite fibers with new properties.
New properties depend on the nature of nanoparticles: electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, antimicrobial properties, colorability, etc.
Protective textiles
There is no precise definition of what protective textiles are in either foreign or domestic literature. Let's try to give our own (may be corrected):
“Textile material and products made from it that protect people and the environment (miraculous and man-made).”
The difficulty of the definition is due to the fact that protective textiles partially fall into technical textiles, when they protect equipment, and into sports textiles, medical textiles, cosmetic textiles, and geotextiles.
Textiles themselves and products made from them also require, under operating and storage conditions, protection from thermal, chemical, mechanical, bio-, photo- and radiation destruction. Protecting material and products from these influences does not automatically protect a person from them. And yet, often these functions are combined, for example, by giving the material fire resistance, we protect from fire and people! By protecting the material from microorganisms, we protect people too!
The relevance of the problem of developing technologies and producing protective textiles lies in the fact that millions of people on the planet, objects of nature and technology need protection from the specific working conditions of people and the operation of equipment.
The working conditions of people in many professions have a harmful effect on the human body, which requires protection with the help of textile products. Work in industry, law enforcement agencies, hospitals, electric, hydro and nuclear power plants is associated with certain and specific risks. Each profession has its own specific protection requirements.
Basic protective functions, properties of textiles and products made from it:
Overheating
Hypothermia
Chemical protection against liquid and gaseous toxic substances
From harmful microorganisms
Ballistic protection
From radiation
From UV radiation
From blood-sucking ticks
Most of these properties are now imparted to textiles using nanofibers, nanomedicines and various other nanotechnology techniques.
Medical textiles and nanotechnology
Medical textiles are sometimes classified as technical textiles, which is not true. This is, of course, a non-technical textile. Medtextiles are the humanitarian, social use of textiles. In this area, nanotechnology has found application, surpassing (annual growth of 5%) all other types of textiles, and there are reasons for this that determine the extremely dynamic development of the production of medical textiles:
The world's population is growing, especially in developing countries. There are 6.5 billion people in the world, 1 billion 200 million people in China, 900 million people in India.
Changing demographic structure, increasing the proportion of the elderly population.
Improving the level and quality of life.
Increased risks associated with environmental degradation (increase in heart disease, cancer, AIDS, hepatitis), natural disasters, terrorist attacks, etc.
Most of the latest advances in the field of medical textiles are associated with nano-, bio- and information technologies, polymer chemistry and physics.
Medtextiles cover a very wide range of products and according to their purpose they can be classified as follows:
Dressing materials (traditional for wound protection, modern medicinal).
Implants (biodegradable and non-degradable new materials, tendons, ligaments, skin, contact lenses, cornea, bones, joints, blood vessels, heart valves). This does not mean that the textile forms the entire implant; it can be an integral part of it.
Devices that replace organs (artificial kidney, liver, lungs, etc.), where textiles and fibers are included in the design.
Protective clothing (surgical masks, caps, shoe covers, bed and underwear, blankets, curtains). All these materials are given antimicrobial, antiviral properties, and the surgeon's clothing is also water-repellent (retention of the patient's physiological fluids during surgery).
Sensory textiles and clothing for monitoring at a distance the main parameters of the patient’s body (this is also used to monitor the training of athletes, army personnel when performing tasks associated with extreme efforts). Miniature sensors incorporated into clothing textiles monitor the dynamics of changes in the electrocardiogram, respiratory functions, pulse, skin temperature, oxygen level in the blood and body position in space. All these indicators are recorded on special portable devices (the size of a mobile phone) and transmitted to the central server of the hospital and then to the attending physician, who makes a decision in the event of an emergency.
Cosmetic textiles
Cosmetic textiles are much less diverse in range compared to medical textiles. The main group, type of cosmetic textiles are textile-based cosmetic masks. They act as skin rejuvenators, delay skin aging, smooth out wrinkles, and in case of problem skin (rash, acne, pigmentation, etc.) masks have a therapeutic effect.
Cosmetic masks contain cosmetic preparations of various natures (plant extracts, vitamins, biologically active substances, medicines, silver nanoparticles).
There are different methods for introducing these drugs into masks: impregnation, using sizing and printing technology.
In any case, the task, as in the case of medicinal dressings, is to create a mask - a depot of cosmetics or medicines.
The domestic company Texal has developed the technology and produces textile-based cosmetic masks under the trade name Texal. The Koletex technology described above is taken as the basis; only special textile materials, polymer compositions and cosmetics and medications introduced into them were selected for the masks.
An interesting direction in the production of cosmetic and medical textiles is the use of special organic molecules - containers for cosmetics and medicines.
Cyclic dextrin derivatives - cyclodextrin - are used as such molecular containers (slide 70). Cyclodextrins of various structures (number of cycle members) have an internal hydrophobic cavity (5085 nm) and an external hydrophilic (many hydroxyls) surface. If drugs or cosmetics are placed in the cyclodextrin cavity, and the cyclodextrin itself is introduced into the textile material and fixed in it, then a drug depot or a cosmetic depot is formed.
Sports nanotextiles
Sports textiles today widely use nanotechnology techniques and methods:
Sportswear that creates comfort in the underwear space (humidity, temperature).
Diagnostic sensory clothing that monitors the state of the athlete’s body on-line.
Ultra-durable sports equipment of a new generation.
nanotechnology textile risk environmental
2. Potential risks associated with the development of nanotechnology
Currently, a large number of passive nanostructures (first generation) are used in cosmetics, paints and lubricants. Experts identify the following risk characteristics: toxicity, ecotoxicity, energy dependence, flammability, ability to accumulate in cells. Special risks of an “open” nature arise during the production, transportation and storage of waste. So, researchers pay attention to the following areas in which risks associated with passive nanostructures arise:
In the field of human health: - nanostructures can be toxic and harm some human organs, such as the liver and penetrate the brain through the nervous system; - some nanomaterials can interact with iron and other metals, which increases their toxicity; - currently there is not enough material to assess the danger of nanomaterials depending on the degree of their concentration in cells.
Environmental risks. Nanostructures can cause certain harm to the environment, taking into account that: - they can absorb other pollutants (pesticides, cadmium); - due to its small size, there are risks associated with difficulties in detecting harmful substances. - Risks to human health and the environment. The evolving debate between European and American experts over what role nanotechnology should play in human life raises new questions for policymakers: Do nanotechnologies make people better, or make them stronger? How to treat implants that control not only the behavior of the human body, but also its brain? How to relate to the upcoming (in connection with the use of products produced using nanotechnology) change in the quality of human life, and therefore a new understanding of the term “human security”.
Political and security risks: - use of relevant technologies for criminal and terrorist purposes; unfair and unequal distribution of risks associated with the development of nanotechnology between countries and regions (traditional North-South conflict). Experts are particularly concerned about the risks arising with the advent of the second and third generations of nanostructures. We are talking about the prospect of the emergence of active nanostructures and entire nanosystems.
Structural risks. The point is that modern society reacts very slowly to rapidly emerging new technologies and products produced using them. It is late in developing standards and procedures governing the use of such products. In the context of globalization, there is a high probability of uncontrolled access to military products produced using nanotechnology. The economic effect of the massive use of nanotechnology has been poorly studied. With the development of bio- and nanotechnologies, a new culture will be formed, and some traditional ethical norms and principles will radically change. Problems of identity, tolerant attitude towards “nano-bio”, other content of the concept of “private life”, etc.
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Course “Fundamentals of nanotechnology” / 02/26/2009
Source: Research Center for Nanotechnologies, Moscow State University
Lectures on the course “Fundamentals of Nanotechnology” will be held in the spring semester of 2009 on Tuesdays and Fridays from 17-00 in room 02 of the Main Building of Moscow State University.
The course of lectures “Fundamentals of Nanotechnology” is open to everyone. If you are not a student, graduate student or employee of Moscow State University, then you will be able to attend the lecture only by registering for it in advance.
Lecture materials “Fundamentals of nanotechnology” are laid out as lectures are read.
The selection and arrangement of materials is subject to the copyright of the lecturers, however, some of the illustrative material may be subject to other subjects of copyright.
Lecture 1 (PDF, 3.2Mb), Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor Yu.D. Tretyakov.
Lecture topic: basic concepts and definitions of nanosystem sciences and nanotechnologies. History of the emergence of nanotechnology and nanosystem sciences. Interdisciplinarity and multidisciplinarity.
Examples of nanoobjects and nanosystems, their features and technological applications. Objects and methods of nanotechnology. Principles and prospects for the development of nanotechnology.
Lecture 2 (PDF, 3.8Mb), Professor A.N. Samples.
Lecture topic: features of physical interactions at nanoscales. The role of volume and surface in the physical properties of nano-sized objects. Mechanics of nano-objects. Mechanical vibrations and resonances in nano-sized systems. Friction force. Coulomb interaction. Optics of nanoobjects. Relationship between the wavelength of light and the size of nanoparticles. Differences in light propagation in homogeneous and nanostructured media. Magnetism of nanoobjects.
Lecture 3 (PDF, 1.7Mb), Professor V.Yu. Tymoshenko.
Lecture topic: quantum mechanics of nanosystems. Quantum-size effects in nanoobjects. Quasiparticles in solids and nanostructured materials. Quantum dots. Whiskers, fibers, nanotubes, thin films and heterostructures. Quantum effects in nanostructures in a magnetic field. Electrical conductivity of nanoobjects. The concept of ballistic conductivity. Single-electron tunneling and Coulomb blockade. Optical properties of quantum dots. Spintronics of nanoobjects.
Lecture 4 (PDF, 4.7Mb), Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor E.A. Gudilin.
Lecture topic: methods for producing nanoparticles
Lecture 5 (PDF, 2.5Mb), Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor A.R. Khokhlov.
Lecture topic: nanotechnology and “soft” matter.
Course program
Basic concepts and definitions of nanosystem sciences and nanotechnologies. History of the emergence of nanotechnology and nanosystem sciences. Interdisciplinarity and multidisciplinarity. Examples of nanoobjects and nanosystems, their features and technological applications. Objects and methods of nanotechnology. Principles and prospects for the development of nanotechnology.
(Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor Yu.D. Tretyakov)
Features of physical interactions at nanoscales. The role of volume and surface in the physical properties of nano-sized objects. Mechanics of nanoobjects. Mechanical vibrations and resonances in nanoscale systems. Friction force. Coulomb interaction. Optics of nanoobjects. Relationship between the wavelength of light and the size of nanoparticles. Differences in light propagation in homogeneous and nanostructured media. Magnetism of nanoobjects.
(Professor A.N. Obraztsov)
Quantum mechanics of nanosystems. Quantum-size effects in nanoobjects. Quasiparticles in solids and nanostructured materials. Quantum dots. Whiskers, fibers, nanotubes, thin films and heterostructures. Quantum effects in nanostructures in a magnetic field. Electrical conductivity of nanoobjects. The concept of ballistic conductivity. Single-electron tunneling and Coulomb blockade. Optical properties of quantum dots. Spintronics of nanoobjects.
(Professor V.Yu. Timoshenko)
Basic principles of nanosystem formation. Physical and chemical methods. Processes for obtaining nanoobjects “from top to bottom”. Classical, “soft”, microsphere, ion beam (FIB), AFM - lithography and nanoindentation. Mechanical activation and mechanosynthesis of nanoobjects. Processes for obtaining nanoobjects “bottom-up”. Nucleation processes in gaseous and condensed media. Heterogeneous nucleation, epitaxy and heteroepitaxy. Spinodal decay. Synthesis of nanoobjects in amorphous (glassy) matrices. Methods of chemical homogenization (co-precipitation, sol-gel method, cryochemical technology, pyrolysis of aerosols, solvothermal treatment, supercritical drying). Classification of nanoparticles and nanoobjects. Techniques for obtaining and stabilizing nanoparticles. Aggregation and disaggregation of nanoparticles. Synthesis of nanomaterials in one and two-dimensional nanoreactors.
Statistical physics of nanosystems. Features of phase transitions in small systems. Types of intra- and intermolecular interactions. Hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity. Self-assembly and self-organization. Micelle formation. Self-assembled monolayers. Langmuir-Blodgett films. Supramolecular organization of molecules. Molecular recognition. Polymer macromolecules, methods for their preparation. Self-organization in polymer systems. Microphase separation of block copolymers. Dendrimers, polymer brushes. Layer-by-layer self-assembly of polyelectrolytes. Supramolecular polymers.
(Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor A.R. Khokhlov)
Computer modeling of nanostructures and nanosystems. Microscopic and mesoscopic modeling methods (Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics, dissipative particle dynamics, field theoretical methods, finite element methods and peridynamics). Coupling different spatial and temporal scales. Molecular engineering. Computer visualization of nanoobjects. Possibilities of numerical experiment. Examples of molecular modeling of nanostructures, molecular switches, proteins, biomembranes, ion channels, molecular machines.
(Professor P.G. Khalatur)
Research methods and diagnostics of nanoobjects and nanosystems. Electron scanning and transmission microscopy. Electron tomography. Electron spectroscopy. Diffraction research methods. Optical and nonlinear optical diagnostic methods. Features of confocal microscopy. Scanning probe microscopy: Force microscopy. Spectroscopy of atomic force interactions. Tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy. Optical microscopy and near-field polarimetry. Application of scanning probe microscopy in nanotechnology.
(Professor V.I. Panov)
Substance, phase, material. Hierarchical structure of materials. Nanomaterials and their classification. Inorganic and organic functional nanomaterials. Hybrid (organic-inorganic and inorganic-organic) materials. Biomineralization and bioceramics. Nanostructured 1D, 2D and 3D materials. Mesoporous materials. Molecular sieves. Nanocomposites and their synergistic properties. Structural nanomaterials.
(Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor E.A. Gudilin)
Capillarity and wetting in nanosystems. Surface energy and surface tension. Drops on solid and liquid surfaces. Complete and incomplete wetting. Surface (electrostatic and molecular) and capillary forces. Contact angle hysteresis: the role of chemical heterogeneity and roughness. Superhydrophobic surfaces. Fractal and ordered textures. Elastocapillarity. Dynamics of wetting and spreading. Problems of flow, mixing and separation in small channels and devices for micro- and nanofluidics. Digital microfluidics, electrokinetics, anisotropic and superhydrophobic textures as examples of solving micro- and nanofluidics problems. Applications: Self-cleaning and waterproofing, inkjet printing, lab-on-a-chip, DNA chips, biomedicine, fuel cells.
(Professor O.I. Vinogradova)
Lecture 10.
Catalysis and nanotechnology. Basic principles and concepts in heterogeneous catalysis. Influence of preparation and activation conditions on the formation of the active surface of heterogeneous catalysts. Structure-sensitive and structure-insensitive reactions. Specificity of thermodynamic and kinetic properties of nanoparticles. Electrocatalysis. Catalysis on zeolites and molecular sieves. Membrane catalysis.
(Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor V.V. Lunin)
Lecture 11.
Physics of nanodevices. Methods for creating nanodevices. Mechanical and electromechanical micro and nanodevices. Sensor elements of micro- and nano-system technology. Temperature sensors based on thermocouples. Angular velocity sensors. Magnetic field sensors. Micro and nano pumps. Integral micromirrors. Integral micromechanical keys. Integrated micro- and nano-motors. Physical principles of operation of the basic elements of micro- and nanoelectronics. Moore's Law. Single-electron devices. Single-electron transistor. Single-electron elements of digital circuits.
(Professor A.N. Obraztsov)
Lecture 12.
Physics of nanodevices. Optoelectronics and nanoelectronics devices. LEDs and lasers based on double heterostructures. Quantum well photodetectors. Avalanche photodiodes based on a quantum well system. Devices and devices of nanophotonics. Photonic crystals. Artificial opals. Fiber optics. Optical switches and filters. Prospects for the creation of photonic integrated circuits, storage and information processing devices. Magnetic nanodevices for recording and storing information. Nanosensors: semiconductor, piezoelectric, pyroelectric, surface acoustic waves, photoacoustic.
(Professor V.Yu. Timoshenko)
Lecture 13.
Molecular foundations of living systems. Concept of a living cell; structure and functions of organelles, the principle of self-organization of living things. Applicability of thermodynamic and kinetic approaches to processes occurring in living matter. Bacteria, eukaryotes, multicellular organisms. Nucleic acids: classification, structure, properties. Natural nanosystems in the storage, reproduction and implementation of cell genetic information. Cell division control systems at the organism level. Cancer is a failure of the cell's genetic program.
(Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor O.A. Dontsova)
Lecture 14.
Structure and functions of proteins. The functions performed by proteins, the variety of amino acids that make up the protein. Levels of protein organization, methods for studying various levels of organization of the protein molecule. Primary protein structure, post-translational modifications. Secondary and tertiary protein structures, problems with proper protein folding, diseases caused by improper protein folding. Creating artificial proteins with “improved” structure is an important nanotechnological task. Understanding quaternary structure and using quaternary structure to enhance regulatory capabilities and perform mechanical functions. Connective tissue proteins (collagen), mechanisms for regulating mechanical strength. Proteins that form the cytoskeleton (actin, tubulin, proteins of interstitial filaments), regulation of assembly and disassembly of cytoskeletal elements. Use of cytoskeletal proteins as “rails” for motor proteins. Myosins, kinesins and dyneins are examples of highly specialized nanomotor proteins that provide intracellular transport and biological motility. Possibility of using motor proteins to solve some nanotechnology problems.
(Professor N.B. Gusev)
Lecture 15.
Carbohydrates. Mono-, oligo- and polysaccharides. Features of the structure, methods of presentation. Possibility of using polysaccharides as nanobiomaterials. Lipids. Classification and structural features. Nanostructures formed by lipids. Monolayers, micelles, liposomes. Prospects for nanotechnology purposes. Biomembranes. Structural features and main functions.
(Professor A.K. Gladilin)
Lecture 16.
Enzymes are proteins with a special function of catalysis. Basic principles of enzyme structure and features of enzymatic catalysis. The active site of the enzyme is a self-assembled and highly organized functionalized nanoparticle and nanomachine. Vitamins and coenzymes, their participation in catalysis. Molecular design and modification of enzyme specificity - nanotechnological challenges and prospects. Size effects in the nanoscale in protein catalysis. Enzymes in membranes and membrane-like nanostructures: regulation of catalytic properties and oligomeric composition by matrix size. Biomolecular nanoparticles; an enzyme in a “jacket” (a shell of inorganic and organic molecules) is a new stable catalyst. Multienzyme complexes: implementation of the principle of “recognition” in nature and nano-sized matrices.
(Professor N.L. Klyachko)
Lecture 17.
Structural and functional aspects of bionanotechnology. A variety of supramolecular structures formed by biomolecules. The principle of self-assembly. The use of biostructures with unique geometries as templates for the production of nanomaterials and nanostructures (production of nanowires, nanotubes and nanorods from metals, conducting polymers, semiconductors, oxides and magnetic materials using DNA, viral particles and protein filaments). Generation of 2D nanopatterns and 3D superstructures using DNA, S-sheets, viral particles and liposomes. Artificial methods of self-organization in the nanoscale. Biofunctionalization of nanomaterials. General methods of conjugation of nanoobjects with biomolecules. Specific affinity of some biomolecules for nanoobjects.
(Professor I.N. Kurochkin)
Lecture 18.
Nanobioanalytical systems. History of the development of modern bioanalytical systems. Biosensors. Basic concepts, areas of application. “Recognizing” elements of biosensors: enzymes, nucleic acids, antibodies and receptors, cellular organelles, cells, organs and tissues. "Detecting elements" of biosensors. Physical basis of signal recording. Types of biosensors: electrochemical, semiconductor, microgravimetric, fiber optic, surface plasmons, diffraction gratings, interferometric, micro- and nanomechanical. Nanobioanalytical systems based on nanosized semiconductor and metal structures (quantum dots, molecular “springs”, giant nonlinear optical effects on the surface of metal nanoparticles - SERS, enzymatic and autometallography methods, etc.). Application for the purposes of environmental monitoring and biomedical research. Nanobioanalytical systems based on scanning probe microscopy.
(Professor I.N. Kurochkin)
Distance educational courses are a modern form of effective additional education and advanced training in the field of training specialists for the development of promising technologies for the production of functional materials and nanomaterials. This is one of the promising forms of modern education developing throughout the world. This form of acquiring knowledge is especially relevant in such an interdisciplinary field as nanomaterials and nanotechnology. The advantages of distance courses are their accessibility, flexibility in constructing educational routes, improved efficiency and efficiency of the process of interaction with students, cost-effectiveness compared to full-time courses, which, however, can be harmoniously combined with distance learning. In the field of fundamental principles of nanochemistry and nanomaterials, video materials have been prepared by the Moscow State University Scientific and Educational Center for Nanotechnologies:
- . Basic concepts and definitions of nanosystem sciences and nanotechnologies. History of the emergence of nanotechnology and nanosystem sciences. Interdisciplinarity and multidisciplinarity. Examples of nanoobjects and nanosystems, their features and technological applications. Objects and methods of nanotechnology. Principles and prospects for the development of nanotechnology.
- . Basic principles of nanosystem formation. Physical and chemical methods. Processes for obtaining nanoobjects “from top to bottom”. Classical, “soft”, microsphere, ion beam (FIB), AFM - lithography and nanoindentation. Mechanical activation and mechanosynthesis of nanoobjects. Processes for obtaining nanoobjects “bottom-up”. Nucleation processes in gaseous and condensed media. Heterogeneous nucleation, epitaxy and heteroepitaxy. Spinodal decay. Synthesis of nanoobjects in amorphous (glassy) matrices. Chemical homogenization methods (co-precipitation, sol-gel method, cryochemical technology, aerosol pyrolysis, solvothermal treatment, supercritical drying). Classification of nanoparticles and nanoobjects. Techniques for obtaining and stabilizing nanoparticles. Aggregation and disaggregation of nanoparticles. Synthesis of nanomaterials in one and two-dimensional nanoreactors.
- . Statistical physics of nanosystems. Features of phase transitions in small systems. Types of intra- and intermolecular interactions. Hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity. Self-assembly and self-organization. Micelle formation. Self-assembled monolayers. Langmuir-Blodgett films. Supramolecular organization of molecules. Molecular recognition. Polymer macromolecules, methods for their preparation. Self-organization in polymer systems. Microphase separation of block copolymers. Dendrimers, polymer brushes. Layer-by-layer self-assembly of polyelectrolytes. Supramolecular polymers.
- . Substance, phase, material. Hierarchical structure of materials. Nanomaterials and their classification. Inorganic and organic functional nanomaterials. Hybrid (organic-inorganic and inorganic-organic) materials. Biomineralization and bioceramics. Nanostructured 1D, 2D and 3D materials. Mesoporous materials. Molecular sieves. Nanocomposites and their synergistic properties. Structural nanomaterials.
- . Catalysis and nanotechnology. Basic principles and concepts in heterogeneous catalysis. Influence of preparation and activation conditions on the formation of the active surface of heterogeneous catalysts. Structure-sensitive and structure-insensitive reactions. Specificity of thermodynamic and kinetic properties of nanoparticles. Electrocatalysis. Catalysis on zeolites and molecular sieves. Membrane catalysis.
- . Polymers for structural materials and functional systems. "Smart" polymer systems capable of performing complex functions. Examples of “smart” systems (polymer fluids for oil production, smart windows, nanostructured membranes for fuel cells). Biopolymers as the most “smart” systems. Biomimetic approach. Sequence design to optimize the properties of smart polymers. Problems of molecular evolution of sequences in biopolymers.
- . The current state and problems of creating new materials for chemical power sources: solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and lithium batteries are considered. Key structural factors are analyzed that influence the properties of various inorganic compounds, which determine the possibility of their use as electrode materials: complex perovskites in SOFCs and transition metal compounds (complex oxides and phosphates) in lithium batteries. The main anode and cathode materials used in lithium batteries and recognized as promising are considered: their advantages and limitations, as well as the possibility of overcoming limitations by directed changes in the atomic structure and microstructure of composite materials through nanostructuring in order to improve the characteristics of current sources.
Selected issues are discussed in the following book chapters (Binom Publishing):
Illustrative materials on nanochemistry, self-assembly and nanostructured surfaces:
Scientifically popular "video books":
Selected chapters of nanochemistry and functional nanomaterials.
Nanotechnology, by its specificity, is an interdisciplinary scientific field of applied technology, engaged in the study and creation of innovative and innovative methods for producing new materials with certain properties, which are subsequently used in a wide variety of sectors of modern human life.
In general, nanotechnology works with structures that have values of 100 nm or even less, and at the same time uses devices, as well as materials, having the above dimensions. Today, nanotechnology is extremely diverse and is used in a wide variety of research, ranging from the creation of new technical devices to the latest research related to the study of the molecular-atomic level.
Fundamentals of nanotechnology.
Atomic force microscopy method.
It should be said that one of the main tools that are used to work with microparticles are microscopes, because without this device it is not possible not only to work with microparticles, but also to study the microworld. The increase in the resolving features of modern microscopes and the acquisition of more and more new knowledge about elementary particles today are interconnected. At the moment, with the help of equipment such as atomic force microscopes or AFM and scanning electron microscopes, modern scientists are able to not only observe individual atoms, but even find ways to influence them, for example, by sweeping atoms across a surface. At the same time, modern scientists have already managed to create so-called two-dimensional nanostructures on surfaces using the above method of influence. For example, in the research centers of the well-known company IBM, by sequentially mixing xenon atoms on the surface of nickel nanocrystals, scientists were able to create a company logo consisting of 35 atoms of the substance.
While carrying out these actions related to mixing substances, as well as separating and combining them, scientists encountered some technical difficulties. To overcome which it is necessary to create conditions of a supersonic vacuum (10–11 torr), for this it is necessary to cool the stand and the microscope to an ultra-low temperature of 4 to 10 K, while the surface of this substrate must be smooth and clean at the atomic level. For this purpose, specialized technologies for mechanical and chemical processing of products are used, and the purpose of this processing is to reduce the surface diffusion of deposited atoms, with the help of which the base is cooled.
Nanoparticles.
The main distinguishing feature of new materials that are obtained during use nanotechnology, is the unpredictable obtaining of physical and technical characteristics acquired by these materials. Thanks to this, modern scientists have the opportunity to obtain new quantum physical and mechanical characteristics of substances in which the electronic structures are modified, which automatically changes the form of manifestation of these compounds. For example, the ability to reduce particle size is not in all cases amenable to determination or measurement using macro or micro measurements. However, measurements may be possible if the particle size is in the millimicron range. It should also be noted that certain physical and mechanical properties change if the size of the elements changes. At the moment, the presence of unusual mechanical properties in nanomaterials is the subject of research by scientists working in the field of nanomechanics. At the same time, a special place in modern nanotechnologies is occupied by the production of new substances using various catalysts that affect the behavior of nanomaterials when they interact with various biomaterials.
As we said earlier, particles with sizes from 1 to 100 nanometers are called nanoparticles, and research has shown that nanoparticles of many materials have high absorption and catalytic properties. Other materials provide unique optical properties. For example, researchers managed to obtain transparent ceramic materials based on nanopowders 2-28 nm in size, which have better properties than, for example, crowns. Scientists were also able to obtain the interaction of artificially produced nanoparticles with natural objects of nanosize, for example, with proteins, nucleic acids, etc. In addition, purified nanoparticles, due to their unique properties, have the ability to be integrated into various structures. Such structures containing nanoparticles acquire properties and characteristics previously unknown to them.
Today, all nanoobjects are divided into three classes:
The first class includes three-dimensional particles that are obtained by exploding conductors, by plasma synthesis, or by reducing thin films.
The second class includes the so-called two-dimensional objects, which are films and are obtained using molecular deposition, ALD, CVD and ion deposition methods.
The third class includes whiskers or one-dimensional objects obtained by molecular layering methods or by introducing various substances into a cylindrical microport.
In addition, there are also nanocomposites, which are obtained by introducing nanoparticles into specialized matrices. To date, only the microlithography method has been widely used, which makes it possible to obtain island flat objects with a size of 50 nm or more on the surface of the matrix and are used in modern electronics. It is also necessary to note the methods of molecular and ionic layering, since using these methods it is possible to obtain real film coatings in the form of a monolayer.
Self-organization of nanoparticles.
One of the biggest challenges facing nanotechnology is how to force atoms and molecules to group together in specific ways, allowing them to self-repair and self-evolve, ultimately leading to new materials or devices. These problems are solved by chemists working in the field of supramolecular chemistry. At the same time, they study not individual molecules, but the interaction between them, as well as how they are organized under a particular influence and whether they have the ability to form new substances. Many scientists believe that nature truly possesses such systems and such processes occur in it. For example, biopolymers are already known that can be organized into special structures. Also, similar examples are given of proteins that, due to their properties, can not only fold and obtain a globular shape, but also form entire complexes and structures that contain several protein molecules at once. Already today, scientists have been able to create a synthesis method that uses the specific properties that DNA molecules have.