Professional (special) vocabulary is vocabulary used by groups of people connected professionally. In special vocabulary, two layers are distinguished: terminological and actual professional vocabulary.
The largest group of words in professional vocabulary are scientific and technical terms. They belong to the language of science and form a terminological system within.
M.I. Fomina points out that terminological vocabulary includes words used “for logical precise definition special concepts, establishing the content of concepts, their distinctive features» Fomina M. I. Modern Russian language. Lexicology. - M., 2001. - P. 216.. This suggests that the main function of the term is the definitive function, that is, the function of definition.
The ideal requirements for terms are unambiguity, absence of synonyms, clearly limited, predominantly motivated specialization and absolute semantic precision. Today, terms do not meet these requirements; the same term can be used in different sciences and with different meanings. For example, the term image used in philosophy (“a mental imprint of the surrounding world”), in linguistics (“something sensually perceived”), as well as in literary criticism, psychology and other sciences. The requirement of the absence of doublets is also violated: in linguistics, for example, the terms are equivalent prefix And console, word, token And lexical item.
The system of terms is replenished with commonly used vocabulary: nose(general) and bow of the ship, bird wing(general) and airplane wing. However, today, more often, the terms themselves go beyond the boundaries of scientific works, penetrating into common vocabulary: reaction, start, radio, oxygen.
If terms belong to written, book speech, then professionalisms belong to oral, colloquial speech and serve groups of people related by one job. Professionalism goes beyond literary language and, as a rule, are reduced in style.
The actual professional vocabulary includes words and expressions that are not strictly legalized and commonly used, but are used in certain areas of production. Unlike terms, professionalisms are used in oral speech as “semi-official” words that do not have a strict scientific character. Such words are often distinguished by special imagery and metaphor, as well as greater differentiation. For example, hunters have many names for foxes based on color and breed: simple, red, forest, fire, red-brown, cross, black, karsun, fragrant fox etc.
Some professional words have a narrowly professional character and are used in the colloquial speech of people united by a certain type of occupation. Sometimes such words are defined as professional slang. This vocabulary has a reduced expressive connotation and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers sneaker- “self-recording device”; among the pilots underdose, peremaz- “undershooting and overshooting the landing sign”; from printers widow- “a line not included in the text.” Boundaries between semi-official in professional words And professional jargon very fuzzy, unstable and stand out only conditionally.
Individual professionalisms, often of a reduced sound, can become part of the commonly used vocabulary: issue on-mountain, turnover. In fiction, professional vocabulary itself is used by authors for a specific purpose - creating character when describing the lives of people associated with any production.
In dictionaries, professionalisms are given with the mark “special”; sometimes the scope of use of a particular word is indicated: physical, medical, hunting. etc.
Special vocabulary identifies words and expressions used by groups of people united by their type of activity (profession), in various fields of production, techniques, which, however, have not become commonly used - the so-called professionalisms. Their status is quite complex, because some experts: a) identify them with terms, b) refer them to units of craft vocabulary; c) to special vocabulary of a non-nominative nature (verbs, adverbs, adjectives); d) unstandardized special vocabulary, limited to the oral speech of professionals in informal settings, and often having emotionally expressive connotations. Unlike terms - the official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms function primarily in oral speech as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms serve to designate different production processes, production tools, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, technical professionalisms: charge d'un atelier, calcul des tolérances, gestion de l'entreprise, escompte, par itération; theatrical: armoire a sons = piano de l"orchestre, baisser le torchon = baisser le rideau, un tunnel = longue tirade dans le texte, faire de la baraque = donner un mauvais spectacle, boire ta lasse = connaоtre l"insucci complet; artists: croîte = peinture qui n"est pas au goît du peintre, navet = peinture horrible, cro-queton = croquis.
For example, in the speech of printers, professionalisms are used: cul-de-lampe - a graphic decoration at the end of a book, moustache - an ending with a thickening in the middle. Professionalisms are characterized by significant differentiation in the designation of special concepts, tools and means of production, the names of objects, actions, and so on. For example, in meteorology, in accordance with the different types of snowflakes, there are several names: astérique- asterisk ,aiguille- needle, hйrisson- hedgehog, lame- record.
Professionalisms are either created anew using original or borrowed word-formation means according to general linguistic models, or (which is observed quite often) are the result of a rethinking of general literary words. According to the method of education, we can distinguish:
1) actually lexical professionalisms that emerge as new, special names. For example, in this way the names arose in the speech of carpenters and joiners various types planer : moulure- kalevka, enlive-carry- zenzubel, etc.;
2) lexical-semantic professionalisms that arise in the process of developing a new meaning of the word and its rethinking. This is how, for example, professional meanings of words arose in the speech of printers: sapins - Christmas trees or oreilles - paws - a type of quotation marks; In the speech of hunters, professional names for the tails of animals differ: for a wolf - byche, at the fox - tube, at the beaver - pelle, the hare - fleur, faisceau etc.;
3) lexical-word-formative professionalisms, which include words like spare wheel - spare mechanism, part of something; glavrezh - chief director, etc., in which either a suffix or a way of adding words, etc. is used.
4) One of the ways to develop professionalism is compression: when a word is eliminated from a compound name, which transfers its functional and semantic meaning to the remaining word, complicating its content. A distinctive feature of such names is brevity and semantic capacity (cf.: hydraulic brake drive system - hydraulique).
Professionalisms can be grouped according to the area of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. A special group includes technicalisms - highly specialized names used in the field of technology. They are characterized by great detail in the designation of special concepts, tools, production processes, and materials. Thus, horse breeders distinguish horses by purpose: de trait- harness, de selle- riding, de bвt- pack, and the first in harness: limonier- indigenous, de renfort- attached; in the speech of carpenters and joiners, the tool for planing boards, the plane, has varieties: varlope- jointer, riflard- sherhebel. IN professional speech logs and boards are distinguished by size, shape and are called: bois carrе- timber, dosse- croaker, etc.
Professionalisms often have expressiveness, which makes them similar to jargon. Thus, drivers of buses, trucks, and cars call the steering wheel a steering wheel, printers call the sign adopted on a letter - quotation marks, by their appearance, figuratively calling herringbones (""), paws (""), and a general headline in a newspaper - a header.
A variety of professionalisms are professional jargons that are not capable of acquiring a normative character, and their convention is clearly felt by speakers. It has a reduced expressive connotation and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device “ cafard" - "a sneaker." Sometimes slang professionalisms pass into the national language, while remaining stylistically reduced; For example, avoir le trac"to be afraid" from theatrical jargon or barbouiller“smear” from artists’ jargon. Professional slang words, as a rule, have neutral synonyms that are devoid of colloquial connotations and have a precise terminological meaning.
Professional vocabulary includes words containing semes of disapproval, neglect, contempt: tubercle - senior duty officer, pile on marriage, pale, etc., which bring them closer to jargon. Professionalisms bordering on jargon are used as an effective method of speech contrast. Such professional names are associated with the communicative process in work activity. Imagery is a characteristic feature of professionalism in all areas of production. Uncodified professional vocabulary is outside the literary norm, therefore, like colloquial or slang words, it is usually placed in quotation marks in the text. But nowadays the norm has become looser; quotation marks are not always used to highlight professionalism.
In works of art, as well as in newspaper and magazine texts, professionalisms, as a rule, perform a nominative function, and also serve as a figurative and expressive means. Certain professionalisms, often of a reduced stylistic sound, become part of the commonly used vocabulary: travail par saccades- assault. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a specific stylistic task: as a characterological means when describing the lives of people associated with any production.
Covering the life of society, newspapers cannot but touch on the scientific and professional aspects. Materials of this type use vocabulary that makes up the sublanguage of the national language, “its subsystem, including special words necessary only for a given profession.” Moreover, the more complex the purposeful activity of people, the more isolated from common language their special language, or sublanguage, therefore the use of special vocabulary in the texts of newspaper publications requires careful selection and a thoughtful approach to it. The introduction of professionalism into the text as a modeling function is used not only in the speech characteristics of the characters, but also in the journalist’s author’s speech. This technique allows you to show the author’s involvement in the problem he is writing about, his competence in this area. The text, which includes professionalisms, becomes similar to oral speech. This allows the reader to feel like a participant in the events and delve deeper into their essence. A professional name in a newspaper text is used to stylize the text, i.e. to bring it as close as possible to the reality of the professional and production sphere of human activity about which the author writes, thus ensuring realism. Therefore, professionally oriented words are often found in interviews, where they create the speech characteristics of heroes. The unedited text should reflect the reality of live speech, and professionalism only emphasizes its situational nature.
Scope of use of professional vocabulary
Professionalisms, unlike their commonly used equivalents, serve to distinguish between closely related concepts used in a certain form activities of people. Thanks to this, professional vocabulary is indispensable for concise and exact expression thoughts in special texts intended for a prepared reader. However, the informative value of narrowly professional names is lost if a non-specialist encounters them. Therefore, professionalism is appropriate, say, in large-circulation trade newspapers and is not justified in publications aimed at a wide readership.
As a product of practice, professionalism makes speech concrete and easily digestible not only by ordinary representatives of a particular industry, but by a wide range of people in contact with this environment. It is preferred to a term that gives a scientific generalized name, often using foreign language roots, to objects, phenomena, and actions. Professional titles allow you to quickly and easily get acquainted with the production, and emotional and professionalism makes this process interesting. These qualities of professionalism become necessary for journalists who seek to attract the attention of the mass reader to a certain professional field, to the problems in it.
Narrowly professional words are usually not widely used in literary languages, that is, the scope of their use remains limited. Most often, this is the colloquial speech of representatives of a particular profession, since professionalisms are semi-official names (and this is one of their differences from terms) entrenched in the language of a certain profession. Sometimes they are a kind of unofficial synonyms for special names. Often they are reflected in dictionaries, but always with the mark “professional”.
In the field of professional vocabulary, the terms of computer science and computer technology currently occupy a special place due to the intensive computerization of various fields of activity: virtual reality, laser printer, computer virus, multimedia, file, modem, scanner, etc.
The rapid expansion of the field of application of computer technology leads to the involvement of these and other terms in active lexicon. You can clarify their meanings in special dictionaries.
Researchers note that in the modern Russian language “a huge number of new legal terms have appeared, which are largely unfamiliar to large sections of the population, and at the same time, legal terms, like no other, require clear knowledge of the established federal laws their meanings." For example: internally displaced persons, state duty payer, limited liability company, dealer activity. You can become familiar with legal terms by also consulting dictionaries.
Speaking about the norms of word usage, one should keep in mind such a process as the transformation of the meanings of words, in particular, the termination of commonly used words.
IN AND. Maksimov gives the following example:
A menu meant “a selection of foods, as well as a piece of paper with a list of them,” and in modern computer technology this became the name for “a list of modes, commands and response options shown on the display screen for the user to select.”<...>. And in no case should you confuse the common everyday meaning of the word and the terminative, professional meaning.
The communicative process may be hampered by the use of borrowed words if the speaker and/or listener do not know or do not know their semantics accurately. For example: auditor, broker, makeup artist, croupier, logistics, marketer, head waiter (names of professions).
Borrowed words: benefit or harm? Disputes about the benefits and harms of borrowed words have not subsided for many decades. On the one hand, the speeches of linguists against the use of foreign words unnecessarily evoke a keen response and sympathy from most people. On the other hand, the emergence of new words is caused by the emergence of new realities of life that did not exist before and for which there is no linguistic analogue in the Russian language (see the same names of professions: logistics, marketer, office manager; or: mixer, toaster, mobile (cellular ) telephone, fax, pager).
The attitude towards borrowed words is not only linguistic, but also public problem, requiring a thoughtful and careful approach.
Norms of word usage are associated with both semantically and stylistically precise choice of words. Here we should take into account the fact that, under the influence of rapid changes in public life mentioned above, many actively used names have changed their stylistic coloring and, therefore, the scope of use. Thus, the words business, businessman, which were in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegov marked “unfolding”, in the 90s of the XX century. entered active dictionary and became neutral, i.e. their use is now possible in different styles speech.
Along with updating part outdated vocabulary, having once again returned to the active vocabulary (gymnasium, lyceum, banker, governor, governess, cadets, liberal democrats), a process of de-actualization of part of the vocabulary is taking place in the vocabulary of the Russian language. The reason for the de-actualization of whole lexical groups was the dismantling of existing political and economic systems. The words and phrases five-year plan, collective farmer, leader, pioneer, Komsomol member, shock worker of communist labor, winner of socialist competition, etc. have lost their relevance.
Word combination: win or lose? A particular difficulty from the point of view of word usage is the compatibility of words. The possibilities of combining words with each other are very different. Functional parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions) have the greatest ability to combine with other words. Significant parts of speech can be divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within the limits of their subject-logical connections: specific nouns (person, house, book), verbs (live, know, go), especially - auxiliary verbs(to be, become, begin), evaluative adjective (good, big). Other words have limited compatibility (obsess, ticklish, blue). These words require special attention from the point of view of lexical norms.
Restrictions on the combination of words can be semantic: there should be no contradictions in the concepts being connected (you cannot use expressions like a huge house, a square circle, blooming January).
Combining some words into phrases becomes impossible due to their grammatical nature (quick - sad, five - laugh). And finally, compatibility restrictions may be caused by lexical features words (it’s customary to say win, it’s not customary to say defeat; it’s customary to say laughter, evil, fear takes, not accepted to say joy takes).
Errors in the combination of words are often made in the essays of schoolchildren and applicants, and in students’ oral answers in exams. For example:
“A child is born with a blank slate in his head, and something correct needs to be written on it”; “His character is not Nordic, but frail, and maybe even weak, but he carefully hides it”; “A comprehensive education program consists of pieces various items and labor, which is also studied as a subject.”
To avoid such mistakes, you will be able to refer to special dictionaries that provide typical examples of the compatibility of certain words with others, for example, to the “Dictionary of compatibility of words in the Russian language” / Ed. P.N. Denisov and V.V. Morkovkina.
As JI.B rightly noted. Shcherba, conscious grouping of words is characteristic mainly writing. However, compliance literary norms compatibility of words is a necessary requirement for oral usage.
Norms for the compatibility of words cannot be too rigid and set once and for all.
In language, there is a continuous process of redistribution of connections between words, caused by both extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic reasons. Much of what was generally accepted in the language earlier becomes outdated and becomes unusual for the present time. For example: the instigator of the story (now the meaning of the word “instigator” is narrowing), a hotbed of enlightenment, promoting processes, coming from the Komsomol. At the same time, many new phrases appear and are legitimized by speech practice: a set of problems, a last minute trip, a computer virus, cellular communications, a helpline, a luxury train.
So, the correctness of word usage consists of the sum of the signs. As the main K.S. Gorbachevich names the prevalence and regular reproducibility of a given meaning of a word, its correspondence to the general psycholinguistic mechanism of semantic development, and its consonance with traditional and cultural-historical factors.
9.1. Morphological norms
Morphological norms are the rules for using the morphological forms of different parts of speech. The main difficulty of studying morphological norms consists in the presence of variant forms (usually endings and suffixes).
The characteristic prerequisites for variation in morphology are the mixing and interaction of old types of declension, conjugation and other methods of formation of grammatical forms inherited from the past linguistic state; in some cases - the influence of territorial dialects; For foreign words- features of the source or intermediary language. Particularly stable are those fluctuations in morphological norms that are determined by the influence of several factors. Morphological variation extends over a very significant number of words.
Let us dwell only on those variants of morphological forms of parts of speech that most often raise questions in everyday word usage.
Variant forms of a noun
Forms of the genus
The category of gender is historically very stable. Only a few nouns changed their grammatical gender: hall, sanatorium, dahlia (formerly born, obsolete) - hall, sanatorium, dahlia (formerly born, modern).
1. In a number of cases, parallel forms of masculine and female. These forms can differ semantically and both belong to the literary language, i.e. be normative: fever (high temperature) - heat (heat); quarry (place of open-pit mining); career 2 - (accelerated horse movement, gallop) - career (achieving a prominent position in society).
Generic variants can differ stylistically, for example: metamorphosis (complete, complete change) - metamorphosis (special) (modification into another form of development with the acquisition of a new appearance and functions. Metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly). Both options are also within the norms of literary language.
Different forms of the genus may have different spheres of use. Then the variant of the extraliterary sphere of use will be non-normative. For example: apple (m.r., lit.) - apples (m.r., dial.); shoe (l.r., lit.) - shoes (m.r., colloquial).
2. Names of persons by profession, position, scientist or military rank and so on. retain the masculine form even in cases where they refer to a woman (associate professor, professor, doctor, accountant, captain, caretaker), since for a long time only men were holders of these professions and titles. To indicate gender in these cases, semantic agreement of the verb-predicate in the past tense is used (The doctor finished the appointment. The captain reported on the completion of the task. The assistant professor took the exam). It is unusual to use feminine nouns with the suffixes -ikh(a), -sh(a) (librarian, rector, doctor). This is a colloquial distortion of the norm. For the official name of a profession or occupation of women (for example, in a questionnaire), masculine nouns are preferable (laboratory assistant, entrepreneur, inspector).
If a certain profession, position, specialty in equally associated with male and female labor, parallel formations are easily formed: orderly - nurse, teacher - teacher, conductor - conductor.
Often, words denoting representatives of a particular profession do not have a generic correspondence due to semantic dissimilarity, for example: machinist (a mechanic who controls the operation of a machine) - typist (a woman who works on a typewriter); soldier (serviceman) - soldier (soldier's wife) or the emergence of unwanted homonymy, for example: pilot (pilot) - cap (uniform headdress); stoker (stoker for a steam boiler) - stoker (room where the furnaces of steam boilers are located).
3. The gender of compound words (abbreviations), composed by combining initial letters or sounds, is determined by the gender of the main word. For example: UN - United Nations Organization (zh.r., since the main word is organization - zh.r.); EMERCOM - Ministry of Emergency Situations (sr.r., since the main word is Ministry - sr.r.); MSU - Moscow State University (m.r., since the main word is university - m.r.).
4. Determining the gender of indeclinable foreign language nouns causes particular difficulties. Indeclinable animate nouns are usually classified as masculine: attaché, entertainer, pony, chimpanzee.
Contextual use can reveal real generic affiliation: The kangaroo galloped on. - The kangaroo was carrying a baby in her bag.
Inanimate indeclinable nouns should be classified as neuter: cafe, metro, auto, photo, etc. But not all indeclinable nouns are subject to this division. Thus, the word coffee is masculine, avenue (street) is feminine, salami (sausage) is feminine. The word blinds (curtains) is primarily used as a plural noun.
5. Indeclinable foreign nouns denoting male persons are classified as masculine, and female nouns are classified as feminine. For example: military attaché, old Frau. Nouns denoting both (such as croupier, incognito, protégé) are bi-gender: my protégé is my protégé.
6. The gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names is determined by the generic name: the city of Sochi (m.r.), Missouri River (r.r.).
Number forms
1. Singular nouns can be used in a collective meaning, i.e. acquire the meaning of plurality: “There are no wolves in our forests”; "The reader asks..."
2. Plural nouns can be used in the singular meaning. This is usually accompanied by expression and is characteristic of spoken language. For example: “What do they teach you only in institutes!”; “He walks around here in robes with dragons!”
3. Real nouns have only the form of one number - singular (copper, mercury, milk) or plural (sawdust, cream, canned food).
But in a special meaning, material nouns can take on a plural form: sand - sands, clay - clays.
4. Abstract (abstract) nouns are usually used in the singular form (opportunism, courage, whiteness), less often in the plural (re-elections, troubles, vacations). Sometimes abstract nouns can take forms of both numbers. In this case, their meaning is usually specified: speed - high speeds; beauty - the beauty of nature.
Variant case endings
1. Traditional variants of case endings of nouns are associated with inanimate masculine nouns:
(a) in the singular genitive case endings -a(- i) and -у(-у) are possible: a cup of tea - the aroma of tea, a piece of cheese - cheese production. Forms with endings -у, -у have a colloquial character;
(b) in the prepositional case the possible options are -e – -y: in the forest - about the forest. In this case, -y indicates the place of action, -e - the object. Both options are normative. On vacation - on vacation, in the workshop - in the workshop - in such cases -e is neutral in nature, -u is colloquial.
(c) some inanimate nouns masculine in the prepositional case singular with prepositions in and on with spatial meaning must always have stressed endings -у(-у): corner, closet, shore, bridge, garden. For example: in Crimea (not in Crimea), in a row (not in a row).
2. In the nominative plural, along with the traditional endings -ы, -and, the endings -а, -я have become widespread. For a number of words they have already become basic: director, professor, poplar, bell, passport.
In case of hesitation in choosing these endings, you should remember that -a, -ya are more typical of everyday and professional speech: years - years, tractors - tractors, stacks - stacks, anchors - anchors.
At the same time, it must be taken into account that some variant forms differ in meaning, i.e. are homonyms in the singular form: images (icons) - images (artistic and literary); passes (documents) - omissions (absenteeism or oversights); colors (coloring) - flowers (plants); tones (changes of color) - tones (sound).
3. Genitive plural with endings -ov, -ev,
To her, zeros are a constant stumbling block for all language learners. The endings -ov and zero compete most actively in speech, less often -ee and zero.
Nouns usually have a zero ending:
(a) with a collective meaning, used to designate groups: soldiers, partisans, hussars (but: tank crews, colonels, etc.);
(b) words denoting paired objects: eyes, lips, shoulder straps, boots, felt boots, boots (but socks);
(c) names of some nationalities: Bulgarians, Turks, Armenians, Georgians (but: Tajiks, Kyrgyz);
(d) words denoting units of measurement: watt, ampere, roentgen, volt.
When naming vegetables and fruits, the ending -ov is preserved, which has practically disappeared from oral speech, but is nevertheless normative: bananas, apricots, oranges, tomatoes.
In case of vibrations of forms with zero ending and -s, the former are characteristic of colloquial speech, the latter - strictly literary language.
4. In recent years, variants of indeclinable and indeclinable nouns have appeared - geographical names: Golitsyno, Serovo, Pushkino, Odintsovo. Traditionally, all Russian words must be inflected, but place names with the ending -о have begun to be used more and more often. initial form, which does not change when the case form changes: Monino station, live in Monino, come from Monino, stay near Monino. This trend reflects the influence of book styles: “at first, indeclinable forms were used by geographers and military men, for whom it was important to give names in the original, nominative form, so as not to confuse words without an ending: the city of Kirov - Kirovo...”.
5. Abbreviations are also divided into indeclinable and indeclinable. For example: university, registry office, youth theater, housing department, Moscow Art Theater - they are inclined, CIS, traffic police, LLC, VAT - they are not inclined.
Experts have established the following pattern: at the time of the appearance and mastery of a language, abbreviations, as a rule, do not change by case. But over time, many abbreviations become like ordinary nouns and begin to decline. For example: at BAM, at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
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Variant forms of the adjective
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Short forms
Short forms can have truncated and non-truncated versions: responsible or responsible, effective or efficient.
1. Adjectives based on -native must have both forms short form: mysterious - mysterious, mediocre - mediocre. But in Lately in words of this type, the truncated version becomes preferable: ignorant, hereditary, immoral, insensitive, characteristic, natural, appropriate, majestic, identical.
2. Adjectives starting with -en allow truncated and non-truncated variants; they are both literary, but the unabridged form is more typical of bookish speech. Colloquial speech, striving to save speech effort, is characterized by truncated options: groundless, blissful, meaningless, ambiguous, frivolous.
Degrees of comparison
1. When forming a simple comparative degree, the suffixes -ee and -ee are used: faster - faster, more important - more important. Options with -ey are considered colloquial.
2. Traditional speech error in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison - combining indicators of synthetic and analytical forms: louder, less quiet, the most beautiful, the tallest. Such use of forms is considered colloquial.
3. Adjectives have a Supplemental form of the synthetic comparative degree: good (better), bad (worse), small (less).
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Variant forms of pronouns
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When using pronouns, there are no particular difficulties in choosing variant forms. We just note the following:
1. The 3rd person pronouns he, she are not pronounced in relation to the person nearby: you should call him by name. This is the requirement of speech culture.
2. For 3rd person pronouns after prepositions, -n is added to the stem: to meet her - to meet her; call him - remember him.
3. After the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, 3rd person pronouns are used without the initial -n: older than him, higher than her, more expensive than them.
4. Interrogative pronouns Who? So what? do not have morphological categories of gender and number. With the pronoun who? The predicate verb is used in the masculine gender, regardless of who is actually meant: a man, a woman, several people. For example: Who came? Who called the taxi?
What about the pronoun? The predicate verb is put in the neuter gender: What happened? What happened?
5. The pronouns you and your can be used as a form of polite address to one person. In this case, they are written with a capital letter: How do you feel? Has your report been prepared?
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Variant forms of the numeral name
1. The most common errors in the use of numerals are observed when declension of compound cardinal numerals. Each part of a compound numeral should be changed, for example: o 286 - o two hundred eighty six; from 1305 - with one thousand three hundred and five. The use of forms with a thousand, with a thousand in the instrumental case goes beyond literary norms.
2. In complex numerals -sot, -sti, -sta in indirect cases both parts are declined: four hundred, six hundred, seven hundred, despite the fact that the numeral one hundred (as well as forty and ninety) in all indirect cases, except the accusative, have inflection -a. They have only two forms: Im.p. = V.p. forty, ninety, one hundred; the remaining cases are forty, ninety, hundred.
3. When declining ordinal numbers, only the last digit changes: in two thousand and three.
4. There are frequent mistakes when using collective numerals (two, three, four, etc.) with nouns. These numerals cannot be combined with feminine nouns (you cannot say: five students, three female students). Collective numerals are possible only in the following combinations: with masculine nouns meaning persons (two young men, three schoolchildren), names of cubs (five kittens); with common nouns (three elders, four colleagues); with personal pronouns (“There were only three of us left out of eighteen guys...”).
5. In both numerals, there is a mixture of masculine and feminine stems. Normally, when declension of the numeral both, the stem ends in -o (both friends), both ends in -e (both friends).
6. Variants of case endings of numerals arise due to their inconsistent reflection of the category of animation. The words two, three, four, used with animate nouns, have the form accusative case, similar to the genitive, for example: escort three relatives to the station (cf.: escort three trains); meet one acquaintance (cf.: read one volume, one book, one poem).
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Variant verb forms
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1. With masculine nouns denoting female persons by profession (engineer, doctor, author, auditor), the past tense verb is put in the feminine gender: The school director held a meeting. The engineer has completed the project.
2. Some verbs ending in -nu form variant forms - with the suffix -nu and zero suffix: arise - arose and arose; disappear - disappeared and disappeared; get used to it - got used to it and got used to it. Recently, preference has been given to options with a zero suffix.
3. For verbs starting with -yva, -iva when forming forms imperfect form it is possible to alternate sounds [o] // [a] at the base: to determine - to determine and to condition; empower - authorize and authorize. These examples are stylistically equivalent.
However, most of these options are contrasted as outdated and modern: to challenge - to challenge, to honor - to honor, to reassure - to reassure, etc.
4. There is a group of abundant verbs that form variant forms like: moves - moves, drips - drips. Some of them have no particular stylistic differences, differing semantically and being equally normative: Science drives progress. The student moves the table.
For the majority of abundant verbs, the forms ending in -at, -ut are neutral, while those in -ayut are colloquial: waving - waving, whining - whining, tormenting - tormenting.
5. A number of unproductive verbs in -et: recover, become disgusted, disgusted - in colloquial speech they are used in the forms I will recover, disgusted, etc., although their more correct variants will recover, disgusted, disgusted.
6. Some verbs have peculiarities in the formation of person forms, in particular - the absence of a 1st person singular form. The reasons for this are either in the structure or in the semantics of the verb. From the point of view of structure (the appearance of combinations of sounds that are incompatible for the Russian language), verbs with stems ending in -д, -т, -з, -с do not form 1st person forms: to win, to convince, to freak out, to feel, to make noise, to vacuum, to dare, rustle.
Semantic reasons preventing the formation of 1st (and 2nd) person singular forms may be:
(a) the lack of subjectivity of the action, i.e. we're talking about O impersonal verbs: evening, dawn, chill, unwell;
(b) incompatibility with human action: rust, turn green, warm;
(c) simultaneity of action: run together, crowd, scatter, accumulate.
Such verbs are called insufficient.
7. Verbs do not have an imperative form:
drive (the closest imperative form is go), be able, want, see, hear, crave and etc.
8. From options verb form- gerunds - with the suffixes -v and -louse The second is considered obsolete: having taken - having taken, having decided - having decided.
9.6.Syntactic norms
Syntactic rules govern correct construction sentences and phrases.
Order of words in a sentence.
1. The correctness of speech is largely determined by the order of words in a sentence. In written speech, its location norms are often violated, which leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement: The sun was covered by a cloud; It was decided that all dog owners should be kept on a leash.
2. The norm of the modern Russian literary language is the direct order of words in a sentence: in the first place (in preposition) is either the subject or the predicate: The weather has improved. The sun is shining. Stylistic application of these options syntactic constructions various. Sentences with a prepositive subject are usually used in narration (Graduates are writing an essay), with a prepositive predicate - when describing a sentence (The long-awaited summer has come). Constructions with a predicate at the beginning of a sentence are also typical for interrogative and exclamatory sentences: Do you like the theater? How does this color suit you!
3. For minor members of a sentence, the following placement within the phrase is recommended: coordinated words precede the core word, and controlled words follow it. For example: You gave your ( agreed word) fate (stem word) to another (control word).
4. If in a sentence the agreed word is separated from the core verb, then this is usually inversion - a stylistic device consisting of a deliberate change in the order of words for the purpose of emotional, semantic highlighting any part of the sentence. For example: Athletes returned from competitions joyful. Full of thought, I was walking along a forest road one day.
The normative use of inversion is limited to artistic and journalistic speech.
5. In phrases consisting of two nouns or a verb and a dependent noun, it is the dependent noun that is usually in the postposition: father’s dacha, road to home; read the story, solve the problem. In phrases with an adverb it is in the preposition: very cheerful, very patient.
In colloquial speech, the construction of the named postpositional and prepositional constructions is often violated: grandmother's house; we plant seedlings; very modest.
In combinations of verbs with adverbs, the word order depends on the meaning of the statement, on where the logical stress falls. For example: The sky is overcast with autumn clouds; He answered brilliantly.
6. When using several in a sentence homogeneous definitions Closer to the word being defined is placed the one that names the most important sign. For example: A special comfortable computer desk was needed for the computer.
Variants of connection between subject and predicate.
1. With masculine nouns naming a profession, position, title, but denoting a woman, the predicate in book styles is put in the masculine form, in colloquial - in the feminine form (A lawyer should (must) help in resolving this issue).
2. Agreement with such nouns of definitions in the feminine gender is colloquial in nature (our editor..., new doctor...).
3. When the subject is expressed by a combination of common and proper nouns, the predicate agrees with the latter (Inspector Petrova responded to a request from the Ministry).
4. Difficulties often arise in choosing the form of the predicate in the singular or plural if the subject is expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination, including with the words “many”, “several”, “a lot”, etc. Possible options: Several people were not working. - Several people did not work. The same is true of combinations with specific quantitative semantics: Five people were sitting (were sitting) by the fire.
The singular number of the predicate does not cause hesitation when denoting time, space, or a measure of weight: A hundred years have passed... There are two kilometers left to the highway; There were five kilograms of onions in the net.
Also, the predicate is used in the singular in the presence of qualifying words “only”, “total”, “only”: Only eight vacationers signed up for the excursion.
5. Similar difficulties in choosing predicate forms appear with subjects that include the nouns majority, minority, plurality. Despite grammatical form singular, they can denote not one object or person, but many.
It is customary to focus on animateness/inanimateness: if the subject is expressed animate noun, the predicate is usually placed in the plural. Many people came to the rally. Wed: Many subjects were studied at school.
6. Fluctuations in the form of the number of the predicate also occur with homogeneous subjects. Usually the predicate in such cases is put in the plural form: The athletes and the coach went to the airport. Options (with the singular form) are acceptable only in colloquial speech: Afanasyev’s sister and brother walked with us.
7. For interrogative, negative and indefinite pronouns(such as who, someone, no one, someone) in the role of the subject, the predicate is put in the singular masculine form, even if we are talking about a woman or several persons: Which of those present donated money for tickets to the theater?
With a pronoun like that (nothing, something), the predicate in the past tense is put in the singular neuter form, even if we are talking about many objects or the name of a certain gender (masculine or feminine): What happened? Something rustled in the distance.
Variation in the form of approval: two new cassettes.
1. In combinations of nouns with the numerals two, three, four, the form of the definition depends on the gender of the noun: for the feminine it is the nominative plural, for the masculine and neuter it is the genitive case. For example: two new cassettes - two new disks; three scientific expeditions - three unexplored lakes.
In colloquial speech, options are possible, but they are already considered non-standard: two new cassettes, two new disks.
2. In all other combinations of nouns with numerals (except two, three, four), the form of the definition depends on the order of the words: in preposition, the definition is in any case used in the form of the nominative plural (the first five classes), in postposition and interposition - in the form genitive plural (“The last six months devoted to preparation for the city’s anniversary”),
3. Applications are usually coordinated with the noun to which they relate: “I went to both the Mother Volga and the Oka Nurse” (M. Gorky). Sometimes options appear: in the city of Kaluga, but in the city of Balakovo. Most variants are found in combinations of toponyms (geographical names) with generic names: city, town, village, river, lake. For example: to the village of Zheleznodorozhny - to the village of Zheleznyaki; in the village of Belaya - in the village of Tishkovo. Toponyms that have only a plural form (Mytishchi, Khvastovichi, Velikiye Luki), as well as toponyms ending in -o, which have recently shown a tendency toward indeclinability (Fryazino, Voronovo, Balabanovo), do not agree with generic names.
The names of stations and ports are usually given in initial form: The train arrives at Kostroma station; Unloading will take place at the port of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk.
Street names are agreed upon as appendices: on Teatralnaya Street, from Vorobyovka Street. If street names are a frozen form of the genitive case or compound names, then they do not agree with the word being defined, but remain unchanged: Kirov Street (from the “name of Kirov”), about Pushkin Street, on Krasnye Vorota Street, to Simeonovo Gorodische Street.
Management options: House of the nephew of the doctor's brother's coachman's wife.
1. In the Russian language, a number of controlled constructions are characterized by great stability, the choice the desired shape management in such cases does not present any difficulties. These are, for example, constructions that express homogeneous relationships: worked at a factory - worked at a school (the case of the dependent word is the same, but the prepositions are different. The forms are not used: worked at a factory, worked at a school).
2. Some control constructions have shades of meaning that are quite clearly differentiated by native speakers. For example: buy bread - buy bread. The genitive case denotes a part, a quantity of something, and the accusative case indicates that the action is completely transferred to the object. To fight with someone - to fight against someone. The instrumental case indicates the subject or object of the action, and it is the action that is emphasized. The genitive case signals an active clash of opposites. community groups, opinions.
3. A number of control options have different stylistic affiliations: talk about the film (neutral) - talk about the film (colloquial); forget due to absent-mindedness (neutral) - forget due to absent-mindedness (bookish).
4. Synonymous words (which are the main ones in management) often require different dependent case forms. For example: inform parents - notify parents; to be afraid of the boss - to be timid in front of the boss; admire talent - applaud talent. When using such combinations, associative errors arise (reproaching an employee instead of reprimanding the employee; being indignant at rising prices instead of being indignant at rising prices or being angry at rising prices).
5. With two or more control words, a common dependent can be used. Such combinations are correct if the main words require the same case and preposition: read and retell the text, select and prepare frames. Such combinations are incorrect if the common dependent word requires different management: show care and attention to older people (care - about whom? attention - to whom?). In such cases, it is recommended to add a pronoun to the second controlled word, replacing the noun in the first word: to show care and attention to older people.
6. The norms of the literary language do not welcome the so-called “stringing” of cases, i.e. arrangement of several identical case forms in a chain. A classic example was given by the famous linguist A.M. Peshkovsky: House of the nephew of the doctor's brother's coachman's wife.
Most often, stringing occurs genitive cases: to resolve the issue of accelerating the payment of pensions; less often - instrumental cases: the issue is discussed by a commission appointed by the management.
Sometimes it is enough to “break” the chain of cases to ensure the perception of the text; sometimes infinitive constructions should be used or subordinate clauses. For example: To resolve the issue of accelerating the payment of pensions...
7. It is recommended to avoid case forms with the same prepositions, for example: A conversation took place between groups of students about friendship between nations. The following text editing is possible: Students from several groups had a conversation about friendship between nations.
8. Native speakers of Russian often find it difficult to use the construction miss... (for you? for you?). Unanimous opinion Linguists don’t yet have any idea about this management model.
I. B. Golub proposes the following approach: “If in combination with nouns (we miss our son, we miss our children) and with personal pronouns of the 3rd person (we miss him, we miss them) the preposition by controls dative case, then in combination with personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons, the same preposition is used with the prepositional case: we miss you (not you), they miss us (not us).
Terminological and professional vocabulary
Socially restricted use terminological And professional vocabulary used by people of the same profession, working in the same field of science and technology. Terms and professionalisms are given in explanatory dictionaries with the mark “special”; sometimes the scope of use of a particular term is indicated: physicist, medicine, mathematician, astronomer. etc.
Each area of knowledge has its own terminological system.
Terms are words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, or art. Each term is necessarily based on a definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which form the essence of the terminological system of this science.
As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use and the characteristics of the designated object.
First of all this general scientific terms, which are used in various areas knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict, hypothetical, progress, reaction etc. These terms form a common conceptual fund various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.
Differ and special terms, which are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, industries of production and technology; for example in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective, pronoun; in medicine: heart attack, fibroids, periodontitis, cardiology etc. The quintessence of each science is concentrated in these terminologies. According to S. Bally, such terms “are ideal types linguistic expression, which inevitably strives for scientific language" [Bally S. French stylistics. M., 1961 P. 144].
Terminological vocabulary is informative like no other. Therefore, in the language of science, terms are indispensable: they allow you to briefly and extremely accurately formulate a thought. However, the degree of terminology scientific works not the same. The frequency of use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation and the addressing of the text.
Modern society requires a form of description of the data obtained that would allow us to make greatest discoveries humanity is the property of everyone. However, often the language of monographic studies is so overloaded with terms that it becomes inaccessible even to a specialist. Therefore, it is important that the terminologies used are sufficiently mastered by science, and newly introduced terms need to be explained.
A peculiar sign of our time has been the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives reason to talk about general terminology of modern speech. Thus, many words that have a terminological meaning have received widespread use without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as common words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special precision and unambiguity. Yes, word mountain, meaning in broad usage “a significant elevation rising above the surrounding terrain” and having a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific height measurements in its interpretation.
In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the terms “mountain” and “hill” is essential, a clarification is given - “a hill more than 200 m in height.” Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinologization.
Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various fields of production, techniques that, however, have not become generally used. Unlike terms - official scientific names of special concepts, professionalism function primarily in oral speech as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, in the speech of printers, professionalisms are used: ending - “graphic decoration at the end of the book”, tendril - “ending with a thickening in the middle”, tail - "bottom outer margin of page" and " bottom edge books" opposite the head of the book.
Professionalisms can be grouped according to the area of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. A special group includes technicalisms - highly specialized names used in the field of technology.
Professionalisms, in contrast to their commonly used equivalents, serve to distinguish between closely related concepts used in a certain type of human activity. Thanks to this, professional vocabulary is indispensable for the laconic and precise expression of thoughts in special texts intended for a trained reader. However, the informative value of narrowly professional names is lost if a non-specialist encounters them. Therefore, professionalism is appropriate, say, in large-circulation trade newspapers and is not justified in publications aimed at a wide readership.
Certain professionalisms, often of a reduced stylistic sound, become part of the commonly used vocabulary: give out on the mountain, storming, turnover. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a specific stylistic task: as a characterological means when describing the lives of people associated with any production.
Professional slang vocabulary has a reduced expressive connotation and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device a snitch; in the speech of pilots there are words underdose, overdose, meaning “undershooting and overshooting the landing sign”, as well as bubble, sausage - “probe balloon”, etc. Professional slang words, as a rule, have neutral synonyms devoid of a colloquial connotation, which have a precise terminological meaning.
Professional slang vocabulary is not listed in special dictionaries, unlike professionalisms, which are given with explanations and are often enclosed in quotation marks (to distinguish them graphically from terms): “clogged” font - “a font that has been in typed galleys or strips for a long time” ; “foreign” font - “letters of a font of a different style or size, mistakenly included in the typed text or heading.”
Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language.
M.: Iris-Press, 2002
In the Russian language, along with common vocabulary, there are words and expressions used by groups of people united by the nature of their activities, i.e. by profession. This professionalism .
Professionalisms are characterized by greater differentiation in the designation of tools and means of production, in the name specific items, actions, persons, etc. They are widespread mainly in the colloquial speech of people of one profession or another, sometimes being a kind of unofficial synonyms for special names. Often they are reflected in dictionaries, but always with the mark “professional”. In newspaper and magazine texts, as well as in works of art, they usually perform a nominative function, and also serve as a figurative and expressive means.
Thus, in the professional speech of actors they use a complex abbreviated name chief executive; in colloquial speech of builders and repairmen the professional name is used overhaul capital; maintenance personnel of computer centers are called machinists And eveem people; on fishing boats, workers who gut fish (usually by hand) are called shkershchiki etc.
According to the method of education, we can distinguish:
1) actual lexical professionalisms, which arise as new, special names. For example, in this way the above word arose in the speech of professional fishermen shkershchik from the verb shkerat- “gut the fish”; in the speech of carpenters and joiners, the names of various types of planes are: kalevka, zenzubel, tongue and groove etc.;
2) lexical-semantic professionalisms, arising in the process of developing a new meaning of the word and its rethinking. This is how, for example, professional meanings of words arose in the speech of printers: Christmas trees or paws- a type of quotation marks; a cap- a common title for several publications, corral- spare, additional set not included in the next issue; In the speech of hunters, professional names for the tails of animals differ: for deer - kuiruk, burdock, at the wolf - log, at the fox - pipe, the beaver has shovel, the squirrel has furry, at the hare - flower, bunch, burdock etc.;
3) lexical and word-formative professionalisms, which include words like spare tire- spare mechanism, part for something; chief manager - chief director, etc., in which either a suffix or a way of adding words, etc. are used.
Professionalisms are usually not widely used in literary languages, i.e. their scope of use remains limited.
TO terminological vocabulary refer to words or phrases used to logically accurately define special concepts or objects of any field of science, technology, Agriculture, art, etc. Unlike common words, which can have multiple meanings, terms within a particular science are usually unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, motivated specialization of meaning.
The development of science and technology, the emergence of new branches of science is always accompanied by the abundant appearance of new terms. Therefore, terminology is one of the most mobile, fast-growing and rapidly changing parts of the national vocabulary (compare only some of the names of new sciences and branches of production: automation, allergology, aeronomy, biocybernetics, bionics, hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology and many other sciences related to space exploration, plasma chemistry, speleology, ergonomics etc.).
The ways of forming terms are different. For example, it is observed terminology words existing in the language, i.e. scientific rethinking of well-known lexical meaning. This process goes in two ways:
1) by abandoning the generally accepted lexical meaning and giving the word a strict, precise name, for example: signal in information theory “changing physical quantity, displaying messages";
2) through the full or partial use of those features that serve as the basis for the lexical meaning of a word in popular usage, i.e. name by similarity, contiguity, etc., for example: hole- defect electron in nuclear physics; drapery- type of form aurora; neck - intermediate part of the machine shaft, etc.
Note that the expressive-emotional meanings inherent in words with diminutive suffixes usually disappear during terminology. Wed. Also: tail(for tools, devices), paw(part of a machine frame; instrument part), etc.
The following methods are widely used to form terms:
- compounding: nuclear-powered icebreaker, smoke eliminator, crank, current rotator;
- affixation method: casting, lining, constellation, melting, heater;
- addition of foreign language elements: air, auto, bio and etc.
Widely used method terminology of phrases: elementary particles, primary radiation, cosmic rays, optical density, space medicine and etc.
Big role Foreign language borrowings play a role in terminological systems. WITH for a long time Many Dutch and English nautical terms are known; Italian and French musical, art, and literary terms; Latin and Greek terms are found in all sciences. Many of these terms are international.
The spread of scientific and technical terminology, its penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in language, along with the process terminology common words, the reverse process is also observed - the development of terms in the literary language, i.e. their determinologization. For example, the frequent use of philosophical, art, literary, physical, chemical, medical, industrial and many other terms has made them words in common use, for example: abstraction, argument, dialectics, materialism, thinking, concept, consciousness; concert, plot, style; amplitude, battery, contact, circuit, reaction, resonance; analysis, vitamin deficiency, diagnosis, immunity, x-ray; nylon, combine, conveyor, motor; incandescence, soldering, recoil, filtering and etc.
Determinologized words are widely used in different styles of speech: colloquial, bookish (in journalism, works of art, etc.). Along with them, professionalisms and terms are often used. However, the excessive saturation of artistic and journalistic works with scientific and technical terminology reduces their value and was condemned back in the late 20s and early 30s by A.M. Gorky, who wrote: “There is no need to abuse workshop terminology, or the terms should be explained. This definitely needs to be done, because it gives the book wider distribution and makes it easier to assimilate everything that is said in it.”
Slang vocabulary
Differ from dialect and professional vocabulary special words, by which individual social groups of people, according to the conditions of their social status and the specifics of the environment, designated objects or phenomena that already had names in the common literary language. This vocabulary is called slang . Its variety is argot vocabulary has an even more limited scope of use and is also not part of the literary language.
Especially a lot of jargon arose before the revolution in the speech of the ruling classes, which is explained by an attempt to artificially create a special variety of language by introducing specific elements and thereby somewhat separate the people of their circle from other speakers of the national Russian language.
Thus arose, for example, Russian-French salon jargon nobles, merchant jargon etc. For example: Plaisir- in the meaning of “pleasure, fun”, promenade- meaning “walk”; sentiments- meaning “excessive sensitivity”, Magarych- in the meaning of “a treat on the occasion of concluding a profitable deal”, etc.
Sometimes slang vocabulary appeared in educational institutions pre-revolutionary Russia, for example: in Bursat jargon slammed, squealed, whistled meaning "stole" burnt meaning "deceived" fell asleep in the meaning of “failed the exam”, etc. (see N.G. Pomyalovsky in “Essays on the Bursa”).
In Soviet times, the social essence of jargons changed, and their understanding also changed. In modern Russian there are only individual words“slang-colored” vocabulary, which are either related to the facts of professional speech, or are characteristic feature age group of a generation, predominantly young. For example,
- slur among printers, “foreign imprint on the print”, goat(s) among printers there is “omission of text in prints”;
- goat pilots have an “involuntary jump in the plane when landing”, "Annushka", "Ilyusha", "Duck"(U-2 biplane) - names of aircraft;
- spurs, cheat sheet, control, cock(five) and others for schoolchildren;
- wheel - wheels(vehicle), bullshit(nonsense, worthless evidence), filonit(sit back), shine, strength, iron, amazing(perfect), like a bayonet(required) - among young people.
The use of jargon in speech is not always justified. Therefore, the question arises about the protection of the modern literary language (see in more detail the article by Yu. Dolin “The question of the ecology of the modern literary language and its protection” in Appendix 21).
Exercise:
Find jargon in the article “Musical Shock” (see Appendix 22) and determine their meaning.
The use of such vocabulary clogs the language and should be prevented in every possible way. In the language of fiction, elements of slang (argotically) colored vocabulary are sometimes used in limited quantities to speech characteristics some characters (see works by G. Medynsky, D. Granin, V. Shukshin, Yu. Nagibin, etc.).
1.4.3 Test questions to consolidate the material
1. What groups of vocabulary of the modern Russian language do you know in terms of the scope of its use?
2. Define dialect vocabulary.
3. Tell us about the phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic features of dialect vocabulary.
4. Tell us about the use of dialect vocabulary in speech, in literary works, and journalism.
5. Define professional vocabulary.
6. What groups are professionalisms divided into according to the method of their formation? Tell us about each of them.
7. Tell us about the use of professional vocabulary in speech, in literary works, and journalism.
8. What words belong to terminological vocabulary?
9. Name the ways of forming terms.
10. Tell us about the use of terms in speech, in literary works, and journalism.
11. Define slang vocabulary.
12. What jargons do you know? Give examples of slang vocabulary.
13. Tell us about the use of slang vocabulary in speech, in literary works, and journalism.