The science - field of research activity aimed at producing and applying objectiveknowledge Onature , society Andconsciousness and including all the conditions of this production.
MM. Bakhtin(1895–1973), modern Russian philosopher, emphasizes objectivity scientific knowledge: reality, entering science, throws off all valuable clothing in order to become naked and pure reality knowledge, where only unity is sovereign truth. This definition of the features of scientific knowledge highlights its most important, essential feature as a way of comprehending reality. But it cannot be absolute. Science has a value, ideological, philosophical and worldview meaning; it is determined to a large extent by the morality of the scientist, his responsibility for the fate of the world and humanity.
Science is the most important form of development of knowledge. It is a specialized area of spiritual production, has its own tools of knowledge, its own institutions, experience and traditions of research activities, a system of information and communication, experimental and laboratory equipment, etc. Science refers to both cognitive activity and the results of this expressed in scientific works. activity in the form of a certain set of knowledge available at a given historical moment, forming a scientific picture of the world. Scientific knowledge is carried out on the basis of specially developed means and is objectified in the form of information embodied in written or oral form, in a variety of specialized artificially created signs and iconic systems. This does not mean that the role of the personal factor in scientific knowledge is insignificant; on the contrary, the history of science cannot be imagined without understanding the outstanding contribution of many talented scientists who radically changed the usual knowledge and ensured the progress of knowledge. Nevertheless, scientific knowledge is impossible without the body of knowledge that has been formed throughout the history of science and has become a universal property.
Scientific knowledge requires the conscious application of specially developed methods. Method in general - a way to achieve a goal, a certain ordered activity.Method of scientific knowledge - it is a system of techniques and rulesthinking and practical (subject-sensory) actions, using which researchers obtain new knowledge. The methods of scientific knowledge are its consciously developed techniques. They rely on previous achievements of knowledge. The method of scientific knowledge is an analogue of the modern state of science, it embodies knowledge about the subject of our research: what is the method, such is the knowledge about the subject, what is the knowledge about the subject, such is the method. Each method has a dual nature: it is based on knowledge of the laws of science and at the same time is inseparable from the work of a researcher solving a certain cognitive problem with varying degrees of skill. Not by chance F. Bacon compared the method to a lamp illuminating the way for a traveler in the dark: even a lame man walking along the road is ahead of the one running off-road.
Distinguish private, general And universal methods of cognition.
Private Methods are used by one or more sciences that have a common subject of study (for example, psychology or physics). General scientific methods knowledge is the property of science as a whole. A special place belongs philosophical methods, which are formed as a result of the development of science and are included in the scientific picture of the world. Philosophical methods are an organic part of any philosophical system. Along with all existing knowledge, they play the role of prerequisite knowledge that creates the conditions for the further development of science in specific historical conditions.
Empirical knowledge
In the structure of science there are empirical And theoretical levels and, accordingly, empirical and theoretical methods of organizing scientific knowledge. In each of these interrelated forms of scientific knowledge, the researcher uses the capabilities of both sensory and rational knowledge.
Empirical knowledge represents a collection scientific facts, forming the basis of theoretical knowledge. Researchers obtain empirical knowledge through the use of two main methods: observation and experiment.
Observation - purposeful, intentional perception of the object under study. Setting goals, methods of observation, a plan for monitoring the behavior of the object under study, and the use of instruments - these are the most important features of a specific observation. The observation results give us primary information about reality in the form of scientific facts.
Experiment- such a method of scientific research that involves a corresponding change in an object or its reproduction in specially created conditions. In an experiment, the researcher actively intervenes in the conditions of the scientific research. He can stop the process at any stage, which allows him to study it in more detail. It can place the object under study in various connections with other objects or create conditions in which it has not previously been observed, and thereby establish new ones unknown to science properties. An experiment allows you to reproduce the phenomenon under study artificially and test the results of theoretical or empirical knowledge through practice.
An experiment is always, and especially in modern science, associated with the use of sometimes very complex technical means, i.e. instruments. Device - this is a device or system of devices with specified properties for obtaining information aboutphenomena and properties inaccessible to human senses. Instruments can enhance our senses, measure the intensity of the properties of an object, or establish the traces left in them by the object of study. The widespread use of instruments in scientific research has prompted scientists to think about the question of whether instruments distort real natural processes? M. Born, for example, believed that “observation or measurement does not refer to the phenomenon nature as such, but only to the aspect under which it is considered in the frame of reference, or to projections onto the frame of reference, which, of course, is created by the entire installation applied" . Is Bourne right? After all, the experiment really disrupts the natural course of the process. However, this does not mean that we cognize an object that has been changed in a certain way by human intervention, but not the object as such. Why? Yes, because the presence or absence of certain connections can also become the subject of analysis, which allows comprehensively explore an object, identifying all its new properties.
Depending on the purposes of the study, there are different research experiment(discovery of something new) and check(establishing the truth hypotheses). In an experiment, new properties, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of an object related to the measurement of its properties are discovered and demonstrated. According to the object of study, there are natural And social experiment, and according to methods of implementation - natural and artificial, model and spontaneous, real and mental. There are also scientific And industrial experiment. The production experiment includes varieties industrial or field. Occupies a special place model experiment. There are physical and mathematical modeling. A physical model recreates the known properties of the object under study to establish unknowns (models of airplanes, spaceships or neurons, etc.). The mathematical model is built on the formal (mathematical) similarity of various objects, characterizing their general functional dependence, which also makes it possible to reveal unknown properties of real objects.
Comparison. The most important component of empirical methods of cognition is comparison, i.e. identifying similarities or differences in the properties of the objects under study established in an observation or experiment. A special case of comparison is measurement.
Measurement is the process of determining a value that characterizes the degree of development of the properties of an object. It is made in the form of comparison with another quantity taken as a unit of measurement. The results of observation and experiment have scientific significance only if they are expressed through measurement.
Science facts
Scientific fact - form of existence of empirical knowledge. The concept of fact has different semantic content. Among the many definitions of the term “fact”, the following can be distinguished. Firstly, a fact as a phenomenon of reality, “an incident, a case, an event, a matter, a reality, to be, a given, on which one can base...” These are the so-called facts of life that exist regardless of whether a person is aware of them or not. The facts of life are something real - as opposed to fictional, separate with pronounced features of singularity and uniqueness.
Secondly, the concept “fact” is used to mean conscious events and phenomena of reality. The versatility of our cognitive capabilities is manifested in the fact that one and the same fact of reality can be realized at the everyday or scientific levels knowledge, V art, journalism or legal practice. Therefore, different facts, established in different ways, have varying degrees of reliability. Very often there can be an illusion of the identity of a fact. Sciences and events of reality, which allows some philosophers and scientists to talk about the truth of a fact as absolute truth. This idea does not correspond to the real picture of knowledge; it dogmatizes and simplifies it.
Facts have a complex structure. They include information about reality, interpretation of the fact, method of obtaining and describing it.
The leading side of the fact is reality information, which involves the formation of a visual image of reality or its individual properties. The correspondence of a fact to reality characterizes it as true. Due to these features, facts are the empirical basis of science, the most important way to confirm or refute a theory. Thanks to facts, reality is perceived impartially, in relative independence from theory, if we ignore the so-called theoretical loading of the fact, which imparts to our worldview certain features of the given. Facts make it possible to discover phenomena that do not fit into the framework of the old theory and contradict it.
An important component of the fact is interpretation , which comes in various forms. Is it possible experiment without theory? The answer can only be negative: no, impossible. A scientific fact is mediated by a theory, on the basis of which the tasks of empirical research are determined and its results are interpreted. Interpretation is included in a fact as a theoretical and methodological prerequisite for its formation, a theoretical conclusion from a fact, its scientific explanation, or as an assessment carried out from different ideological, scientific or ideological perspectives.
The fact contains logistical or methodological side, i.e. the method of obtaining it. Its reliability largely depends on the method and means used to obtain it. For example, the election campaign often uses the results of sociological studies showing the rating of candidates and their chances of success. Often the results vary significantly, or even directly contradict each other. If direct distortion is excluded, the reason for the discrepancies may be explained by differences in methods.
The centuries-old history of science is not only the history of discoveries, but also the history of its development. language, without which theoretical abstractions, generalization or systematization of facts are impossible. Therefore, every fact contains a sign-communicative aspect, i.e., the language of science in which it is described. Graphs, diagrams, scientific notations and terms are necessary attributes of the language of science. The perception of a scientific discovery is sometimes delayed for many years if it is not possible to describe it in traditional terms. As the scientific knowledge The semantic inadequacy of natural language to the subject content it expresses became increasingly obvious.
The polysemy of expressions, the fuzzy logical structure of natural language sentences, the changeability of the meanings of language signs under the influence of context, psychological associations - all this hindered the accuracy and transparency of meaning necessary in scientific knowledge. There was a demand to replace natural language with an artificial formalized language. His invention unusually enriched the cognitive means of science and made it possible to solve previously inaccessible problems. Crystallization, reduction, and clarification of the logical structure with the help of artificial symbolism make complex cognitive systems easily observable, contribute to the logical ordering of theories, and the achievement of strict consistency of their elements. It should be emphasized that both the facts of science, and hypotheses, theories, and scientific problems are based on artificial languages created in science.
A scientific fact is included in a theoretical system and has two fundamental properties, namely: reliability And invariance. The reliability of a scientific fact is manifested in the fact that it is reproducible and can be obtained through new experiments conducted at different times by researchers. The invariance of a scientific fact lies in the fact that it retains its reliability regardless of diverse interpretations.
The facts of science become the basis of a theory thanks to their generalization . The simplest forms of generalizing facts are systematization And classification carried out on the basis of their analysis, synthesis, typology, use of primary explanatory schemes, etc. It is known that many scientific discoveries (for example, theories of the origin of species C. Darwin , periodic table of elements DI. Mendeleev) would have been impossible without the preliminary work of scientists to systematize and classify facts.
More complex forms of generalizing facts are empirical hypotheses and empirical laws, revealing stable repeatability and connections between the quantitative characteristics of the objects under study, established with the help of scientific facts.
Scientific facts, empirical hypotheses and empirical laws represent knowledge only about How are leaking phenomena and processes, but they do not answer the question, Why phenomena and processes occur in exactly this form, and not in another, and their causes are not explained. The challenge of science - find the causes of phenomena, explain the essence of the processes underlying scientific facts. It is solved within the framework of the highest form of scientific knowledge - theories. Scientific facts perform a dual function in relation to a theory: as for an existing theory, a scientific fact either reinforces it (verifies) or contradicts it and points to its inconsistency (falsifies). But, on the other hand, theory is something more than just a generalization of the sum of scientific facts obtained at the level of empirical research. It itself becomes a source of new scientific facts. Thus, empirical and theoretical knowledge represent the unity of two sides of a single whole - scientific knowledge. The interconnection and movement of these aspects, their correlation in a specific scientific process of cognition determine a consistent series of forms specific to theoretical knowledge.
Basic forms of theoretical knowledge
The main forms of theoretical knowledge are: scientific problem, hypothesis, theory, principles, laws, categories, paradigms.
Scientific problem. In the usual sense, the term “problem” is used as a designation of a difficulty, an obstacle, a task that requires its solution. Problems accompany all forms of human life: they can be utilitarian-practical, moral and political, legal and philosophical, religious and scientific, etc. A scientific problem is awareness of the contradictions that have arisen between the old theory and the new onesscientific facts , which cannot be explained using old theoretical knowledge. A. Einstein wrote that at the origins of scientific thinking lies the “act of surprise” that arises “when perception comes into conflict with a fairly established world of concepts. In cases where such a conflict is experienced sufficiently acutely and intensely, it, in turn, has a strong influence on our mental world" ( Einstein A. Physics and reality. M.: Science. 1965. P. 133). The need to explain new scientific facts creates problematic situation, allowing us to state that we lack some knowledge to solve this problem. A scientific problem is specific knowledge, namely knowledge about ignorance. Correctly formulating and posing a scientific problem is a difficult task, since the process of crystallization of the problem is associated with the preparation of individual components of its solution. Therefore, posing a problem is the first step in the development of our knowledge about the world. When a scientific problem is posed, a scientific search begins, i.e., the organization of scientific research. It uses both empirical and theoretical methods. The most important role in solving a scientific problem belongs to the hypothesis.
Hypothesis - it is an idea containing a reasonable assumption about the existence of a law that explains the essence of new facts. A hypothesis is formed by scientists with the goal of tentatively explaining the scientific facts that led to the formulation of a scientific problem. There are a number of criteria for the validity of the hypothesis:
fundamental verifiability;
generality;
predictive capabilities;
simplicity.
A hypothesis must be testable; it leads to consequences that can be empirically verified. The impossibility of such verification makes the hypothesis scientifically untenable. The hypothesis should not contain formal and logical contradictions and should have internal harmony. One of hypothesis evaluation criteria - its ability to explain the maximum number of scientific facts and consequences derived from it. A hypothesis that explains only those facts that were associated with the formulation of a scientific problem is not scientifically valid.
The predictive power of a hypothesis means that it predicts something generally previously unknown, the emergence of new scientific facts not yet discovered in empirical research. The requirement of simplicity is that the hypothesis explains the maximum of phenomena from a few reasons. It should not include unnecessary assumptions that are not related to the need to explain scientific facts and consequences derived from the hypothesis itself.
No matter how valid a hypothesis is, it does not become a theory. Therefore, the next step in scientific knowledge is to substantiate its truth. This is a multifaceted process and involves the need to confirm as many consequences as possible from a given hypothesis. For this purpose, observations and experiments are carried out, the hypothesis is compared with the new facts obtained and the consequences arising from it. The greater the number of consequences that have been confirmed empirically, the less likely it is that all of them could have been derived from another hypothesis. The most convincing evidence of a hypothesis is the discovery in empirical research of new scientific facts that confirm the consequences predicted by the hypothesis. Thus, a hypothesis, comprehensively tested and confirmed by practice, becomes a theory.
Theory - it is logically sound, tested in practicesystem knowledge about a certain class of phenomena, about the essence and operation of lawsbeing this class of phenomena. It is formed as a result of the discoveries of general laws nature And society, revealing the essence of the phenomena under study. A hypothesis includes a set of ideas aimed at explaining or interpreting any fragment of existence. The structure of a theory includes all the elements that exist as its prerequisites, precede it and determine its emergence. An integral component of the theory is the original theoretical basis, i.e., a set of postulates, axioms, laws, which in their totality constitute a general idea of the object of study, an ideal model of the object. The theoretical model is at the same time a program for further research, based on a system of initial theoretical principles.
The theory fulfills such important functions, How explanatory, predictive, practical and synthesizing. The theory organizes the system of scientific facts, includes them in its structure and derives new facts as consequences from the laws and principles that form it. A well-developed theory carries with it the ability to foresee the existence of things still unknown to science. phenomena And properties. Theory serves as the basis for the practical activities of people, orienting them in the world of natural and social phenomena. Thanks to scientific discoveries, people transform nature, create technology, explore space, etc. The central place in the theory belongs to scientific ideas, i.e. knowledge of the fundamental laws operating within the class of objects that are reflected in it. A scientific idea unites the laws, principles, and concepts that form a given theory into an integral, logically coherent system.
A theory has the ability to penetrate other theories and thereby cause their restructuring. It stimulates the unification of various theories and their transformation into a system that forms the core of the scientific picture of the world. Theory is the soil on which new ideas arise that can determine the style of thinking of an entire era. In the process of its formation, the theory is based on the existing system of principles, categories and laws and opens new ones.
Principles of Science represent fundamental theoretical knowledge, guiding ideas that are the starting point for explaining scientific facts. In particular, axioms can act as principles, postulates, which are neither provable nor requiring proof.
Categories of philosophy- essence extremely general concepts that reflect the most essential aspects, properties, relationships of the real world. The definition of categories of science is similar. But unlike philosophical categories, which have a universal character, the categories of science reflect the properties of a certain fragment of reality, and not reality as a whole.
Laws of Science reveal necessary, essential, stable, repeating connections and relationships between phenomena. These may be the laws of the functioning and development of phenomena. Understanding the laws of nature, society and human thinking is the most important task of science. It goes from revealing the universal and essential aspects of the objects under study, fixed in concepts and categories, to establishing sustainable, recurring, essential and necessary connections. The system of laws and categories of science forms its paradigm.
Paradigm - a set of stable principles, generally valid norms, laws, theories, methods that determine the development of science in a specific period of its history. It is recognized by the entire scientific community as basic models that determine the ways of setting and solving problems that arise at a given level of science. The paradigm guides research activities, organization of scientific experiments and interpretation of their results, providing prediction of new facts and theories. It eliminates concepts that do not agree with it and serves as a model for solving research problems. The concept of paradigm was introduced into the theory of knowledge by the American philosopher T. Kuhn. According to his definition, “normal science” is characterized by the solution of specific problems based on the corresponding scientific paradigm. Normal periods in the development of science are replaced by revolutions. They are associated with the discovery of phenomena that do not fit into the framework of the old paradigm. As a result, a period of crisis begins in science, ending with the breakdown of the old paradigm and the emergence of a new one. The establishment of a new paradigm marks a revolution in science. “...The consistent transition from one paradigm to another through revolution is a common model for the development of mature science,” notes T. Kuhn. (Structure of scientific revolutions. M., 1977. P. 31).
Another modern philosopher I. Lakatos presented the development of science in the form of a series of successive theories based on common methodological principles. This set of theories is called a research program. A natural consequence of many research programs is their competition. A competitive and progressive program is one within which a theory emerges that is capable of predicting new additional facts and explaining old ones that were established but not explained by the previous theory. In this case, the new theory acts as a development of the old one. If the new theory is limited to the interpretation of facts discovered by other research programs and does not predict new ones, then we can assume that the program is degenerating.
Methods of theoretical knowledge
There is a group methods scientific knowledge, which is used both at the empirical and theoretical levels. The specificity of this group of methods is that they are universal in human mental activity, and therefore without them the thought process itself, the movement itself, is impossible knowledge. These methods include: abstraction, generalization, analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction and inference by analogy.
Abstraction is that our thinking follows the path of mental abstraction from unimportant or random properties, connections and relationships of the cognizable object while simultaneously fixing attention on those aspects that are important to us at the moment.
Generalization involves finding common properties, connections and relationships in the objects under study, establishing their similarities, indicating their belonging to a certain class of phenomena. The result of abstraction and generalization is both scientific and everyday concepts(fruit, value, law, animal, etc.).
Analysis- this is the method knowledge, consisting in the mental division of an object into its constituent parts for the purpose of knowledge.
Synthesis involves the mental reunification of the components of the phenomenon being studied. The purpose of the synthesis is to imagine the object of study in the interrelation and interaction of its constituent elements in a holistic system. Analysis and synthesis are interconnected. Synthesis can be defined as a movement of thought enriched by analysis, which is why synthesis is a more complex process than analysis.
Induction- a method of cognition based on inferences from the particular to the general, when the train of thought is directed from establishing the properties of individual objects to identifying the general properties inherent in a whole class of objects. Induction is used both in everyday knowledge and in science. Inductive inference has a probabilistic nature. Scientific induction establishes causal relationships, based on the repetition and interconnection of the essential properties of some objects of a certain class and from them - to the establishment of general causal relationships that are valid for the entire class.
Deduction based on inferences from the general to the specific. Unlike induction, in deductive reasoning the train of thought is aimed at applying general principles to individual phenomena.
Induction and deduction are as closely related to each other as analysis and synthesis. Taken separately and absolutely opposed to each other, they cannot satisfy the requirements of scientific knowledge.
Analogy- similarity of objects in some characteristics. An inference based on the similarity of objects is called an inference by analogy. From the similarity of two objects in some characteristics, a conclusion is drawn about the possibility of their similarity in other characteristics. It is probabilistic in nature and its evidentiary value is low. Nevertheless, the role of analogy in human mental and cognitive activity is very great. Mathematician D. Polya characterizes the role of analogy in cognition as follows: “All of our thinking is permeated by analogy: our everyday speech and trivial conclusions, the language of works of art and the highest scientific achievements. The degree of analogy may vary. People often use vague, ambiguous, incomplete, or unclear analogies, but the analogy can reach a level of mathematical precision. We should not neglect any kind of analogy; each of them can play a role in finding a solution" ( Poya D. How to solve the problem. M., 1959. S. 44–45).
Along with those discussed above, there is a group of methods that are of primary importance for theoretical knowledge. The peculiarity of these methods is that they serve to develop and build theories. These include, in particular: method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, method of historical and logical analysis, method of idealization, axiomatic method etc. Let's consider them in more detail.
Ascent from abstract to concrete. To understand this method, it is necessary to reveal such important concepts as “concrete in reality”, “sensory-concrete”, “abstract”, “mentally-concrete”.
Specific in reality- is any phenomenon being, representing the unity of diverse aspects, properties, connections.
Sensually concrete- the result of living contemplation of a separate object. The sensually concrete reflects the object from its sensual side, as an undifferentiated whole, without revealing its essence.
Abstract, or abstraction, is the result of the mental isolation of individual aspects, properties, connections and relationships of the object being studied and separating it from the totality of other properties, connections and relationships.
Mentally concrete is a system of abstractions that reproduces in our thinking the object of knowledge in the unity of its diverse aspects and connections that express it essence, internal structure and process development. As can be seen already from the definition, the sensory-concrete and abstract one-sidedly reproduce the object: the sensory-concrete does not give us knowledge about the essence of an object, and abstraction reveals the essence one-sidedly. To overcome this limitation, our thinking uses the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, that is, it strives to achieve a synthesis of individual abstractions in the mentally concrete. As a result of such successive steps, a mental-concrete is obtained (a system of interconnected concepts in a certain sequence that transform into each other).
Historical and logical methods of cognition. Each developing object has its own history and objective logic, i.e. the pattern of its development. According to these features of development, cognition uses historical and logical methods.
Historical method cognition is a mental reproduction of the sequence of development of an object in all its concrete diversity and uniqueness.
Boolean method is a mental reproduction of those moments of the development process that are naturally determined. This method is a necessary moment in the process of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, for the mentally concrete must reproduce the development of the object, freed from the historical form and the accidents that violate it. The logical method begins in the same way as the historical one - by considering the beginning of the history of the object itself. In the sequence of transitions from one state to another, the key moments of development and thereby its logic and patterns of development are reproduced. Thus, the logical and historical methods are the same: the logical method is based on knowledge of historical facts. In turn, historical research, in order not to turn into a pile of disparate facts, must be based on knowledge of the laws of development revealed by the logical method.
Idealization method. Feature of this method consists in the fact that in theoretical research the concept of an ideal object is introduced, which does not exist in reality, but which is a tool for constructing a theory. An example of this kind of objects is a point, a line, an ideal gas, a chemically pure substance, an absolutely elastic body, etc. By constructing objects of this kind, a scientist simplifies real objects, deliberately abstracts from certain real properties of the object under study or endows them with properties, which real objects do not have. This mental simplification of reality allows us to more clearly highlight the properties under study and present them in mathematical form. A. Einstein characterized the meaning of idealization in the process as follows knowledge: “The law of inertia is the first great success in physics, in fact its first beginning. It was obtained by thinking about an idealized experiment, about a body constantly moving without friction and without the influence of any other external forces. From this example, and later from many others, we learned the importance of the idealized experiment created by thinking" ( Einstein A. Physics and reality. M., 1964. P. 299). Operating with abstract objects and theoretical schemes creates the prerequisites for their mathematical description. Academician V.S. Stepin emphasizes the connection between abstract objects and natural processes studied in theory: “Equations act in this case as an expression of essential connections between physical phenomena and serve as a formulation of physical laws” (Stepin V.S. Theoretical knowledge. M., 2003. P. 115). In modern science mathematical methods are playing an increasingly important role. They are used in linguistics, sociology, biology, not to mention physics or astronomy.
The use of the mathematical apparatus of probability theory has become especially relevant in the research of quantum mechanics, which discovered the probabilistic nature of the behavior of microparticles with particle-wave properties. The idealization technique is also implemented in the method formalization, or structural method. The essence of the structural method is to identify relationships between parts and elements of an object, regardless of their content. Attitudes are easier to study than the actual components of relationships. For example, the area of a circle and the volume of a ball can be calculated regardless of whether the ball is metal or rubber, whether it is a planet or a soccer ball.
Systems approach. The relationships between the components of the structure can be different. Among the variety of relationships, those that characterize a given set of elements as system. Systems approach allows you to establish patterns of system relationships (regardless of the properties of specific systems) and then apply them to specific systems. The complexity of systems, their reliability, efficiency, development trends, etc. are revealed both in the general theory of systems and in the study of such specific systems as sign systems (they are studied by semiotics); control systems (they are the subject of cybernetics); conflicting systems (theory games and so on.).
Axiomatic method represents such an organization of theoretical knowledge in which the initial judgments accepted without evidence. These initial propositions are called axioms. On the basis of axioms, according to certain logical rules, provisions are derived that form theory. The axiom method is widely used in mathematical sciences. It rests on the accuracy of the definition of initial concepts, on the rigor of reasoning and allows the researcher to protect the theory from internal inconsistency and give it a more precise and rigorous form.
For scientific knowledge, the development of criteria for the scientific nature of theoretical concepts plays a huge role. One of the most important modern criteria for scientificity is the parallel existence and competition of research programs, the advantage of which is not in criticizing the theory as such, but in the creation of alternative concepts that allow one to see problems from as many different points of view as possible. Today, such scientific criteria as considerations of simplicity, the search for internal perfection of the organization of knowledge, as well as value-based sociocultural aspects in the development of knowledge come to the fore.
Scientific knowledge – highest level logical thinking. It is aimed at studying the deep aspects of the essence of the world and man, the laws of reality. Expression scientific knowledge is scientific discovery– discovery of previously unknown essential properties, phenomena, laws or patterns.
Scientific knowledge has 2 levels: empirical and theoretical .
1) Empirical level is related to the subject of scientific research and includes 2 components: sensory experience (sensations, perceptions, ideas) and their primary theoretical understanding , primary conceptual processing.
Empirical cognition uses 2 main forms of research - observation and experiment . The main unit of empirical knowledge is knowledge of scientific fact . Observation and experiment are 2 sources of this knowledge.
Observation- this is a purposeful and organized sensory cognition of reality ( passive gathering facts). It may be free, produced only with the help of human senses, and instrumentation, carried out using instruments.
Experiment– study of objects through their purposeful change ( active intervention in objective processes in order to study the behavior of an object as a result of its change).
The source of scientific knowledge is facts. Fact– this is a real event or phenomenon recorded by our consciousness.
2) Theoretical level consists in further processing of empirical material, derivation of new concepts, ideas, concepts.
Scientific knowledge has 3 main forms: problem, hypothesis, theory .
1) Problem- scientific question. A question is an interrogative judgment and arises only at the level of logical cognition. The problem differs from ordinary questions in its subject– it is the question of complex properties, phenomena, laws of reality, for the knowledge of which special scientific means of cognition are needed - a scientific system of concepts, research methods, technical equipment, etc.
The problem has its own structure: preliminary, partial knowledge about the subject And defined by science ignorance , expressing the main direction of cognitive activity. The problem is the contradictory unity of knowledge and knowledge of ignorance.
2) Hypothesis- a hypothetical solution to the problem. Not a single scientific problem can receive an immediate solution; it requires a long search for such a solution, putting forward hypotheses as various solution options. One of the most important properties of a hypothesis is its plurality : each problem of science gives rise to a number of hypotheses, from which the most probable ones are selected until the final choice of one of them or their synthesis is made.
3) Theory– the highest form of scientific knowledge and a system of concepts that describes and explains a separate area of reality. The theory includes its theoretical grounds(principles, postulates, basic ideas), logic, structure, methods and methodology, empirical basis. The important parts of the theory are its descriptive and explanatory parts. Description– characteristic of the corresponding area of reality. Explanation answers the question why is reality the way it is?
Scientific knowledge has research methods– ways of knowing, approaches to reality: most common method developed by philosophy, general scientific methods, specific specific methods Dept.Sc.
1) Human knowledge must take into account the universal properties, forms, laws of reality, the world and man, i.e. must be based on universal method of knowledge. In modern science this is a dialectical-materialistic method.
2) Towards general scientific methods relate: generalization and abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction .
Generalization– the process of separating the general from the individual. Logical generalization is based on what is obtained at the representation level and further identifies more and more significant features.
Abstraction– the process of abstracting essential features of things and phenomena from non-essential ones. All human concepts therefore act as abstractions that reflect the essential characteristics of things.
Analysis- mental division of a whole into parts.
Synthesis- mental combination of parts into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis are opposite thought processes. However, analysis is the leading one, since it is aimed at detecting differences and contradictions.
Induction– the movement of thought from the individual to the general.
Deduction– movement of thought from the general to the individual.
3) Each science also has with their own specific methods, which follow from its basic theoretical settings.
The concept of scientific knowledge, its features
Science is a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering new objective laws based on the generalization of real facts in their interrelation, in order to anticipate trends in the development of reality and contribute to it change.
Scientific knowledge is a mature form of human cognitive activity.
Features of scientific knowledge:
1) scientific knowledge deals with a special set of objects of reality that cannot be reduced to objects of ordinary consciousness; 2) scientific knowledge is carried out as a programmed process;
3) scientific knowledge is a systemic activity;
4) development and formation of methodology as a special branch of scientific research designed to shape scientific research;
5) scientific knowledge uses a special set of tools and techniques;
6) scientific knowledge has a specific conceptual apparatus;
7) scientific knowledge is purposeful, meeting the specific needs of society;
8) consistency and validity of scientific research.
The social function of scientific knowledge is as follows. Man is part of living nature. Man cannot live outside of nature. The pristine nature did not suit man (housing, clothing, food), people were forced to create an artificial nature. To create this nature, they had to learn to penetrate deeply into the essence of the natural process, to reveal the secrets of nature. People had to learn to explain natural phenomena and scientifically predict the future. This is what contributed to the emergence of scientific knowledge. It was necessary to examine a person in order to make him a subject of activity.
Interaction of empirics and theory in the historical development of science
1. Empirics and theory characterize two forms of scientific knowledge, as well as structural components and levels of scientific knowledge;
2. The division into empirical and theoretical knowledge in scientific knowledge is based on the separation of empirical and theoretical research, which differ in goals;
3. Empirical research is aimed directly at the object and is based on observational and experimental data, accumulating scientific facts;
4. Theoretical research is associated with the improvement and development of the conceptual apparatus of science and is aimed at a comprehensive knowledge of objective reality in its essential connections and patterns;
5. These two forms of scientific research are organically interconnected and presuppose each other in the holistic structure of scientific knowledge:
Empirical research, highlighting new observational and experimental data, stimulates the development of theoretical research, posing new tasks for them;
Theoretical research, developing and specifying the theoretical content of science, opens up new perspectives for explaining and predicting facts, orienting and directing empirical research.
Forms of scientific knowledge: problem, hypothesis, theory
Any scientific activity is activated when a scientific problem arises. A scientific problem is a problem that cannot be solved on the basis of existing scientific knowledge.
To solve a scientific problem that has arisen, researchers put forward scientific hypotheses, that is, assumptions about the possibility of solving a scientific problem.
The set of conditions for putting forward hypotheses, methods for their development and testing constitute the hypothetical method. Not every assumption or guess is a scientific hypothesis. To be scientific, a hypothesis must satisfy a number of conditions: comply with the principles of the scientific worldview; take into account existing laws; rely on facts, explain them and have the ability to anticipate new ones; allow experimental, empirical verification; have a single principle of explanation without resorting to additional assumptions. Testing a hypothesis does not consist of individual experimental acts, but of cumulative socio-historical practice.
When a hypothesis is confirmed by practice, it turns into a theory. However, in the process of development and knowledge, many theories turn out to be relative truths.
Functions of hypothesis and theory.
1. Hypotheses provide probable knowledge, theories provide reliable knowledge. Theory performs the function of explaining existing facts and reveals the essence of phenomena. A hypothesis provides an explanation at the level of the possible, a theory at the level of the actual.
2. Prediction and scientific foresight. Theories reflect the internal, necessary aspects and connections of the object under study, the laws of its functioning and development. An adequate understanding of these connections and laws allows us to foresee the further course of development of the object under study.
The concept of methodology, method and methodology of scientific knowledge
Methodology is the doctrine of methods of cognition and transformation of reality.
Method is a set of approaches, techniques, methods and means of scientific knowledge. Approach is the worldview of a person who knows. Techniques are ideal methods of cognition. Funds – material and technical base.
Methodology – specific techniques, means of obtaining and processing factual material.
The methodology uses:
1. General philosophical methods: dialectics and metaphysics.
The following can be distinguished specific differences metaphysics from dialectics:
On the issue of connections between the old and the new - if dialectics recognizes the existence of connections between the old and the new, then metaphysics completely rejects them, believing that the new completely displaces the old;
On the question of the cause of movement - according to metaphysics, movement cannot come from matter itself, the cause of movement is an external first impulse;
On the issue of the relationship between quantity and quality - supporters of metaphysics do not see the relationship between quantity and quality; in their opinion, quantity changes due to quantity (increase, decrease, etc.), quality changes due to quality (that is, it itself improves, worsens);
On the issue of the direction of movement, development - if dialectics believes that development occurs mainly in an ascending spiral, then metaphysics recognizes development either in a straight line, or in a circle, or does not recognize the direction of development at all;
In the system of thinking - if the dialectical way of thinking reduces to the steps “thesis - antithesis - synthesis”, then the metaphysical one is based on the formulas “either - or”, “if not this, then this”, that is, metaphysical thinking is inflexible and one-sided;
In relation to the surrounding reality, dialectics sees the world in all its diversity (“color vision of the world”), and metaphysics sees it monotonously, according to the “black - white” principle;
In relation to cognition - according to dialectics, cognition is a gradual and purposeful process towards absolute truth, through the consistent comprehension of currently cognizable (relative) truths (that is, from simple to complex and absolute, taking into account their unity);
According to metaphysics, absolute truth can be known immediately, with the help of supersensible and super-experimental techniques that are “speculative” in nature;
In relation to the surrounding world, dialectics sees the world as integral and interconnected, metaphysics - consisting of individual things and phenomena.
Thus, metaphysics and dialectics are two opposing theoretical systems for understanding reality and development.
is a system of knowledge obtained as a result of practice, including the study and mastery of processes and phenomena occurring in nature, society and human thinking.
The structure of science consists of the following blocks:
- empirical;
- theoretical;
- philosophical and worldview;
- practical.
Empirical knowledge include information obtained through both ordinary knowledge and experience (through observation and experiment). Theoretical knowledge- this is a level of development of science that allows, on the basis of knowledge of fundamental laws, to bring disparate facts, phenomena, processes and initial conclusions into a certain system.
IN practical The science block includes tools, devices, technologies created and used by man to obtain new knowledge.
The methodology of science is a philosophical doctrine about ways of transforming reality, applying the principles of the scientific worldview to the process of scientific knowledge, creativity and practice.
Means and methods of scientific knowledge
The most important thing in understanding the essence and purpose of science is to clarify the factors that played a decisive role in its emergence. The entire history of human life testifies that to this day the main task of man remains struggle for existence. To be more specific, highlighting only the most essential, then this is the use by man of the natural environment in order to provide himself with the most necessary things: food, heat, housing, leisure; creating more advanced tools to achieve vital goals; and, finally, forecasting, foreseeing natural and social events and, if possible, in the event of consequences unfavorable for humanity, preventing them. In order to cope with the assigned tasks, it is necessary to know the cause-and-effect relationships, or laws, that operate in nature and society. It is out of this need—in combination with human activity—that science emerges. There was no science in primitive society. However, even then a person had certain knowledge that helped him hunt and fish, build and maintain his home. As facts accumulate and tools improve, primitive people begin to form the rudiments of knowledge that they used for practical purposes. For example, the change of seasons and associated climate changes forced primitive man to stock up on warm clothing and the necessary amount of food for the cold period.
In subsequent millennia, one might say, until the 20th century, the practical needs of man remained the main factor in the development of science, the true formation of which, as noted earlier, begins in modern times - with the discovery, first of all, of the laws operating in nature. The growth of scientific knowledge was especially rapid in the 16th-17th centuries; it was based on the increased demands of production, navigation, and trade. The progressive development of large-scale machine industry required an expansion of the sphere of knowledge and conscious use of the laws of nature. Thus, the creation of a steam engine, and then internal combustion engines, became possible as a result of the use of new knowledge in various fields - mechanics, electrical engineering, metal science, which meant a sharp turning point not only in the development of science, but also entailed a change in views on its role in society. One of the distinctive features of the New Age, when it comes to science, is associated with its transition from the pre-scientific to the scientific stage. Since this time, science has become a branch of human activity, with the help of which a person can not only obtain answers to theoretical questions, but also achieve significant success in their practical application. Nevertheless, science remains relatively independent in relation to practical needs.
This manifests itself mainly in the prognostic and problem-posing function. Science not only fulfills the orders of production and society, but also sets itself very specific tasks and goals, models current and possible situations both in nature and society. In this regard, various models of behavior or activity are developed. One of the most important internal sources of the development of science is the struggle of opposing ideas and directions. Scientific discussions and disputes, well-founded and reasonable criticism are the most important condition for the creative development of science, which does not allow it to ossify in dogmatic schemes and stop there. Finally, one cannot help but say that the progress of science today is only possible if there is a system for training scientific personnel and an extensive complex of research institutes. Science and its practical application are very expensive. Gone are the days when scientific discoveries “lay” on the surface and, by and large, did not require large special expenses. The activities of higher educational and scientific institutions require a lot of funds. However, all this is justified, because The future of humanity and every person largely depends on the development of science, which is increasingly becoming a productive force.
One of the most important principles that cannot be eliminated from scientific activity is compliance with ethical standards. This is due to the special role that science plays in society. We are, of course, not talking about well-known maxims like: “don’t steal,” “don’t lie,” “don’t kill,” etc. In principle, these ethical rules are universal and, according to the intention of their creators, people should always be guided in their relationships with each other. Consequently, these principles should apply to all spheres of human activity, including scientific ones. From the birth of science to the present day, every real scientist, like a kind of “sword of Damocles”, has been faced with the question of using the results of his activities. It seems that the famous Hippocratic “do no harm” should be fully applied not only to doctors, but also to scientists. The moral aspect in assessing human activity manifests itself already in Socrates, who believed that man by nature strives to do good deeds. If he commits evil, it is only because he does not always know how to distinguish good from evil. The desire to understand this, one of the “eternal” questions, is typical for many creative individuals. History also knows opposing views on science. So, J.-J. Rousseau, warning against excessive optimism associated with the rapid growth of scientific knowledge, believed that the development of science does not lead to an increase in morality in society. The French writer Francois Chateaubriand (1768-1848) expressed his attitude towards science even more sharply.
He stated quite definitely that the idea of destruction is a characteristic feature of science. Concerns about the use of scientific research results and the ethical position of scientists on this issue are not unfounded. Scientists, more than anyone, know the possibilities that science has for both creation and destruction. A particularly alarming situation with the use of scientific research achievements is developing in the 20th century. It is known, for example, that after the possibility of a nuclear reaction was theoretically substantiated, the world's greatest scientists, starting with A. Einstein (1879-1955), deeply realized the tragic consequences that the practical implementation of this discovery could lead to. But, even realizing the possibility of a disastrous outcome and, in principle, opposing it, they nevertheless blessed the US President for the creation of an atomic bomb. There is no need to remind you what a threat atomic-hydrogen weapons pose to humanity (we are not talking about its more modern modifications). Essentially, for the first time in history, science has created a weapon that can destroy not only humanity, but also its environment. Meanwhile, science in the second half of the 20th century. made such discoveries in the field of genetic engineering, biotechnology, and the functioning of the body at the cellular level that there was a threat of changing the human gene code, and the prospect of psychotropic effects on Homo sapiens. To put it in simpler terms, with the help of targeted influence on a person’s genes and nervous structures, one can turn him into a biorobot and force him to act in accordance with a given program. As some scientists note, with the help of science it is now possible to create conditions for the emergence of a form of life and a type of biorobot that have never existed before. This could put an end to the long evolutionary stage of life and lead to the extinction of present-day humans and the biosphere.
Some idea of what awaits a person if something like this happens is given by American “horror” films, in which unimaginable vampires and monsters “rule the roost.” The achievements of the human sciences and new discoveries made in this area raise with all urgency the question of freedom of scientific research and the conscious responsibility of scientists for their activities. This task is very, very complex, containing many unknowns. We will point out just a few of them. First of all, it is not always possible, for various reasons, to fully evaluate the creative results and destructive effects of the discoveries made. Meanwhile, information about the possibility of their harmful consequences becomes the property of many specialists and it becomes impossible to silence or hide them. Secondly, this is the prestige of a scientist. It happens that a researcher has been studying a particular problem for years, or even decades. And so, he receives a significant result, which can immediately put him among the famous scientists, but precisely for moral reasons he must “keep silent”, hide his discovery, including from his colleagues, in order to prevent the spread of the information received. In this case, the scientist finds himself in a difficult situation requiring a moral choice. It is aggravated by the possibility that someone else may come to similar scientific results much later, publish them, and thereby declare their scientific priority.
Finally, one cannot discount the nature of the social relations in which a scientist has to live and work. It is known that in the competition between states or social formations, which in the course of human history have strived for the subjugation of other peoples and even for world domination, it is extremely difficult to observe moral norms. And yet, despite the complexity of this problem, the extraordinary dynamics of ethical standards and requirements, the priority areas in this regard remain the formation of a high sense of personal responsibility among scientists, the social need to regulate the topic and, accordingly, the depth of development of scientific problems. This approach does not imply any discrimination or restriction of the freedom of creativity of scientists. Society and every scientist are simply offered new rules governing acceptable scientific issues, and an orientation towards the study of scientific problems that would not pose a threat to the existence of mankind.
Scientific knowledge - This is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition associated with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of phenomenon.
Epistemology - This is the doctrine of scientific knowledge.
Features of scientific knowledge:
Firstly, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the focus of research on the general, essential properties of an object and their expression in a system of abstraction.
Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods.
Third, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is oriented towards being embodied in practice.
Fourthly, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, and diagrams.
Fifthly, Scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.
At sixth, Scientific knowledge is characterized by both strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, reliability of conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.
Seventh, scientific knowledge requires and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, instruments.
Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by processuality. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related to each other.
Ninth, The field of scientific knowledge consists of verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of existence.
Levels of scientific knowledge:
Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data about individual aspects and connections of the object, understanding and describing the data obtained in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of phenomenon, but the prerequisites for penetrating the essence of the object have already been created.
Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object being studied, not only identifying, but also explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.
Forms of scientific knowledge:
scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.
Scientific fact - this is the initial form of scientific knowledge, in which primary knowledge about an object is recorded; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of a fact of reality. In this case, a scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.
Scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of a particular knowledge about an object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes the problematic issue, the project for solving the problem and its content.
Scientific hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that explains certain parameters of the object being studied and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object being studied, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.
In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not contradict the laws established in a given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that with their help it is possible to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of the hypothesis should not be logically contradictory.
The development of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problematic situations.
Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.
Types of evidence:
Practice serving as direct confirmation
Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments indicating facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.
The proven hypothesis serves as the basis for constructing a scientific theory.
Scientific theory - this is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interconnected statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting phenomena of a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects is expressed. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.
All theories develop within certain paradigms.
Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and seeing the world, influencing the direction of further research. Paradigm
can be compared to an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.
Many theories are constantly being synthesized into a unified scientific picture of the world, that is, a holistic system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Method(from Greek Metodos - path to something) - it is a way of activity in any form.
The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of goals, regulate human activity and the general principles from which these techniques arise. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of cognition at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object and the laws of its functioning.
Scientific method - This is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the logical cognition of an object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.
Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:
First reason. Based on their nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - techniques, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of action (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods - approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (system analysis, functional analysis, diachronic method, etc.).
Second reason. By functional purpose they are distinguished:
a) universal human methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);
b) empirical methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);
c) theoretical level methods (modelling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).
Third base is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:
a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal - logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);
b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own problem, characteristic only for it ;
c) special methods.
Some methods of scientific knowledge:
Observation - this is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena to collect facts.
Experiment - is an artificial recreation of a cognizable object under controlled and controlled conditions.
Formalization is a reflection of the acquired knowledge in an unambiguous formalized language.
Axiomatic method - this is a way of constructing a scientific theory when it is based on certain axioms, from which all other provisions are logically deduced.
Hypothetico-deductive method - creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which explanations of scientific facts are ultimately derived.
Inductive methods for establishing the causal relationship of phenomena:
similarity method: if two or more cases of the phenomenon being studied have only one previous common circumstance, then this circumstance in which they are similar to each other is probably the cause of the phenomenon being sought;
difference method: if the case in which the phenomenon we are interested in occurs and the case in which it does not occur are similar in everything, with the exception of one circumstance, then this is the only circumstance in which they differ from each other, and is probably the cause of the desired phenomenon;
accompanying change method: if the occurrence or change of a previous phenomenon each time causes the occurrence or change of another phenomenon accompanying it, then the first of them is probably the cause of the second;
residual method: If it is established that the cause of part of a complex phenomenon is not caused by known previous circumstances, except for one of them, then we can assume that this only circumstance is the cause of the part of the phenomenon under study that interests us.
Universal methods of thinking:
- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences between objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);
- Analysis- mental dissection of an object as a whole
(we break down each engine into its component characteristics);
- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements identified as a result of the analysis (mentally we combine the best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);
- Abstraction- highlighting some features of an object and distracting from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);
- Induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and ultimately to the essence (we take into account all cases of engine failures of this type and, based on this, come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);
- Deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific (based on the general patterns of engine operation, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);
- Modeling- construction of a mental object (model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow one to obtain the information necessary for understanding the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);
- Analogy- conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, based on similarity in other characteristics (conclusion about engine breakdown based on a characteristic knock);
- Generalization- combining individual objects into a certain concept (for example, creating the concept “engine”).
The science:
- This is a form of spiritual and practical activity of people aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and its systematization.
Scientific complexes:
A)Natural science is a system of disciplines whose object is nature, that is, a part of existence that exists according to laws not created by human activity.
b)Social science- this is a system of sciences about society, that is, a part of existence that is constantly recreated in the activities of people. Social science includes social sciences (sociology, economic theory, demography, history, etc.) and humanities that study the values of society (ethics, aesthetics, religious studies, philosophy, legal sciences, etc.)
V)Technical science- these are sciences that study the laws and specifics of the creation and functioning of complex technical systems.
G)Anthropological Sciences- this is a set of sciences about man in all his integrity: physical anthropology, philosophical anthropology, medicine, pedagogy, psychology, etc.
In addition, sciences are divided into fundamental, theoretical and applied, which have a direct connection with industrial practice.
Scientific criteria: universality, systematization, relative consistency, relative simplicity (a theory that explains the widest possible range of phenomena based on a minimum number of scientific principles is considered good), explanatory potential, predictive power, completeness for a given level of knowledge.
Scientific truth is characterized by objectivity, evidence, systematicity (orderliness based on certain principles), and verifiability.
Models of science development:
theory of reproduction (proliferation) by P. Feyerabend, which affirms the chaotic origin of concepts, T. Kuhn's paradigm, conventionalism by A. Poincaré, psychophysics by E. Mach, personal knowledge by M. Polanyi, evolutionary epistemology by S. Toulmin, research program by I. Lakatos, thematic analysis of science by J. Holton.
K. Popper, considering knowledge in two aspects: statics and dynamics, developed the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. In his opinion, growth of scientific knowledge - this is the repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement with better and more perfect ones. The position of T. Kuhn is radically different from this approach. His model includes two main stages: the stage of “normal science” (the dominance of one or another paradigm) and the stage of the “scientific revolution” (the collapse of the old paradigm and the establishment of a new one).
Global scientific revolution - this is a change in the general scientific picture of the world, accompanied by changes in the ideals, norms and philosophical foundations of science.
Within the framework of classical natural science, two revolutions are distinguished. First associated with the formation of classical natural science in the 17th century. Second The revolution dates back to the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. and marks the transition to disciplinary organized science. Third The global scientific revolution covers the period from the end of the 19th to the mid-20th century. and is associated with the formation of non-classical natural science. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. new radical changes are taking place in the foundations of science, which can be characterized as fourth global revolution. In the course of it, a new post-non-classical science is born.
Three revolutions (out of four) led to the establishment of new types of scientific rationality:
1. Classic type of scientific rationality(XVIII–XIX centuries). At this time, the following ideas about science were established: the value of objective universal true knowledge appeared, science was considered as a reliable and absolutely rational enterprise, with the help of which all problems of mankind can be solved, natural scientific knowledge was considered the highest achievement, the object and subject of scientific research were presented in rigid terms epistemological confrontation, the explanation was interpreted as a search for mechanical causes and substances. In classical science it was believed that only laws of the dynamic type could be genuine laws.
2. Non-classical type of scientific rationality(XX century). Its features: the coexistence of alternative concepts, the complication of scientific ideas about the world, the assumption of probabilistic, discrete, paradoxical phenomena, reliance on the irreducible presence of the subject in the processes being studied, the assumption of the absence of an unambiguous connection between theory and reality; science begins to determine the development of technology.
3. Post-non-classical type of scientific rationality(end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century). It is characterized by an understanding of the extreme complexity of the processes being studied, the emergence of a value-based perspective on the study of problems, and a high degree of use of interdisciplinary approaches.
Science and Society:
Science is closely interconnected with the development of society. This is manifested primarily in the fact that it is ultimately determined, conditioned by social practice and its needs. However, with every decade the reverse influence of science on society increases. The connection and interaction of science, technology and production is becoming increasingly stronger - science is turning into a direct productive force of society. How is it shown?
Firstly, Science is now overtaking the development of technology and is becoming the leading force in the progress of material production.
Secondly, Science permeates all spheres of public life.
Third, Science is increasingly focused not only on technology, but also on man himself, the development of his creative abilities, culture of thinking, and the creation of material and spiritual prerequisites for his holistic development.
Fourthly, the development of science leads to the emergence of parascientific knowledge. This is a collective name for ideological and hypothetical concepts and teachings characterized by an anti-scientist orientation. The term "parascience" refers to statements or theories that deviate to a greater or lesser extent from the standards of science and contain both fundamentally erroneous and possibly true propositions. Concepts most often attributed to parascience: outdated scientific concepts, such as alchemy, astrology, etc., which played a certain historical role in the development of modern science; folk medicine and other “traditional”, but to a certain extent, teachings opposed to modern science; sports, family, culinary, labor, etc. “sciences”, which are examples of systematization of practical experience and applied knowledge, but do not correspond to the definition of science as such.
Approaches to assessing the role of science in the modern world. First approach - scientism asserts that with the help of natural and technical scientific knowledge it is possible to solve all social problems
Second approach - antiscientism, Based on the negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution, he rejects science and technology, considering them forces hostile to the true essence of man. Socio-historical practice shows that it is equally wrong to exorbitantly absolutize science and to underestimate it.
Functions of modern science:
1. Cognitive;
2. Cultural and worldview (providing society with a scientific worldview);
3. Function of direct productive force;
4. Function of social power (scientific knowledge and methods are widely used in solving all problems of society).
Patterns of development of science: continuity, a complex combination of processes of differentiation and integration of scientific disciplines, deepening and expansion of the processes of mathematization and computerization, theorization and dialectization of modern scientific knowledge, alternation of relatively calm periods of development and periods of “sharp change” (scientific revolutions) of laws and principles.
The formation of modern NCM is largely associated with discoveries in quantum physics.
Science and technology
Technique in the broad sense of the word - it is an artifact, that is, everything artificially created. Artifacts are: material and ideal.
Technique in the narrow sense of the word - this is a set of material, energy and information devices and means created by society to carry out its activities.
The basis for the philosophical analysis of technology was the ancient Greek concept of “techne”, which meant skill, art, and the ability to create something from natural material.
M. Heidegger believed that technology is a person’s way of being, a way of self-regulation. J. Habermas believed that technology unites everything “material” that opposes the world of ideas. O. Toffler substantiated the wave-like nature of the development of technology and its impact on society.
The way technology manifests itself is technology. If what a person influences with is technology, then how he influences is technology.
Technosphere- this is a special part of the Earth’s shell, which is a synthesis of artificial and natural, created by society to satisfy its needs.
Classification of equipment:
By type of activity distinguished: material and production, transport and communications, scientific research, the learning process, medical, sports, household, military.
By type of natural process used There are mechanical, electronic, nuclear, laser and other types of equipment.
By level of structural complexity The following historical forms of technology arose: guns(manual labor, mental labor and human activity), cars And machine guns. The sequence of these forms of technology, in general, corresponds to the historical stages of the development of technology itself.
Trends in technology development at the present stage:
The size of many technical means is constantly growing. So, an excavator bucket in 1930 had a volume of 4 cubic meters, and now it is 170 cubic meters. Transport planes already carry 500 or more passengers, and so on.
A tendency of the opposite nature has emerged, towards a reduction in the size of equipment. For example, the creation of microminiature personal computers, tape recorders without cassettes, etc. has already become a reality.
Increasingly, technical innovations are achieved through the application of scientific knowledge. A striking example of this is space technology, which has become the embodiment of scientific developments of more than two dozen natural and technical sciences. Discoveries in scientific creativity give impetus to technical creativity with its characteristic inventions. The fusion of science and technology into a single system that has radically changed the life of man, society, and the biosphere is called scientific and technological revolution(NTR).
There is an increasingly intensive merging of technical means into complex systems and complexes: factories, power plants, communication systems, ships, etc. The prevalence and scale of these complexes allows us to speak about the existence of a technosphere on our planet.
The information field is becoming an important and constantly growing area of application of modern technology.
Informatization - is the process of production, storage and dissemination of information in society.
Historical forms of informatization: colloquial speech; writing; typography; electrical - electronic reproductive devices (radio, telephone, television, etc.); Computers (computers).
The widespread use of computers marked a special stage of informatization. Unlike physical resources, information as a resource has a unique property - when used, it does not shrink, but, on the contrary, expands. The inexhaustibility of information resources sharply accelerates the technological cycle “knowledge - production - knowledge”, causes an avalanche-like growth in the number of people involved in the process of obtaining, formalizing and processing knowledge (in the USA, 77% of employees are involved in the field of information activities and services), and has an impact on the prevalence of systems mass media and manipulation of public opinion. Based on these circumstances, many scientists and philosophers (D. Bell, T. Stoneier, Y. Masuda) proclaimed the onset of the information society.
Signs of the information society:
Free access for anyone anywhere, at any time to any information;
The production of information in this society must be carried out in the volumes necessary to ensure the life of the individual and society in all its parts and directions;
Science should occupy a special place in the production of information;
Accelerated automation and operation;
Priority development of the sphere of information activities and services.
Undoubtedly, the information society brings certain advantages and benefits. However, one cannot fail to note its problems: computer theft, the possibility of an informational computer war, the possibility of establishing an information dictatorship and terror of provider organizations, etc.
Human attitude towards technology:
On the one hand, facts and ideas of mistrust and hostility to technology. In Ancient China, some Taoist sages denied technology, motivating their actions by the fact that when using technology you become dependent on it, you lose freedom of action and you yourself become a mechanism. In the 30s of the twentieth century, O. Spengler, in his book “Man and Technology,” argued that man became a slave to machines and would be driven to death by them.
At the same time, the apparent indispensability of technology in all spheres of human existence sometimes gives rise to an unbridled apology for technology, a kind of ideology of technicalism. How is it shown? Firstly. In exaggerating the role and importance of technology in human life and, secondly, in transferring the characteristics inherent in machines to humanity and personality. Supporters of technocracy see the prospects for progress in the concentration of political power in the hands of the technical intelligentsia.
Consequences of the influence of technology on humans:
Beneficial component includes the following:
the widespread use of technology has contributed to an almost doubling of the average human life expectancy;
technology freed man from constraining circumstances and increased his free time;
new information technology has qualitatively expanded the scope and forms of human intellectual activity;
technology has brought progress to the educational process; technology has increased the efficiency of human activity in various spheres of society.
Negative the impact of technology on humans and society is as follows: some of its types of technology pose a danger to the life and health of people, the threat of environmental disaster has increased, the number of occupational diseases has increased;
a person, becoming a particle of some technical system, is deprived of his creative essence; an increasing amount of information causes a decreasing trend in the share of knowledge that one person is able to possess;
technology can be used as an effective means of suppression, total control and manipulation of a person;
The impact of technology on the human psyche is enormous, both through virtual reality and through the replacement of the “symbol-image” chain with another “image-image”, which leads to a halt in the development of figurative and abstract thinking, as well as the appearance of neuroses and mental illnesses.
Engineer(from French and Latin means “creator”, “creator”, “inventor” in a broad sense) is a person who mentally creates a technical object and controls the process of its production and operation. Engineering activities - This is the activity of mentally creating a technical object and managing the process of its production and operation. Engineering activity emerged from technical activity in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution.