MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Moscow State University
Abstract on the topic:
Observation as a method of sociological research
Subject: Sociology
Moscow, 2008
The essence of observation as a method of sociological research
The main problem of sociological observation is to ensure the greatest possible objectivity of information about an object. The main task of the observer is to consistently and sincerely adhere to the criteria and principles of scientific observation, and not to replace them with emotions.
In this regard, correct conduct of sociological observation implies adherence to two fundamental principles: complementarity and parallel observations. The first assumes that the object of observation, under the influence of the observer (in his presence), corrects his behavior, and this must be taken into account in the final interpretation of the research results. The second requires the organization of several simultaneous observations with subsequent coordination and analysis of the results.
Observation as a method of sociological research has a number of obvious advantages. Even before developing a research program, a specialist must feel the specifics of the object, become familiar with the local practice of distributing authority, values, social roles, understand the features of the environment, etc.
At the same time, observation is an ordinary and far from the only method of sociological research, which is due to the limitations of the method itself.
Let us also note that not all social phenomena are amenable to direct observation. For example, it is very difficult to identify non-objectified production relationships, dependencies, and relationships through observation. Other methods are also needed for studying: content analysis, survey, etc. In addition, observation is possible only at the time of the event.
It is also necessary to take into account the peculiar “halo effect” in observation. Observation itself changes the situation being studied. For example, the presence of an observer quite often leads to the acceptance of atypical traits in the behavior of employees striving for some ideal stereotype for fear of “letting down” the manager. This also confirms the need to complement observation with other methods.
Types of surveillance
The success of observation as a sociological method is largely determined by the type of observation. There are the following types (types) of observation: structured, unstructured, included, external, field, laboratory, systematic, random.
Let us explain their specifics.
Unstructured observation (sometimes called unsupervised) usually does not have a clear plan. During such observation, the elements of the object being studied are not determined, the problem of units of measurement and their quality is rarely raised, and the proportion of redundant information is high. Reliance rests mainly on the intuition of the observer, whose goal is to obtain primary information about the object.
Uncontrolled observation is often used in sociological research. It is typical for cases when the sociologist is not clear about the general situation, indicators have not been defined, and research documents have not been developed.
Structured(controlled) observation involves:
Development of a system of documents and indicators characterizing the elements of the object selected for observation;
Availability of a developed plan;
Analysis of observers' attitudes regarding the nature and structure of the object being studied.
Controlled observation serves as the main method of collecting primary information or complements other methods of sociological research. With its help, the main hypotheses are tested, as well as data obtained using other methods.
Not included observation (sometimes called external) is carried out by a researcher who is outside the object and tries to minimize his interference in the course of events. Such observation practically comes down to recording events.
At included During observation, the sociologist participates in the processes being studied, interacts with workers, and may even intervene in events. It is desirable, of course, that he fully master a specific social role in the team and be spontaneously recognized as its member. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the dialectic of adaptation of one’s observer in the work collective. The first phase of such adaptation is almost inevitable, when one is treated with caution. It requires great tact from the observer, the ability to choose and master a secondary social role, and avoid the role of a leader or micro-leader, since this too changes the nature of the relationships and relationships typical for a given team.
Differences field And laboratory studies are associated with differences in observation conditions. Field research is carried out in a natural environment for a given object (in a village, city, etc.) Laboratory research is artificially organized by a sociologist who creates an experimental situation and models its external conditions.
Finally, systematic And random observations vary in frequency and specific purpose of research. The former make it possible to identify precisely the dynamics of the processes being studied.
The disadvantage of the method of systematic observation is the difficulty of operationalizing and comparing data for different periods, since there is a risk of drawing a sociological conclusion based on data of different orders.
Scheme 1.3.1.
Types of observations
Observation stages
To enhance the effectiveness of observation, it is important not only to choose the type of observation (or combination of types), but also to draw up a research plan that reflects initial ideas about the characteristics of the object being studied and the facts that need to be collected. The plan reflects the deadlines and determines the means of collecting information. The scale of observation and the breadth of coverage of phenomena depends on the amount of funding, the use of technical means, personnel of observers and data processors.
The main stages of observation are: establishing the object and subject of observation; defining its goals and objectives; obtaining appropriate decisions, establishing contacts; choosing the method and type of observation, determining the basic procedures; preparation of technical means and documents; collection of information (direct observation), accumulation of information; recording the results (brief recording, filling out data registration cards, observation protocol, diary, technical record); control of observation by other sociological data; observation report.
The quality of observation also depends on the time of recording the results. If a recording is made later than the observation process itself, then inaccuracies arise, some facts are lost or distorted, although the recording itself becomes more orderly and strict. The optimal option seems to be a quick initial recording in a formalized document with predetermined quantitative indicators, followed by processing according to the accepted methodology using computer calculation.
There are quite strict requirements for the professional training of observers. For example, during participant observation, the researcher must be not only an intelligent and knowledgeable sociologist, but also simply a tactful, attentive, sociable person with high intellectual speed and adaptive plasticity and culture. The ability to control one’s behavior, objectively assessing its advantages and disadvantages, to coordinate the entire range of interests of the work collective with the interests of the sociological group - all these are obvious requirements for the personal qualities of the worker performing participant observation.
Observer training includes the development of special knowledge, skills and abilities. The observer must know the theory of sociology, social psychology, special sociology that is used in a particular study, methods and tactics of observation, materials and documents regulating the activities of the object being studied.
To develop the skills of an observer, it is advisable to organize a series of practical classes (observations) in field or laboratory conditions. This will allow us to discover a typology of possible or typical errors for an observer, develop useful behavioral stereotypes of observation, document preparation skills, etc. Classes should be conducted under the guidance of experienced sociologists. Their main task is the selection of personnel, since not everyone can become a qualified observer. There are natural “contraindications”, for example, for people who are too absent-minded.
However, any qualification of the observer does not negate the need to develop instructions for conducting research. They should indicate:
Sequence of stages and procedures of observation;
Criteria for assessing the actions of those observed;
Method of recording information;
The instructions contain a task for the observer, on the basis of which a trial study is carried out, followed by a discussion of the discovered errors. It is reviewed by an experienced sociologist, who determines the degree of readiness of the observer and his ability to work with instructions. There are options for changing candidates or changing instructions in accordance with the candidate’s proposals. A trial study provides a unique opportunity to take into account the most characteristic errors, inaccuracies, and exaggerations for a particular observation, and to draw up a unique individual map of the observer. In the future, it is possible to select observers from the card index.
Scheme 1.3.2
Observation method (information is obtained by the researcher through direct communication with the object)
|
Peculiarities |
Advantages |
Flaws |
|
Simultaneity of an event and its observation |
Perception of human behavior in real-world settings. Timeliness of information |
Locality, the private nature of the observed situation, the impossibility of its repetition |
|
Data about the object was obtained “from the outside.” Holistic perception of the situation |
Objectivity, specificity of data. The unity of the emotional and rational in the perception of the situation. Expanding the ability of intuition to understand and explain phenomena |
Limitation of obtaining data on goals and motives of behavior. Difficulty identifying signs of the situation |
|
Dependence of data on observer settings |
The validity of the position in the perception of facts. Using the observer's experience in identifying problem situations. Flexibility of research facilities |
Subjectivity, distortion, errors in recording signs (emotional state, low qualifications, incorrect methodological settings of the observer) |
|
The influence of the observer on the object |
Approaching the object to the experimental situation. The object is “configured” to identify problems, analyze them, and demonstrate capabilities |
Generalization possibilities are limited by distortion of the natural state of the object |
|
The influence of the object on the observer, his perception of the situation |
Accurate understanding of the meaning of actions and people’s behavior through identification with the values and goals of the group |
Distortion in perception due to “infection” with group stereotypes in the observed object. Passivity of a method bound to the state of an object |
Scheme 1.3.3.
Types of observations
|
Observer position |
Level of standardization of procedures |
Situation requirements |
Time regulations |
Use of technical means |
Social level of the object |
|
Does not interact with group members |
Programmed - with registration of signs in special cards |
Laboratory - with for- given parameters of the observed situation |
Systematic - with a given regularity registration of signs |
Audio-visual - cinema, photo, TV, radio |
Communities, groups (regional, ethical, functional) |
|
“Private trader” – partially enters into communication |
Partially standardized - using protocols or diaries |
Laboratory-field - with individual limitations of the observed situation |
Episodic - with unspecified registration frequency |
Recorders, multipliers |
Collectives, institutional groups |
|
Fully involved in group activities |
Out of control - with diary entry |
Field - natural observation |
Random - fixation not provided for by the program |
Computers |
Small, non-institutional groups |
|
Incognito turns on |
Without the use of technical means - manual processing |
Personality |
|||
|
“Self-observer” – registers the facts of his actions, states |
Observer training stages
Familiarization with the content of the observation program, with instructions, tools, and technical means.
Analysis, commenting on units, observation categories, their criteria in accordance with the observation program, explanation of conventions and code designations.
Trial observation, observation rehearsal in a laboratory or in the field, correction of observers’ actions.
Work order. Issuing instructions, tools, tasks for conducting observations.
Control selective monitoring of observers' work.
Characteristic task performance, assessing the reliability of the observer's data.
Qualities, knowledge, skills of an observer
General theoretical training- knowledge of sociology, social psychology.
Site specific knowledge. Awareness of the goals, content, nature of the activity of the observed object. Knowledge of its structure and main problems. (Achieved through familiarity with the literature, in conversation with industry experts, during special instruction.)
Specific, accurate knowledge of tasks observations (worked out during instruction, self-test exercises, tests).
Focus on the selected object parameters, RAM.
Analyticity thinking, the ability to identify individual features in the process of perceiving an object.
Ability to distribute attention to simultaneous changes in the situation. Ability to respond to multiple signals. (It is possible to respond to five to seven parameters of the observed situation.)
Noise immunity. Physical endurance. Emotional stability. The ability to maintain composure in the face of sudden changes in the situation, not to interfere in the observed situation. Role orientation towards a temperament close to the phlegmatic type. Patience and persistence in maintaining an observer position.
Punctuality. Accurate adherence to assigned tasks, timely registration of data, accuracy in filling out methodological documents.
Self-control. Critical assessment of one's actions, the ability to correct and reorganize actions.
Sociability(for participant observation). The ability to get into contact with strangers, maintain communication (but at the same time not arouse interest in oneself from those being observed).
Tact and moral responsibility. An observer must not harm those whom he observes. In accordance with professional ethics, he must use the information received only for scientific purposes and not disclose it.
Technical literacy when using technical surveillance equipment.
Typical mistakes when applying the observation method in sociological research
Observation begins without a specially prepared program and is carried out randomly.
The identified observation signs are not related to the problem situation and the research hypothesis.
The recorded signs of observation in the observation card did not include frequently repeated and quite significant properties of the observed situation.
There were no restrictions on observation conditions, and observers encountered fundamentally different situations during the study.
Only evaluative or only descriptive observation categories were introduced.
There is ambiguity in the terminological designation of observation categories; different classes of signs fall into the same observation category.
Methodological documents have not been prepared and tested, and during data collection difficulties arose in registering signs.
Persons who have not undergone special training were selected as observers. The observers were not briefed and the observation procedure was not rehearsed with them.
The coding of the observation card features does not correspond to the data processing program.
Audiovisual surveillance means are not adjusted to the surveillance procedure.
Observation is a purposeful perception of any pedagogical phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material. At the same time, records (protocols) of observations are kept. Observation is usually carried out according to a pre-planned plan, highlighting specific objects of observation. This method involves purposeful, planned and systematic perception and recording of manifestations of psychological and pedagogical phenomena and processes.
Features of observation as a scientific method are:
focus on a clear, specific goal;
planfulness and systematicity;
objectivity in the perception of what is being studied and its recording;
preservation of the natural course of psychological and pedagogical processes.
Observation is a very accessible method, but it has its drawbacks due to the fact that the results of observation are influenced by the personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) of the researcher.
Observation stages:
determination of tasks and goals (why, for what purpose is the observation being carried out);
choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);
choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe);
choosing methods for recording what is observed (how to keep records);
processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).
Question No. 19 Subject of pedagogical observation and types of observations. Surveillance tools.
Observation can be:
purposeful and random;
continuous and selective;
direct and indirect;
long-term and short-term;
open and hidden (“incognito”);
ascertaining and evaluating;
uncontrolled and controlled (registration of observed events according to a previously worked out procedure);
causal and experimental;
field (observation in natural conditions) and laboratory (in an experimental situation).
A distinction is made between included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group in which the observation is being conducted, and non-involved observation - “from the outside”; open and hidden (incognito); continuous and selective.
Observation as a research method requires the researcher to follow the following rules:
clearly define the objectives of observation;
draw up an observation program depending on the purpose;
record observation data in detail;
Observation is a complex process: you can look, but not see; or look together and see different things; look at what many have seen and see, but, unlike them, see something new, etc. In psychology and pedagogy, observation turns into a real art: the timbre of the voice, eye movement, dilation or contraction of the pupils, subtle changes in communication with others and other reactions of the individual and the team can serve as the basis for psychological and pedagogical conclusions.
The means of observation are different: observation schemes, its duration, recording techniques, data collection methods, observation protocols, category systems and scales. All these tools increase the accuracy of observation, the ability to register and control its results. Serious attention should be paid to the form of the protocol, which depends on the subject, objectives and hypothesis of the study that determine the observation criterion.
Like any method, observation has its own strengths and weaknesses. Strengths include the ability to study the subject in its integrity, natural functioning, living multifaceted connections and manifestations. At the same time, this method does not allow one to actively intervene in the process being studied, change it, or deliberately create certain situations or make accurate measurements. Consequently, the observation results must necessarily be supported by data obtained using other methods of psychological and pedagogical research.
The observation program must accurately determine the sequence of work, highlight the most important objects of observation, and methods for recording results (protocol records, observation diaries, etc.).
Introduction.
I. Observation is a method of collecting scientific information.
II. Varieties of observation method.
III. Classification of types of observation.
Conclusion.
Bibliography
Introduction.
Observation is an old method of social psychology and is sometimes contrasted with experiment as an imperfect method. At the same time, far from all the possibilities of the observation method have been exhausted in social psychology today: in the case of obtaining data on open behavior and the actions of individuals, the observation method plays a very important role. The main problem that arises when applying the observation method is how to ensure that certain classes of characteristics are recorded so that the reading of the observation protocol is clear to another researcher and can be interpreted in terms of a hypothesis. In ordinary language this question can be formulated as follows: what to observe? How to record what is observed?
In order to answer a number of these questions, it is necessary to become more familiar with what sociological observation is.
The essay on the topic “Observation as a method of social and psychological research” talks about what constitutes one of the methods of collecting scientific information - observation.
This work consists of an introduction, main part, conclusion and bibliography.
The introduction justifies the choice of topic for the abstract.
The main part includes 3 questions. In the first, the concept of observation, its advantages and disadvantages is revealed in detail. The second question talks about the main areas of application of sociological observation. The third question shows the classification of types of observation.
In conclusion, the importance of the observation method is drawn.
1. Observation is a method of collecting scientific information.
Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and effectively this field of knowledge is able to absorb and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences. Where this can be done, there is usually a noticeable breakthrough in knowledge of the world.
All of the above applies to social psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and unique that throughout the history of this science, its successes have directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, it integrated methods from a variety of sciences. These are methods of mathematics, general psychology, and a number of other sciences.
Along with the mathematization and technicalization of research in social psychology, traditional methods of collecting scientific information, such as observation and questioning, have not lost their importance.
In my essay on the topic “”, one of the traditional methods of collecting scientific information is considered and disclosed - observation.
If data about the process under study, about the activities of individuals, groups, and the collective as a whole must be “cleaned” as much as possible from the rational, emotional and other properties of respondents, then they resort to a method of collecting information such as observation.
Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - everyday observations - is used by every person in everyday practice. By registering the facts of the surrounding social reality and his behavior, a person tries to find out the reasons for certain actions and actions. Everyday observations differ from scientific observations primarily in that they are random, unorganized and unplanned.
Since sociological observation is associated with direct, immediate perception of events or participation in them, it has much in common with how a person in everyday life perceives what is happening, analyzes and explains people’s behavior, connects it with the characteristics of operating conditions, remembers and generalizes events witnessed by he becomes. But there are also big differences. Sociological observation as a method of collecting scientific information is always directed, systematic, direct tracking and recording of significant social phenomena, processes, and events. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subject to control and verification.
The observation method was used even at the stage of formation of Marxist sociology. F. Engels studied the English proletariat, its aspirations, sufferings, and joys directly from personal observations and in personal communication for 21 months.
Interesting experience in using the observation method and analyzing its results was accumulated in Russian literature in the 40s of the 19th century. In the social fiction of this period, the civic feelings and mindsets of the intelligentsia close to the people, the search for an artistic reflection of the life of various social groups, and features of a scientific, sociological vision of social development are closely intertwined. Writers close to V.G. Belinsky and N.A. Nekrasov, not only gave accurate sketches of the life, actions, elements of consciousness of representatives of many social and professional communities, but also created typological images, generalized sociological and artistic types of people of his time. The general humanistic pathos of their works, as well as the method they used to collect and comprehend the facts of social life, largely predetermined both the character of later progressive Russian literature and the specifics of the formation of Russian sociology.
Observation is the simplest and most common of all objective methods in psychology. Scientific observation is directly in contact with ordinary everyday observation. It is therefore necessary first of all to establish the general basic conditions that observation must satisfy in general in order to be a scientific method.
The first requirement is the presence of a clear goal setting: a clearly realized goal must guide the observer. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be determined, recorded in the diagram. Planned and systematic observation constitutes its most essential feature as a scientific method. They must eliminate the element of chance inherent in everyday observation. Thus, the objectivity of observation depends primarily on its planning and systematicity. And, if observation comes from a clearly realized goal, then it must acquire a selective character. It is absolutely impossible to observe everything in general due to the limitless diversity of what exists. Any observation is therefore selective, or selective, partial.
Observation becomes a method of scientific knowledge only insofar as it is not limited to simply recording facts, but moves on to the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them against new observations. Objective observation is truly scientifically fruitful when it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses. The separation of subjective interpretation from the objective and the exclusion of the subjective is carried out in the process of observation itself, combined with the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
Qualification of events: units and categories of observation.
Unlike everyday scientific observation, scientific observation is mediated by research goals that determine the subject of observation and the area of facts that are included in the reality being studied. It is also mediated by theoretical ideas about the reality being studied and put forward cognitive hypotheses. Observation as a method of collecting data is characterized by an essential feature: the researcher’s theoretical ideas are included not only in the explanations of what is observed, but also in the process of observation itself, in the very description of what is observed. In everyday life, we reflect the world around us in a system of meanings fixed in language. In socio-psychological observation, the subject of observation uses specially designated categories and units that act as a means of qualitatively describing the reality he observes.
Observation of the integral flow of activity of a subject and its description are possible only by artificially isolating in it certain “units” of activity, which are assigned certain names. Isolating these “units” allows you to: a) limit the observation process to a certain framework: in what properties, manifestations and relationships the reality being studied is perceived by the observer; b) choose a specific language for describing what is being observed, as well as a method for recording observation data, i.e. the observer's method of reporting a perceived phenomenon; c) systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical “look” at the phenomenon being studied.
Qualitative description constitutes the first stage of reflecting the results of observation, which occurs as a process of qualification of observed events. An observed phenomenon becomes an empirical fact only after it is described by the observer. All the diverse approaches to describing phenomena can be reduced to two main types. The first is a description of the object in the dictionary of “natural” language. In everyday life, we use ordinary (“everyday”) concepts to describe what we perceive. So, we say: “the person smiled,” and not “the person stretched and raised the corners of his lips, slightly squinting his eyes.” And scientific observation can also be based on the use of such units, if, in accordance with the objectives of the study, their repertoire is clearly defined as a set of possible concepts in which the properties of the observed phenomenon are recorded.
The second approach to description is the development of systems of conventional names, designations, artificially created signs, and codes. The identification of observation units can be based on theoretical ideas about the observed phenomenon. In this case, the means of observation are categories - such units of description that receive their conceptual meaning only in a certain system of theoretical views of the researcher. Thus, one can say about the same phenomenon in different ways depending on knowledge of the context: “a person is running” or “a person is running away.” In the latter case, interpretation is included in the description of external motor activity, but it is associated only with the inclusion of the context of the situation (you can run away from someone, etc.). Another example: “the child is frozen in place with a frightened face” or “the child demonstrates a defensive reaction in the form of freezing.” The second expression includes concepts (passive-defensive reaction), which already in the description provide an interpretation of the child’s state from the point of view of a certain typology of his reactions. If in the first case the result of observation is described in units, then in the second case - in a system of categories.
Conventional notations, for example graphic ones, can refer to both a repertoire of units and a system of categories. That is, it is not the type of designation, but the content of the concepts used in their relation to the theory that makes it possible to distinguish between units and categories.
Categorized observation comes down not only to the isolation by perception of certain units, but also necessarily includes the stage of meaningful categorization of these units, i.e. generalizations in the process of observation itself. Sometimes a category covers the same behavioral act as a unit, i.e. they can be compared in terms of the degree of dissection of the phenomenon being studied and differ only in the degree of its interpretation. More often, categories subordinate a number of units.
Quantitative assessments of observational data.
There are two main ways to obtain quantitative data during observation: 1) psychological scaling, used mainly in the form of scores; 2) measurement of time, or timing. Timing is the basis for the use of the so-called time interval technique.
Its second type is the method of time sampling, when from the entire observed process, to record data, certain specific periods of time are selected, which are considered representative - representative - for a longer period of observation. In actual research, qualitative and quantitative observer descriptions of events are usually used in combination.
Quantitative assessments can be recorded directly during the observation, or they can be issued after the completion of the observations, including in the so-called retrospective report. Retrospective assessments are based on the observer's general impressions, which during long-term observation may, for example, include the frequency of certain observed episodes. Quantitative characteristics can be directly incorporated into observers' value judgments. For example: “he often doesn’t go to school”, “he always loses his things”, etc.
Along with such an evaluative description of events, observation based on direct impressions may include scoring of these impressions. A. Anastasi gives an example of scales designed to identify students’ opinions about teachers teaching a psychology course (4. Vol. 2. P. 232). In them, a certain score is assigned to different forms of events in the system of interpersonal relations - relationships with students, for example:
“this professor is never at his workplace” - 2, “the professor will stay and talk with students until the next lecture or seminar starts” - 6, etc.
Retrospective assessments of this type reflect long-term uncontrolled observations in everyday life, and, as some studies show, they can act as the only or one of the main criteria for the adequacy of some psychological tests or assessments of an individual.
Methods of psychological scaling in the process of observation are still rarely used.
An example of the use of the time interval technique is provided by studies of human behavior during the working day. For this purpose, observation is carried out not all day, but for several minutes at a time with long intervals between selected observation periods.
Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method.
The most important advantage of the observation method is that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of the phenomena and processes being studied. It becomes possible to directly perceive people’s behavior in specific conditions and in real time. A carefully prepared observation procedure ensures that all significant elements of the situation are recorded. This creates the prerequisites for its objective study.
Observation allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. It does not depend on the desire of the observed to speak out or comment on the situation.
Objective observation, while retaining its importance, for the most part must be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the observation procedure:
a) defining the task and purpose (for what? for what purpose?);
b) choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);
c) choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?);
d) choice of methods for recording what is observed (how to keep records?);
e) processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?).
The disadvantages of the observation method are divided into two groups: objective - these are those disadvantages that do not depend on the observer and subjective - these are those that directly depend on the observer, since they are associated with the personal and professional characteristics of the observer.
Objective disadvantages primarily include:
The limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation. Therefore, no matter how comprehensive and deep the analysis may be, the conclusions obtained can be generalized and extended to wider situations only with the greatest caution and subject to many requirements.
The difficulty, and often simply impossibility, of repeating observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be “replayed” again so that the researcher can record the necessary features and elements of an event that has already taken place.
High labor intensity of the method. Observation often involves the participation of a large number of fairly highly qualified people in the collection of primary information.
The subjective difficulties are also varied. The quality of primary information may be influenced by:
The difference in the social status of the observer and the observed,
The dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc. For example, addressing each other as “you” in a team of workers often becomes the norm for all its members. But a sociologist-observer, whose inner circle is characterized by a different form of communication, can evaluate this as an example of a disrespectful, familiar attitude of young workers towards older ones. The proximity of the social status of the observer and the observed can sometimes eliminate such errors. It contributes to a more complete and rapid coverage of the observed situation and its correct assessment.
The quality of information is also affected by the attitudes of the observed and the observer. If the observed know that they are the object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adapting to what, in their opinion, the observer would like to see. In turn, the observer’s having a certain expectation regarding the behavior of those being observed can form a specific point of view on what is happening. This expectation may be the result of prior contact between the observer and the observed. The observer's previously formed favorable impressions are transferred to the picture he observes and can cause an unjustified positive assessment of the events being analyzed. Conversely, negative expectations (skepticism, prejudice) can lead to an exaggerated negative vision of the activities of the observed community of people and increased rigidity in assessing what is happening.
The results of observation directly depend on the observer’s mood, his concentration, his ability to holistically perceive the observed situation, not only to notice relatively clear external signs of activity, but also to record subtle features of the behavior of the observed. When recording the results of observation, the observer’s own thoughts and experiences may not allow him to describe the observed events adequately enough. This description can occur by analogy with one’s own thoughts and feelings.
So, observation is the oldest method of knowledge. It allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. The main advantage is the study of social processes in natural conditions. The main disadvantages are the limitations, the private nature of each observed situation, the impossibility of repeating observations, attitudes, interests, and personal characteristics of the observer. All these shortcomings can greatly affect the results of observation.
II. Areas of application of sociological observation.
The observation method is used to study the behavior of individuals and groups in work and socio-political life, in the sphere of leisure, and to study the most diverse forms of communication between people. When analyzing production activities, the object of observation can be how members of the work collective react to changes in conditions, nature, content of work, to innovations regarding technology, pay, production standards, etc. Situations that are significant for participants in the labor process should be observed in which The most acute, and sometimes in a conflicting form, is the attitude towards work and towards each other.
It is also no less relevant to use the method in question in studying the practice of holding various meetings, rallies, and demonstrations. By observing the behavior of rally organizers, speakers, participants, seeing their actions, feeling the whole atmosphere of such actions, it is easier for a social psychologist to grasp the essence of what is happening, to see how a collective decision is developed, how relationships develop in the team.
Observation as a method of collecting sociological information is used in various circumstances:
Firstly, in order to obtain preliminary material to clarify the directions of the planned research. Observation carried out for such purposes expands the vision of the phenomenon being studied, helps to identify significant situations, and determines the “actors”. Moreover, unbiased, professionally carried out observation is fruitful because it opens up previously unknown layers, “slices” of social reality for the researcher, giving him the opportunity to move away from the traditional understanding of the social problem facing him.
Secondly, the observation method is used when it is necessary to obtain illustrative data. They, as a rule, significantly “revive” and make visible a somewhat dry analysis of statistics or the results of a mass survey.
Thirdly, observation acts as the main method of obtaining primary information. If the researcher has this goal, then he needs to correlate the positive and negative aspects of the method.
Thus, observation is used when minimal interference in natural behavior and relationships between people is required, when they strive to obtain a holistic picture of what is happening.
If the researcher sets the task not only to give a scientific description of specific events of certain forms of people’s behavior in situations that are significant to them, but also to reach broader generalizations and assumptions, the observation results must be supported by data obtained using other methods of collecting sociological information. The results obtained using various methods complement and mutually revise each other, and it is very difficult to unambiguously declare any of them “reference”.
III. CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF OBSERVATION.
The choice of possible criteria for classifying types of observation reflects, in essence, the entire range of problems and positions associated with the definition of observation as an independent scientific method. These are problems of connecting it with the theory and stage of research, problems of taking into account the “position” of the researcher, i.e. type of relationship to the object being studied, organization of the observation situation, its chronological aspects, form of report on the observed event.
1. Observation and objectives of the study.
Depending on the content of the research objectives, they are divided into free observation (sometimes called unregulated and even untargeted), if there are minimal restrictions on what and when to observe, and targeted observation, if the scheme or plan clearly defines the goals, organization of observation and methods of the observer’s report. Purposeful observation based on the characteristics of its organization can be continuous or selective, depending on whether all manifestations of the process of interest to the researcher, whether all objects or only some are subject to observation.
2.Observation and types of observer report.
Unstructured observation is weakly formalized. When conducting it, there is no detailed action plan for the observer; only the most general features of the situation and the approximate composition of the observed group are determined. Directly in the process of observation, the boundaries of the object of observation and its most important elements are clarified, and the research program is specified. Unstructured observation is found mainly in reconnaissance and search sociological research.
If the researcher has sufficient information about the object of study and is able to determine in advance the significant elements of the situation under study, as well as draw up a detailed plan and instructions for recording the results of observations, the possibility of conducting structured observation opens up. This type of observation corresponds to a high degree of standardization; special documents and forms are used to record the results; a certain closeness of the data obtained by different observers is achieved.
Turning to structured observation is fruitful when researching meeting issues. It can solve problems related to determining the composition of speakers and the content of speeches, studying the audience's reactions to the information provided and analyzing the decision-making process, identifying the organizational characteristics of the meeting.
3. Observation in relation to hypothesis testing.
Observation as a method of data collection is applicable at the preliminary stages of research, when there are no developed hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. If an observation is not associated with testing specific hypotheses, it, while remaining “targeted,” is not heuristic, although it is on the basis of such an observation that hypotheses can be formed. The established tradition classifies as heuristic observation those types of observation that are aimed at testing hypotheses. Heuristic, therefore, is not observation at the preliminary stages of studying an object and observation in cases of a consciously adopted goal of minimal selectivity and maximum coverage of different sides and aspects of the observed object (process, phenomenon).
4. Observation from the point of view of taking into account the position of the observer.
From this point of view, we can distinguish non-involved (external) observation as observation “from the outside,” when the observer is completely separated from the “object” being studied. Observation from the outside can be open or hidden.
Participant observation is a type in which the sociologist is directly involved in the social process being studied, contacts, and acts together with those being observed. The nature of inclusion is different: in some cases the researcher is completely incognito, and the observed do not in any way distinguish him from other members of the group or team; in others, the observer participates in the activities of the observed group, but does not hide his research goals. Depending on the specifics of the observed situation and research tasks, a specific system of relations between the observer and the observed is built.
An example of the first type of participant observation is a study conducted by V.B. Olshansky, who worked for several months at one plant and in a team of assembly mechanics. He studied the life aspirations of young workers, norms of collective behavior, a system of unofficial sanctions for violators, unwritten “dos and don’ts.” Through a joint analysis of observations and survey data conducted by sociologists during the period of participant observation, valuable information was obtained on the processes occurring in production collective, about the mechanism of formation of group consciousness.
Participant observation has its advantages and disadvantages: on the one hand, it allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events can affect the objectivity of the observer’s report. Some types of observation may be intermediate between participant observation and outside observation. For example, observations by a teacher of the class during classes, observations by a psychotherapist or consulting psychologist; here the observer is included in the situation differently than the observed individuals; their positions are “not equal” from the point of view of managing the situation.
5. Types of observation depending on its organization.
Depending on the observation situation, observation can be distinguished: field, laboratory and provoked in natural conditions.
Field observation is carried out in conditions natural to the life of the observed “subject”, and its requirement is the absence of initiation from sides observer of the phenomena being studied. Field observation makes it possible to study the natural forms of life activity and communication of people (or other “objects” of observation) with minimal distortion, but its disadvantage is that it is very labor intensive, and also that the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control; observation here is often expectant and unsystematic. Situations arise when individual members of the observed group fall out of sight of the observer, or external circumstances make it difficult to record what is happening.
In situations where high care and detail in the description of observed processes are required, technical means of recording are used (tape recorder, photo, film, television equipment). When the task of developing and experimentally testing a new technique is set, a laboratory form of observation is used. Thus, in a specially equipped classroom, classes can be conducted to develop management skills. Each of the participants in the “school” (essentially a situational game) takes turns playing the role of, for example, a leader, a performer, or a customer (client). During 15-20 minute game situations, methods of conducting classes and the ability to concentrate the attention of participants in a situational game on the analysis of the issues under discussion are practiced. To record what is happening, all participants in the situational game or some of them keep a record. Then, an experienced methodologist analyzes a teaching example and, based on observational data, develops optimal methods for conducting management classes.
6. Chronological organization of observation.
Systematic observations are carried out regularly over a certain period. This may be long-term, continuous observation or observation carried out in a cyclic mode (one day a week, fixed weeks in a year, etc.). Typically, systematic observation is carried out using a fairly structured methodology, with a high degree of specification of all the activities of the observer.
There are also unsystematic observations. Among them, those stand out when the observer has to deal with an unplanned phenomenon, an unexpected situation. This type of observation is especially common in intelligence research.
The considered classification of observations, like any typology, is conditional and reflects only the most significant features of the observation. Therefore, whenever, taking into account the purpose and nature of the planned research, when deciding on the use of an observation method, the positive and negative properties of its various types are correlated.
The classifications listed above do not oppose each other, but reflect independent criteria that complement each other.
Conclusion.
In modern social psychology, observation as a method of data collection is widely used in various research designs. Observation is included in the organization of the conversation with the subject; observation data is taken into account when interpreting the results of psychodiagnostic or experimental procedures.
As you can see, the observation method is not as primitive as it seems at first glance, and, undoubtedly, can be successfully applied in a number of socio-psychological studies.
Bibliography.
- Andreeeva G.M. Social Psychology. M.: Aspect Press, 1999.
- Kornilova T.V. Introduction to psychological experiment: M.: Mosk publishing house. Univ., 1997
- Rogov E.I. General psychology. M.:. VLADOS, 1998.
- Sheregi F.E. Fundamentals of applied sociology. M.: INTERPRAX, 1996.
In scientific research, various methods are used, which are means and techniques with which one can obtain reliable data about the subject of study and use them in the future to derive scientific theories and create practical recommendations.
Observation as a research method is the most common and popular method of sociological and psychological research.
Observation is a scientific research method that is not limited to simple statements of facts, but scientifically explains the causes of a particular phenomenon. It consists in the purposeful collection of facts about the behavior and activities of people for their subsequent analysis.
Observation is characterized by a number of requirements for its implementation requirements. These include the requirement to preserve the conditions for the natural occurrence of the phenomena being studied, the requirement for targeted study and step-by-step recording of the results.
In the process of observation, it is necessary to follow a program developed for this purpose, in which the goals and objectives of the study are determined, the object, situation and subject are determined, the method of studying the phenomena is selected, the time boundaries of the observation are established and its schedule is drawn up, the method of recording observations is selected, and methods for processing the data obtained are determined.
In theory, there are such types of surveillance. By duration - short-term (short-term) and longitudinal (long-term). In terms of coverage - selective (individual parameters of phenomena and processes are observed) and continuous (all changes in the object within the situation are recorded). According to the degree of participation of researchers - direct (direct involvement) and indirect (using aids and equipment).
Observation as a research method is divided into two categories: structured and unstructured observation. Structured refers to a participatory study. It gives particularly high-quality results. Observation is especially effective if the subjects do not know about the experiment.
It stands out separately as a research method when the researcher participates in the life of the group under study, becoming its member, and observes the processes occurring in it from the inside.
Depending on the object: external (behavior, physiological changes, actions) or internal (thoughts, experiences, or states), variations of this method differ: introspection and objective observation.
Objective observation as a method is a research strategy in which the external characteristics or changes of the observed objects are recorded. Such observation is often a preliminary step before conducting experiments.
The self-observation method is used to obtain empirical data through self-observation. The following observation is especially often used: Elements of this method underlie most psychological studies of states and processes. By comparing the results of introspection with similar introspection of other people, one can establish a relationship or compare the data of internal experience with manifestations of the psyche at the external level.
The observation method also includes introspection, which was developed by W. Wundt within the framework of introspective psychology, and phenomenological introspection. Introspection is a method of psychological self-analysis, which consists in observing the course of one’s own psychological processes, without the use of additional means, standards and instruments.
Each of us uses the observation method every day in our daily lives. We're watching the game children, caring for clinic patients while waiting for an appointment, etc. Sometimes we generalize observations and share them with other people, sometimes these are just fleeting glances. We encounter a professional approach to observation when a commentator informs us about events on the football field, a cameraman films participants in the observed events with a hidden camera, a teacher, testing a new teaching method, observes the behavior of the class in class, etc. Thus, in many areas of social practice, observation is successfully used to study reality. In science, the observation method has also been used for many centuries, although methodologically it has become the object of close study, especially in recent years.
Observation can be defined as a method of collecting social information by directly studying a social phenomenon in its natural setting.
In sociological research, there are two types of observation methods, depending on the degree of standardization of observation techniques. Standardized observation technique involves a detailed list of phenomena, events, characteristics, signs to be observed, definition of conditions and situations of observation, instructions for observers, uniform cards for recording observed phenomena. This type of observation is called structured or standardized.
The second type of observation technique is unstructured or non-standardized observation. In this case, the researcher determines only the general directions of observations, and the form of data recording is the observer’s diary, where the results are recorded in free form directly during the observation process or later from memory.
An example of a standardized observation technique is the method most often used by economists of momentary observations of the use of equipment and the cost of working time. The essence of this method, which sociologists can also use to solve their problems, is that a group of observers, using a standard method, records not the absolute time spent or equipment downtime (work, negotiations, downtime, etc.), but the fact itself, those. number of observed types of costs at the time of the survey. To register momentary observations, a special “Observation Sheet” is developed, which is a table. The rows of the table contain serial numbers and surnames, names and patronymics of workers and rows for summing data by column. The columns contain data for the following sections.
Standard time (work):
Preparatory and final;
Operational work;
Workplace maintenance;
For rest and personal needs;
Total work.
Non-standard time (losses):
1. For organizational reasons:
lack of material;
shopping for materials and supplies;
waiting for vehicles;
2. For technical reasons:
lack of equipment, tools, documentation;
waiting for repairs and equipment repairs;
adjustment and re-adjustment of equipment;
lack of electricity;
3. For reasons depending on the workers:
late start and early finish of work;
Without good reason;
other reasons;
total loss of working time.
4. Number of observations (rounds per shift).
Bypass number.
Walking time:
ending.
The “observation sheet” also includes data from the place and time of observations (workshop No.), site____, date of observation, number of workers, number of observations, number of rounds ___, shift____, purpose of observations.
The researcher develops and includes in the observation list a route around the observed objects.
The method of momentary observations can be used to study the work of enterprises in the service sector, healthcare, etc. The capabilities of this method are far from being fully used by sociologists.
Another example of standardized observation is the technique of self-photography of time budgets (daily or weekly). In this case, the technique is based on self-observation of the respondent and recording time expenditure in a specially designed standard form containing a list of activities during the day (by rows of the table) and special columns (table columns) intended for recording time expenditure.
Unstructured observation is used most often at the preparatory stage of research, when the researcher needs to better understand the problem situation, “grope” the contours of the problem, clarify hypotheses, find out possible sources of information on the problem under study and methods of working with them.
An example of such a use of observation is the participant observation conducted by a Belarusian sociologist at the stage of developing a research program. The subject of the study was the attitude of workers of one of the Minsk factories to the new system of labor organization. The sociologist-observer first worked in auxiliary jobs, which made it possible to contact many members of the primary team, observe various production situations, enter the team, and adapt to intragroup norms. Then the sociologist-researcher began to work as a machine operator, joining the observed situation from the position of a professional worker. The observation results were recorded daily in a diary. It should be noted that after the initial adaptation in the team, the sociologist revealed his “incognito” and the observation became open. The observation results were used not only for substantive purposes, but also for methodological purposes for comparison with the results of the questionnaire survey. According to this study, information about the worker’s attitude towards the foreman, the head of the workshop, in cases where it is obtained by survey, is more susceptible to situational influences than when using the observation method. Another methodological result of participant observation was the formation of requirements for participant observation. Let us present the most important of them. Firstly, the sociologist-observer must work in the team being studied in a specialty that is not very complex. Otherwise, there is no time for observation - all attention is focused on production operations. Secondly, the work performed by the sociologist-observer must provide the opportunity to contact many members of the team in order to observe them in various production situations; thirdly, the sociologist must have initial professional production training to enter the observed team.
Collecting data in unstructured observation does not exclude systematization when processing it using formalized methods that involve obtaining some quantitative characteristics. Often the result of unstructured observation is the development of standard, formalized observation procedures.
Observation in sociological research can be used both as a stage of the research process and as an independent method of study. In the latter case, it is most effective for social phenomena, the development of which can only be understood within their natural environment. Surveys and experiments are aimed at measuring social characteristics in some conditional situation. For example, in a public opinion poll, an individual may be interviewed at home or in the workplace. But not all phenomena can be studied in this way. Deviant behavior, socially disapproved actions, religious behavior, etc. requires active involvement of observation methods. One of the most striking studies in this regard was the participant observation study of the life of Chicago tramps by tramp N. Anderson. History knows many other studies of this kind, carried out subsequently: this is the work of Thrasher on the study of urban gangs (Chicago 1928), V. White on the study of gangs in Boston, etc.
The observation method plays an independent role in the study of unique and fleeting phenomena of social life, and in the monographic study of individual local objects and phenomena.
Schematically, we can distinguish several types of social phenomena that can become objects of observation: these are individual actions of individuals and groups, activity as a whole, the meaning of actions, participants, dependencies between individuals and groups, environment (setting).
Let us give an example of the development of methodological tools for studying meetings as a channel for the expression of public opinion. The standardized observation procedure involved dividing the meeting into separate components. A separate registration card was developed for collecting and recording data. In total, the observation procedure includes nine documents (cards) for recording data on individual stages and periods of the meeting:
I. General characteristics of the meeting:
Date of the meeting.
Enterprise (institution, organization)
Subdivision.
Type of meeting (industrial, trade union, general);
Agenda.
Scheduled meeting time (hour, minute).
Venue of the meeting.
Observation start time.
Space for additional notes from the observer (if the meeting did not take place, indicate the reasons for the disruption or postponement, briefly describe the location where the meeting took place).
II. The situation immediately before the start of the meeting.table. The rows of the table record elements of behavior and reactions: conversations, including those related to issues on the agenda and extraneous conversations. The columns of the tables record the shares of meeting participants conducting certain conversations (majority, about half, minority, several people, 1-2 people). This card provides space for recording topics of conversations, remarks, and manifestations of attitude towards the meeting. Columns are provided for notes on whether the presence of the observer violates (or does not violate) the natural course of events.
III. Organizational period. This card, like the others, contains a coded list of variables, where the observer only circles the code corresponding to the observed situation.
1. The meeting began:
a) at the appointed time;
b) 10 minutes late;
c) with a delay of up to 20 minutes;
d) with a delay of up to 30 minutes or more.
The list consists of _____ people; it was announced that a person was present; observation data, people
Present at the meeting (observer's assessment):
a) the overwhelming majority;
b) majority;
c) about half;
d) less than half.
4. The composition of the presidium was proposed:
a) the person who opened the meeting;
b) one person from the audience (list);
c) several persons from the audience (personally).
5. The composition of the presidium was approved by the meeting:
a) according to the list;
b) personally.
6. The situation during the elections of the presidium, approval of the agenda and regulations. This situation is recorded in a table, which contains a row-by-row description of the elements of behavior in the following four groups.
First group:
a) showing interest in the composition of the presidium”;
b) lack of interest in the composition of the presidium;
c) the situation is unclear.
Second group:
a) showing interest in the issue under discussion,
b) lack of interest in the issue under discussion;
c) the situation is unclear.
Third group:
a) proposal to increase the time for the report (speech);
b) proposal to reduce the time for the report (speech);
c) there were no disputes regarding the regulations;
d) regulations were not established. Fourth group:
a) the presidium proposed to register for the debate;
b) the presidium did not offer to be recorded in the debate.
The columns of this table include the proportion of meeting participants for whom certain elements of behavior are observed, indicated in the rows of the table. Meeting participants: majority, about half, minority, several people. The table provides space for recording statements, remarks, and visually observed reactions of meeting participants.
The following documents were developed to explore other elements of the collection.
Card of the speaker, speaker.
A card for recording the reactions of meeting participants to a speech or report.
VI. An observation card of the general situation during the debate.
VII. Card of observations of the situation during decision-making on an agenda item.
VIII. Card for monitoring the situation during the adoption of amendments and additions to the draft decision.
IX. Card of observations of the situation after the end of the meeting.