They are characterized by a stylistically reduced, dismissive connotation and are outside the boundaries of the literary language. Fluctuations in the gender of immutable nouns are characteristic primarily of words of foreign origin that represent an exception to the general rules. This includes masculine words denoting names of languages (Hindi, Swahili, Urdu, Bengali), winds (sirocco, tornado), the word penalty, as well as such nouns female, like kohlrabi, salami, avenue, iwasi, tsetse, etc. Exceptions to the rules are explained here by the active influence of a word with a generic concept: Hindi (language), penalty (eleven-meter penalty kick), kohlrabi (cabbage), etc. Unchangeable borrowed words , denoting the names of animals and birds, usually male, but if they indicate a female, then in context they are used as feminine nouns: The kangaroo jumped slowly because she had a baby in her pouch. One exception to the rule is the word coffee, which falls into the category of masculine nouns due to its connection with the older form of coffee. In modern colloquial speech and even in print, this word is used in the neuter gender: Brazilian coffee, condensed coffee with milk. Individual abbreviations that end in a consonant and contain a feminine or neuter core word (TASS, NOT, ZHEK, VTEK), as well as initial and mixed types with a stem on a vowel (ROE, raiono) are subject to fluctuations in gender. , oblon, gorono, general store). The norm for a number of abbreviations of this type is unstable; here we can only talk about the trend of its development. The history of language shows that in such conflict situations the external grammatical form wins. An example is the abbreviations university, registry office, NEP, BAM and others, which have firmly become masculine words. Variation of case endings. The most frequent fluctuations are in the case endings of masculine nouns with a hard consonant. In the prepositional case singular For masculine nouns the main ending is -e. The variant ending -у is only possible in combinations with the prepositions in and on in the adverbial meaning of a place, less often a state or time of action: in the workshop, in the snow, on the shore. Difficulties usually arise in the use of nouns that equally easily take the endings -e and -y: on vacation/u, in the workshop/u, at the airport/u, etc. The literary norm in this case allows both forms, but the forms in the workshop on vacation they have a neutral color, and in the workshop, on vacation they are conversational; the forms on the shore, at a ball, in the garden, in a haystack, on board, on a wardrobe, etc., have a tinge of obsolescence. Formation of nominative plural forms. Fluctuations are most often observed in two-syllable borrowed (and some Russian) words: boat, bunker, bill, jacket, tenor, cruiser, tractor, sector, turner, etc. For most three-syllable words, the normative traditional ending is -ы( -And); First of all, words of Latin origin in -tor (inspector, proofreader, searchlight) are subject to fluctuations. Forms ending in -а(-я) in two- and three-syllable nouns are fixed unevenly and selectively in the Russian language; the norm must be checked in dictionaries. Therefore, forms of -a(-i) nouns with a fixed stress type found in speech cannot be recognized as normative. This includes words with the prefix you- (reprimand, departure, expulsion, exit, etc.) and words of French origin in -er, -er (driver, actor, director, officer, etc.). For monosyllabic nouns, variants within the literary norm are noted only in in separate words: workshops / workshops, years / years. The rest of the monosyllabic words have either the ending -a (sides; houses, meadows, etc.) or -s (plans, cakes, ports, fronts, etc.). In polysyllabic words, under the influence of a tendency towards rhythmic balance, as a rule, the traditional ending -ы(-и) is preserved: architects, librarians, transformers, capacitors, etc. genitive case plural normative variants are characteristic of those nouns whose generic variants are equal: skird / skirdov and skirda / skird. Variant forms are also formed by nouns, in the gender of which fluctuations are observed: dahlia / dahlias and dahlia / dahlia, rail / rails and rail / rail, etc. The first of these forms are general literary, the scope of use of the second is limited to colloquial speech, professional speech . Fluctuations in the formation of genitive plural forms are observed in separate groups masculine nouns with a solid consonant, serving as names of measures and units of measurement, vegetables, fruits, fruits, as well as paired objects. Most units of measurement in the genitive case have a firmly fixed zero ending (ampere, watt, volt, coulomb, hertz, erg, etc.). Variant forms are observed in the nouns gram, kilogram, 42 hectares. Forms ending in -ov are used mainly in written speech, but the zero ending is acceptable in spoken language. For nouns - names of vegetables, fruits, fruits, the common literary ending is -ov (oranges, eggplants, bananas, lemons, etc.). However, in oral speech The zero form is common, especially for the nouns orange, tangerine, tomato. The scope of its use is limited to colloquial speech, and even here it is permissible only in standard quantitative combinations with words denoting units of measurement: a ton of tomatoes, a kilogram of orange. In other combinations and in colloquial speech, the ending -ov is normative for these words: buy tangerines, the smell of oranges, a box of tomatoes. For nouns - names of paired objects or objects consisting of two or more parts, the norm is a zero ending: boots / boot, shoulder straps / shoulder straps, shorts / shorts, etc.; excluding socks/socks. In modern speech, the sock shape is widely used, which does not contradict language system, and therefore can be recognized as normative. As a colloquial version, it is already included in some dictionaries. Errors in the formation and use of forms of adjectives. The forms of adjectives are rich in a system of synonymous correspondences: synonymy of simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical) forms of comparative and superlative degrees of comparison (deeper - deeper, deepest - deepest - deepest - most profound); possessive adjectives and forms of indirect cases of nouns (raspberry jam - raspberry jam, wind from the north - north wind); synonymy of possessive adjectives, distinguished by suffixes (fathers - fatherly, husband - husband, enemy - enemy). When using synonymous forms in speech, their semantic and stylistic shades should be taken into account. Thus, the simple form of the comparative degree (more interesting, stronger) is stylistically neutral, it is used in all styles; complex (more interesting, stronger) is characteristic of book speech. Simple form superlatives has a bookish coloring, complex - neutral. The scope of use of constructions such as Lermontov's poems, fathers' orders, man's suit is limited to colloquial speech, while in neutral speech, especially in books, the constructions Lermontov's poems, father's orders, man's suit are used. Sometimes parallel revolutions diverge in their values so much that their mutual replacement is impossible. Wed: family of the elder brother - brotherly help, mother’s love for her son - mother's love. The use of parallel phrases without taking into account their semantic and stylistic differences leads to speech errors. Outside the literary norm are forms of the simple comparative degree found in speech, such as bolder, louder, richer, sweeter, sweeter, more beautiful, longer, etc. These are colloquial forms, their literary variants are bolder, louder, richer, sweeter, more beautiful, longer. Forms of the comparative degree with the prefix po-, which introduces the additional meaning of “a few, a little” (more, stronger, higher), are permissible only in colloquial speech, but in books, constructions a little more, a little stronger should be used. When using forms of comparative degree, the object of comparison must be indicated: And there is nothing more complicated inner world person (V. Tendryakov). Sentences like This room is cleaner and brighter do not correspond to the norms of literary language. Common mistakes are the formation of: 1) comparative and superlative degrees of comparison by combining analytical and synthetic forms: stronger, the strongest; 2) redundant combinations of the somewhat more detailed type (the more detailed form already has the meaning “several, a little”); 3) forms of comparative degree from relative adjectives: more synonymous series , a more conversational option. Such forms are allowed in works of fiction, where their use is stylistically motivated: On such an impenetrable blizzard evening, success was decided not by who was sharper or more accurate, but by who was luckier (L. Leonov); 4) superlative forms by attaching to adjectives in the form of the positive degree of the prefix nai-: most advantageous, most pleasant. Variation in combinations of numerals with nouns. In combinations of numerals with nouns, variant forms, usually differing in stylistic coloring, and deviations from literary norms are observed in the constructions: 1) “a complex cardinal number with the element one hundred in the instrumental case + noun: with two hundred (three hundred, four hundred and etc.) residents (book) – residents (colloquial); 2) “two (three, four) or more + noun”: in accordance with the literary norm, the noun depends on the numeral and is used in the genitive case of the singular, not the plural: two or more meters, three or more windows, four and more sheet. Rearrangements are possible: two meters or more, three windows or more; 3) “a compound numeral ending in two, three, four (22, 23, 24, 32, 33, 34, etc.) + a noun that has only a plural form. numbers." If necessary, you should use synonymous expressions (twenty-two sleighs were repaired, the twenty-second day has expired, twenty-two days have passed, etc.), since these nouns are used only in combination with collective numerals (two days , three trousers, four jeans); 4) “collective numeral + noun or substantivized adjective”: two wounded / two wounded, three sons / three sons, four orphans / four orphans. In combinations with adjectives formed from nouns, common nouns (when denoting several male persons or male and female persons) and masculine nouns ending in -a in the nominative case, it is recommended to use collective numerals: two passers-by, three bros - dug, four men. In oblique cases, along with collective cases, it is permissible to use cardinal numbers: two / two men, three / three children, four / four vacationers. In combination with masculine nouns with the meaning of person ending in a consonant, both cardinal and collective numerals are used: two friends / two friends, seven / seven commanders. In some cases, it is common literary practice to use only cardinal numerals, since collective numbers introduce a stylistically reduced connotation of meaning: two marshals (not two marshals), three professors (not three professors). In combination with nouns that only have a plural form, the collective numeral is used in the nominative case (two railings, five jeans), and in the indirect cases the cardinal number is used (about two days, about three jeans, with four sleighs). In combinations with masculine nouns denoting animals and feminine nouns, the literary norm is the use of cardinal numbers (two friends, three bears, four wolves). Combinations of collective numbers with the names of young animals (two chickens, three wolf cubs), paired objects in the meaning of “so many pairs” (two stockings, three socks), as well as in indirect cases with the names of wives’ faces do not correspond to the literary norm - 45 years old (two sisters, three students); they have a colloquial coloring. Errors in the use of pronouns. It is undesirable to duplicate the same pronoun in speech: When he received leave, he left for the village (better: Having received leave, he left... or He received leave and left...). The pronoun they should not be correlated with collective or abstract nouns that have a singular form. For example: The youth quickly responded to this call, and they are already going to develop virgin lands; The students went on vacation, where they will rest for two months. In such cases, it is advisable to replace the collective or abstract noun with a concrete one (students instead of student youth). A common mistake in speech is the confusion of the possessive pronouns my, yours, his and others with the reflexive possessive my: I did not find a use for my hands (need my own); Mother always had kind word for her daughters and sons (need their own). Excessive use of pronouns in cases where demonstrative meanings expressed by pronouns are self-evident: She has developed a good relationship with all your work colleagues; Before leaving for work, the mother woke up her son. Use verb forms 1. The verbs rinse, sway, purr, splash, yaw and some others form dual forms of the present tense: with alternating consonants (rinses, sways, etc.) and without alternation (rinses, sways, etc.). The first are general literary, the second are characteristic of the colloquial style. Stylistically, the forms of the present tense of the verbs meow (meows / meows), pour ( rashes / rashes), pinch (shchiplet / shchipet); imperative mood verbs to go (poezhay / ezhay / ed’), put (put / put down), put (put / put), lie down (lie down / lie down), go (go / go), etc. The first of them are common in literature them, the latter are colloquial in nature and are not used in literary speech. 2. Variants of forms such as condition / condition, concentrate / concentrate, empower / authorize are distinguished as bookish (with the vowel o at the root) and colloquial (with the vowel a). 46 3.5. Syntactic norms Modern language norms at the syntactic level, many variant forms are allowed: wait for vacation / vacation, did not read the book / books, two came / came, etc. Although all of them are described with sufficient completeness and consistency in the reference literature, nevertheless, in speech practice it arises a number of difficulties in choosing the desired syntactic structure. Options for coordinating the main members of the proposal. Modern standards coordination of the main members of a sentence, as is known, often allows for variant forms of gender and number of the predicate: five (most, several) students left / left; three voted/voted; the engineer spoke / spoke, etc. The choice of one form or another of the predicate depends on a number of factors that must be taken into account in each specific act of communication. Use of adverbial verbs. The gerund in a sentence denotes the additional action of a creature or object named by the subject in the nominative case of a noun or pronoun: Grandmother, putting on her glasses, read the letter; The ball bounced off the wall and flew into the window. Consequently, it is unacceptable to use a single gerundial participle or participial phrase in the following cases: a) in sentences without a subject expressed in the nominative case form: Grandmother felt sad after reading the letter; correction options are possible: Grandmother became sad after reading the letter, When grandmother read the letter, she became sad; b) if participial phrase the action of a creature or object that is expressed by the subject is indicated: Even with a map in hand, the route was found with difficulty (the subject is route, and the map was obviously held in the hand by a traveler not indicated in the sentence); correction option: Even with a map in hand, we had difficulty finding the route; c) if the sentence does not name the main action of an object or being: Having celebrated his seventieth anniversary, our veteran is active and vigorous (the main action of the veteran is not named, instead the signs are indicated - active and vigorous). Correction option: Having celebrated his seventieth birthday, our veteran continues to be active, he is full of vigor and strength. 47 Difficulties in transmitting someone else's speech. Someone else's speech in communication is most often transmitted: a) with the help of a non-union complex sentence with a special intonation - framed as direct speech: The students told the professor: “We need advice before the exam”; b) complex sentence - indirect speech: The students told the professor that they needed advice before the exam; c) exact quotation or introductory construction with the value of the information source (in book styles); d) inappropriately direct speech (mainly in fiction). An extremely common error when transmitting someone else’s speech is caused by mixing direct and indirect speech: The students told the professor that we needed counseling before the exam; The parents told the children that we would go to the dacha. Such constructions are not only incorrect from the point of view syntactic norms, but also lead to ambiguity and ambiguity of the message. 48 Lecture 4 LEXICAL STANDARDS OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE 4.1. The word and its meaning. Ways to formulate the meaning of a word The word is the basic unit of language, the most diverse and complex. It is the word that primarily reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also, as we have already noted, performs emotional, expressive and aesthetic functions. That is why, when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, compatibility with other words: after all, violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error. The meaning of a word is its subject-logical correlation with any class of phenomena of the external or internal world. In the Russian language there are words that name only one object. For example, the word pencil refers to a thin stick of graphite embedded in a wooden or plastic shell. Only this object, with which we write, draw, draw, is called a pencil. The word pencil has no other meaning. The same can be said about the words sidewalk, bicycle, kefir - they have only one meaning. Such words are called unambiguous. These words are contrasted with another group of words, no less extensive in modern vocabulary, – words with multiple meanings, and the very property of words to have several meanings is called polysemy, or polysemy. For example: model - 1) an exemplary copy of a product, as well as a sample for making something (an exhibition of women's dress models); 2) a reproduction or diagram of something, usually in a modified form (model of a machine); 3) type, brand, sample, design (new car model); 4) that which serves as material, in kind, for artistic depiction, reproduction; 5) a sample from which a mold is removed for casting or for reproduction in another material. Polysemy is a convenient way of storing information about the world; it is a law common to all languages. Polysemy is more represented in the languages of those peoples who have reached higher 49 stages of progress: in the languages of nations, polysemy is more widely represented than in tribal languages. Polysemy is not only one of the most important ways of developing the vocabulary of a language, but also the basis of linguistic imagery and expressiveness. It should be taken into account, however, that the possibilities of using figurative means of language are not the same for different language styles. Imagery, figurativeness, and non-standard language are one of the main advantages of works of fiction and some types of journalism. In business and scientific speech other traditions and norms. They are focused on the unambiguous use of words, on standardization and terminology of the language. A word taken in isolation is always perceived in its basic meaning, in which it is usually most often used in speech. Derived meanings are revealed only in combination with other words. For example, the verb to go can receive more than forty different meanings in speech, but the main thing is the one that first comes to mind - “to move by stepping with your feet.” Ways to formulate the meaning of a word. In the process of verbal communication, it is very important to agree with your partner on exactly what meaning you use this or that word: if the participants in the communication, without knowing it, use the same word, but in different meanings, then the communication process will be significantly complicated. Partners think that they speak the same language, but cannot achieve mutual understanding until it turns out that they put into the same sound shell different meanings. Therefore, any person striving for effective, efficient communication must be able to formulate the meaning of this word. As the famous philosopher Descartes wrote: “Determine the meaning of words, and you will rid the world of half the errors.” 1. A logical definition involves two operations: a) correlation of the word being defined with a broader, generic concept, for example, pine is a ‘tree’, a chair is a ‘piece of furniture’; b) correlation of the defined word within the found generic word with others species concepts and identifying the sum of features (or one feature) that distinguishes the defined concept from all others within the generic, for example, pine is a 'coniferous evergreen tree with a rounded crown', and a chair is 'a piece of furniture for sitting on one place with backrest, without armrests'. Definitions formulated in this way comply with the requirements of scientific and educational standards.
Exercise 1. Familiarize yourself with linguistic recommendations for choosing variant endings for the nominative plural of masculine nouns.
For masculine nouns in the plural, the nominative case endings are - I(s) bakers, workshops, mechanics, crafts, sectors, protectors etc.). Forms on -A (-I) usually have a colloquial or professional connotation (cf. baker, casing, craft and the like).
In order to correctly navigate when choosing one of the doublet forms for such nouns, you need to consider:
1) word structure;
2) origin of the word;
3) place of stress in a word;
4) stylistic differentiation;
5) context conditions.
So, remember: inflection - and I) as a normative they have:
1) many monosyllabic words ( run - run A, silk - silk A (excl. cake s );
2) words with singular stress on the first syllable ( evening - evening A, dome - dome A );
3) words with paired subject meaning ( cuff - cuff A, sleeve - sleeve A ).
Inflection on -Y (-I) as a normative they have:
1) three-syllable and polysyllabic words with stress on the middle syllable ( pharmacist – pharmacist And, accountant – accountant s );
2) words with stress on the final syllable of the stem ( agreement - agreement s, auditor - auditor s );
3) words French origin with stressed suffix -ER, -YOR (chauffeur s, engineer s );
4) words of Latin origin ending in –TOR and denoting inanimate objects ( tractor s , inductor s, reflector s ).
Words of Latin origin in -THOR, -SOR, denoting animate objects, in some cases have the ending -A because we received wide use and lost their bookish character ( director A, doctor A ), in others – -Y, since they retained the bookish tone ( author s, constructor s, editor s ).
Remember that the forms on -Y (-I) more neutral and for most words meet the traditional norms of the literary language ( bakers, workshops, crafts).
Task 2. Form the nominative plural forms of masculine nouns. Specify possible options and give their normative and stylistic characteristics, note outdated forms. Place emphasis.
1. Port, plow, grade, stack, front, font, headquarters, coat of arms, huntsman.
2. Buffer, fan, bill, director, doctor, boat, clover, bell, dome, master, vacation, sail, cook, cellar, professor, watchman, tower, black grouse, poplar, farmstead, skull, anchor.
3. Boatswain, bulldozer, accountant, hospital, compressor, conveyor, designer, container, lecturer, midshipman, fishing, sniper, navigator, pilot.
4. Seine, tractor, paramedic, ramrod, stack, stamp, hawk, jumper, agreement, instructor, pole, spotlight, report, editor, mouthpiece, sweater, sector, report card.
Task 3. Open the brackets and choose the appropriate option.
1. Qualified ( lecturers - lecturers). 2. Five-ton trucks drove out of the gate, ( bodies - bodies) they were filled to the brim with bags and boxes. 3. Round ( flaps - shreds) multi-colored leather lay in the corner of the shoemaker's workshop. 4. On permanent job qualified ( turners - turners) And ( locksmiths - locksmith) - toolmakers. 5. Military personnel crowded at the pier ( boats - boats). 6. Large ( seine - seine). 7. On external roadstead stood ( cruisers – cruisers). 8. On both sides of the construction site stood neatly stacked ( stacks - stacks) bricks. 9. Only experienced people can drive buses in the mountains ( chauffeurs - chauffeurs).
Task 4. Replace the dots with the missing letters. Please indicate possible options. Name groups of words that have the ending in the nominative plural -and I) cannot be considered normative.
1. Engineer... we hadn’t even walked a kilometer when a furious snowstorm broke out (V. Azhaev). 2. The buffer clanged..., for a moment everything became quiet, and the carriages slowly floated past (V. Popov). 3. Pobedonostsev decided to return to Moscow and begin efforts there to get a job at the flying club, where instructors trained... to teach beginners how to fly (V. Sayanov). 4. The entire French fleet exploded: battleship..., light and heavy cruiser..., destroyer... (V. Inber). 5. All the verdict... oh death penalty are being carried out (from newspapers). 6. Young architects... will provide the organizing committees with design and estimate documentation (from newspapers). 7. A teapot made of real Japanese porcelain was considered a jewel, we remembered it for many years... (D. Granin).
Task 5. Read, remember pairs of words ending in -AND I) And -I(s), varying in meaning. Make sentences with them.
Borov ( chimneys) – hogs ( wild boars); sable ( fur) – sables ( animals); accounts ( settlement documents) – abacus ( device); tones ( play of color) – tones ( sounds); teachers ( teachers) – teachers ( the highest authorities in some field), cadet ( military) – junkers ( German landowners); passes ( documentation) – omissions ( anything); camps ( socio-political groups) – camps ( parking lots, temporary settlements); image ( icons) – images ( V fiction ); housings ( people's torsos) – body ( buildings, spaces); belt ( pieces of clothing) – belts ( geographical); of bread ( on the vine) – breads ( bakery); flowers ( plants) - colors ( coloring).
Task 6. From the words given in brackets, choose the necessary meaning. Motivate your choice.
1. Children's ( camps - camps) of the Thermoplast plant will begin work in a new location: an entire town has been built for them on the shore of a forest lake. 2. Operating in the country ( camps - camps) democrats and social democrats united on the eve of the upcoming elections. 3. Then a revolution occurred in Russia, Russian soldiers, naturally, refused to fight, and the French took them to the rear, to ( camps - camps) for prisoners of war. 4. On the territory of Russia there are various climatic ( belts - belts). 5. Slutsky ( belts - belts) is a true masterpiece of Belarusian art. 6. Bright moon rose above Mediterranean Sea. The sky and sea turned a soft dark blue ( tones - tones). 7. (Tones - tones) the patient’s hearts are pure. 8. Beyond the river on the other bank, the ripening ( breads - breads). 9. Terekhov Cossacks have long learned to paint their houses bright ( flowers - colors) – blue, orange, light green. 10. ( Flowers - colors) are so skillfully made that you cannot immediately distinguish them from living ones. 11. "We have ( sectors – sectors) accounting, control and information,” said the chairman of the commission.
Task 7. Familiarize yourself with the linguistic recommendations for choosing endings for the prepositional singular case of masculine nouns in workshop – workshop.
When choosing one of the doublet forms of nouns on vacation e- on vacation at must be taken into account:
1) syntactic role prepositional combination (adverbial meaning has the form on -U (-Yu):growing(Where?) in the forest at ), the object value will end with -E (knows a lot ( what ?) in the forest e );
2) the presence or absence of a definition with a noun ( into the wind at– in a through wind e );
3) the fact of phraseologization or stability of turnover ( stew in your own juice at, But cherries are boiled in their own juice e );
4) stylistic shade ( bookish or conversational);
5) the nature of the text ( prose or poetic speech).
Remember that in existing parallel forms ( on vacation at- on vacation e, into the ground at- into the ground e, to the airport at- to the airport e, into alcohol e– into alcohol at, per hour e– per hour Yu ) inflection -E has a bookish character, and the forms are -U (-Yu)- colloquial coloring.
Inflection -U (-Yu) they just don't accept animate names with a monosyllabic base, with a stable emphasis on the base in other singular forms and with an emphasis on the ending in plural forms: battle - in battle, snow - in snow.
Task 8. Insert endings instead of periods to motivate the choice.
1. On this sultry day it was possible to breathe freely only in a cool corner... of the shady garden. 2. With development Catering a lot has been done to ensure that our women do not get bogged down in domestic life... 3. Half-frozen sparrows were looking for food in the snow…. 4. The rains washed away the clay road, and now the boots are stuck in the ground... 5. Due to work overload, I was on vacation this summer... only for two weeks. 6. In the workshop... we were amazed by the order and cleanliness, as if we were in a laboratory. 7. Experts found a lot healing properties in honey... 8. A large bronze chandelier hung in the middle of the ceiling on a massive hook…. 9. There was a loud mooing of a cow in the barn.... 10. The fishermen spent the night on the cape..., and at dawn they went out to the open sea. 11. The inscription on the coffin... sadly told about a life that ended prematurely. 12. In the smoke... flying out of the chimney, sparkling sparks flashed from time to time. 13. The parrot’s crop, stuffed with food, could contain a missing diamond. 14. Endemic diseases in our region they are a rare exception. 15. The races took place on a large circle... elliptical in shape.
Task 9. Give a normative and stylistic description of the endings of the highlighted words. Give possible options.
1. I believe that V loose snow Bowing their heads for a while, the shoots of the spring silky fields fight against winter (R. Kazakova). 2. Selikhov found out that she is now on holiday and goes to see his father (V. Gryantsev). 3. You are registered on vacation due to illness, but on the first of February you are supposed to appear at the commission (K. Simonov). 4. On holiday he was refused. 5. Even their father, an old man of about seventy, worked as a master in the workshop , did not retire (A. Dementyev). 6. Dobryakov worked V friend workshop (P. Nilin). 7. For joy in the goiter breath stole (I. Krylov). 8. In the garden at the master's in the pond , Bream were found in the beautiful spring water (I. Krylov).
Task 10. Insert endings instead of periods. Motivate the choice.
1. B pine forest...on the shore of the lake. 2. Get lost in the forest…. 3. In “Russian Forest...” by L. Leonov. 4. In the turning shop…. 5. On board... the ship. 6. On a green meadow…. 7. Hands in chalk…. 8. Choking on smoke…. 9. Swearing on the collar... doesn’t hang. 10. Thinking about vacation…. 11. Being on vacation…. 12. Lie on the sand…. 13. Sit in the corner…. 14. In 1918…. 15. In “The Eighteenth Year...” A.N. Tolstoy. 16. In the cherry orchard... near the house. 17. In “The Cherry Orchard...” A.P. Chekhov.
Task 11.Check out the linguistic guidelines for choosing singular genitive endings for masculine nouns.
Variant forms of the genitive case ( glass of cha Yu– a glass of cha I , bottle of lemonade at– a bottle of lemonade A ) in modern Russian literary language tend to unify in favor of the ending -AND I). However, the forms on -U (-Yu) The following categories of nouns have the following normative categories:
1) with a real value when indicating quantity, i.e. to denote a part of a whole ( glass of cha Yu, kilogram sugar at ), but if the specified meaning contains a definition, then the form in -AND I) (glass of hot tea I , pack of dried tobacco A );
2) for single collective nouns with quantitative value (a lot of people at );
3) for abstract nouns with quantitative meaning ( a lot of noise at );
4) in some phraseological turns (without a year at week, no gender at and the tribe, the end is the end Yu no, peace at along the thread);
5) for nouns with a diminutive suffix ( eat honey at, drink cognac at );
6) in negative sentences (poco Yu there wasn't, don't show it at, lacking spirit at );
7) with particle ni ( usually in phraseological units - not a rumor at no spirit at );
8) after prepositions:
- from, from, with(with the meaning of deletion or reason - lose sight at , thirty years old at , get mad with fat, starve to death);
- before(with the meaning of limit, achievement - desperately needed at, escort home at );
- without(in adverbial combinations - enter without asking at , talk incessantly at , take indiscriminately);
9) in combination with transitive verb (cut the cheese at, put sugar at, get kerosene at ).
When choosing an ending you need to consider:
1) the number of syllables (one-syllable, two-syllable native Russian words or early borrowings retain the ending longer -U (-Yu) (kvass at, cha Yu, wax at, onion at, cottage cheese at, tobacco at ); polysyllabic ones have endings -AND I) (clutter - doesn't like clutter A, commotion - the culprit of the commotion A );
2) the origin of the word (three-syllable loanwords have the ending -AND I) – lemonade – bottle of lemonade A, naphthalene - a pack of naphthalene A, refined sugar - a piece of refined sugar A );
3) the nature of the structures (in nominal combinations, options are possible - lump of sugar - sugar, V verb constructions the ending is normative -U (-Yu) – pour the soup at, brew some tea Yu ;
4) degree of phraseologization ( set pepper at, give a swing at );
5) the presence or absence of prepositions and their features;
6) style of speech (forms on -U (-Yu) characteristic of conversational style, V scientific style -AND I)).
Task 12.Insert endings instead of periods and motivate your choice.
1. A passerby bought a pack of tobacco at a kiosk... and a box of matches. 2. The hostess handed the guest a cup of steaming tea…. 3. There was so much screaming... and screeching... that my eardrums almost burst. 4. The horsemen quickly rushed by and disappeared from view…. 5. Avoid... no from various tempting offers. 6. Others judge everything at once... 7. Give in to his laughter... for the sake of it. 8. Eh, it would be nice to give off some steam... 9. Snow piled up overnight... so it’s impossible to walk from the house to the gate.
Task 13. Explain why in some cases nouns in the genitive singular are used with the ending -and I), and in others – with -у(-у).
1. And he joked, hiding his melancholy: “There are mushrooms, but there is no sour cream... There are lingonberries, but there is no sugar" (E. Yevtushenko). 2. Four carriages with barrels were blown up at the airfield gasoline(I. Kozlov). 3. Stone there is much in grief; And alabaster white and yellow and selenite(A. Fersman). 4. – How old are you? alabaster required? – asked Mulya (V. Semin). 5. - Eh, Sidorkin, but I feel sorry for you - I can’t blow your head off, you’ll disappear at the drop of a hat tobacco(A. Serafimovich). 6. – When you, Petenka, fell and lost your arm, I came home to you from the forest brought fresh nuts (A. Gaidar). 7. Out of the dark forests An inspired magician (A. Pushkin) comes towards him. 8. I see: you are silent, you are silently angry - everything is tired. Tomorrow you will wake up - no hearing, no spirit. – Distance without limit (Yu. Zhdanov).
Task 14. Add endings. Indicate possible options, give a normative and stylistic assessment of each selected form.
1. A kilogram of cheese... - buy cheese... - selling cheese... - eat cheese... - a piece of Yaroslavl cheese.... 2. Make a piece of wax out of... - a piece of wax... 3. I want juice... - a glass of juice... - drink a glass of apple juice... 4. A lot of snow... - melting snow....
5. Raise from the floor…. 6. Leave the house…. 7. Get out of the forest…. 8. Choking on smoke... 9. Die of hunger... - die of hunger.
10. Well, people... in the square! 11. How much snow... there is snow! 12. Kvass... for me, hurry up. 13. There was a glass of cold kvass on the table…. 14. Make some noise…. 15. Lost your panties…. 16. Don’t give way…. 17. The girls burst out laughing…. 18. They sat at the table and drank tea with large pieces of sugar... and black crackers. 19. There is no forest here...: there is only steppe all around.
Task 15. Make up sentences using these word forms. Make sure that the unity of style is not violated.
Pepper to pepper, lettuce to salad, sugar to sugar, soup to soup, kefir to kefir, people to people, no forest to no forest, from home to home, peas to peas, bromine to bromine.
Task 16.Check out the linguistic guidelines for choosing genitive plural endings ( grams – grams).
In modern literary language, most masculine nouns in the genitive case have the ending - ov, but some nouns have no ending with a solid consonant, that is, they have zero inflection. This the following groups words:
Names of units of measurement ( acre, watt, bit, bond, x-ray, except for household units of measurement of weight and area - gram ov, kilogram ov, hectare ov );
Names of vegetables, fruits, denoting individual objects, usually measured by masses ( apples, pomegranate, But orange ov, mandarin ov, tomato ov );
Names of some nationalities, mainly based on N And R(Bashkirs, Avar, British, Khazars, Buryats, Romanians, Gypsies);
Names of persons according to military formations ( midshipman, hussar, soldier, grenadier, lancer, But party cadets ov, politics cadet ov ; wrong cadet rally);
Names of paired items or items usually consisting of two or more parts ( boot, leggings, maccasin, boots, trousers, felt boots, cuffs, But sock ov );
Nouns used only in the plural ( splash, tambourine, catacombs, christening, darkness, sprat, chess).
Task 17. Form the genitive plural form of the nouns in brackets.
1. There wasn’t that much to hit during the shooting ( target), as we expected. 2. During this month, the priest served a lot ( mass). 3. During his time in this post, he saw a lot ( dupe), but never like this one. 4. On the shelf in my grandmother’s closet there were about a dozen ( sheet) – dowry for a granddaughter. 5. Sweet taste of ripe ( apricots) reminded me of the summer heat. 6. The drive capacity is 360 ( kilobytes). 7. You cannot avoid deletion ( glands). 8. He received everyone equally cordially: ( Russians), (Georgians), (Kazakhs), (English), (Cypriots). 9. When she was young, her mother was crazy about ( hussars). 10. There is no village without ( backyard).
Task 18. Explain the use of highlighted forms. Specify regulatory forms.
1. And spring whistles and mutters. Knee-deep flooded poplars. The maples are waking up from their sleep. So that the leaves flutter like butterflies (N. Zabolotsky). 2. Voronoi said: " Sniper It’s like they’re beating from the village” (Yu. Bondarev). 3. And the bell towers are black Like watchmen are standing (M. Lermontov). 4. Two flies were about to fly into strangers edges(I. Krylov). 5. And long years passed silently... (M. Lermontov). 6. Schoolchildren rushed of the year(S. Mikhalkov). 7. Yours addresses I will inform you in a timely manner (A. Chekhov). 8. Somehow eyelids met. 9. The language is clear and euphonious, as ours say professors(I. Turgenev). 10. Lecturer from the show! Those who in one way or another talk about failures and make people nervous - take us, the doomed (V. Vysotsky).
Task 19. Use these nouns in the genitive plural form. Please indicate possible options.
1. Amps, oranges, eggplants, bananas, boots, watts, volts, hectares, dahlias, grams, giraffes, sneakers, kilograms.
2. Tangerines, cuffs, socks, tomatoes, shoulder straps, rails, sappers, boots, stacks, shutters, soldiers, shoes, stockings, shorts.
Task 20.The words given in brackets, put them in in the required form. Motivate your choice.
1. Yesterday they brought a lot ( oranges and tangerines). 2. – And don’t forget the kilogram ( bananas), - the mother shouted out the window. 3. Near the store there were boxes from ( tomatoes). 4. The maximum discharge current has reached two million ( amperes). 5. The sown area was about 50,000 ( hectares). 6. One pumpkin weighed more than twenty ( kilograms). 7. Kolya charges the capacitor. Voltage - five thousand ( volts). 8. Gregory tried to remember the path left behind..., endless threads ( rails). 9. A young man in an officer’s uniform came out of the headquarters without ( shoulder straps).
Task 21. Explain the use of highlighted forms. Specify regulatory forms. Name groups of nouns that exhibit fluctuations in the use of genitive plural forms.
1. What does your courage mean to me? soldiers, if they don't know how to march? (P. Vyazemsky). 2. - Of course, who will give it to him, Mishka suddenly agreed, - where is it from? boots will be recruited (M. Roshchin). 3. The serpent rose, and from tooth There was no salvation for him (V. Zhukovsky). 4. And brushes of thirty kinds, And for nails and for teeth(A. Pushkin). 5. Sapogov he was also nowhere to be found (F. Dostoevsky). 6. The Leningrad sky is in smoke. But more bitter than the mortal wounds of Heavy bread, Siege bread, Siege bread One hundred and twenty-five gram(R. Rozhdestvensky). 7. The king who ruled over us a thousand years ago, instilled in the country the dashing excitement of playing without rules, forced everyone to play Count And dukes, Valtey And ladies into a stunning baby (V. Vysotsky).
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
The most frequent fluctuations are in the case endings of masculine nouns with a hard consonant. The first place in frequency is occupied by forms of the nominative plural, the second by the genitive plural, the third by the genitive singular, and the fourth by the prepositional singular. The remaining fluctuating reliable forms make up an insignificant percentage in speech.
In the singular genitive case, variant forms ending in _у (_у) can only be formed in masculine nouns that name inanimate objects that cannot be counted. This includes real in the partitive meaning (a piece of cheese, a plate of soup, a liter of kvass), individual abstract ones indicating an incomplete volume of the attribute (a lot of laughter, screaming, screeching, noise, fear), as well as nouns with prepositions from, from, with, without when denoting removal from somewhere, a reason, the absence of something (to leave the forest, to rise from the floor, to die of hunger, to leave without asking) and nouns as part of phraseological units (there is no salvation, there is no escape, there is enough to spare). The choice of form is determined not only by the grammatical meaning of the genitive case (partitive - non-partitive meaning), but also syntactic construction. In verbal-nominal combinations, the normative form continues to be _у (_у): buy sugar, eat grapes, cut cheese. In nominal combinations it is possible to use both forms: (kilogram) sugar - sugar, (bunch) grapes - grapes. In such cases, forms in _а (_я) are stylistically neutral, generally literary in use, and forms in _у (_у) are stylistically reduced, colloquial. The presence of a definition with a noun helps strengthen the inflection _a (_я): a piece of Russian cheese, a glass of fruit juice.
The most consistent forms are on _у (_у) in modern usage are saved in two cases: in diminutives with a quantitative meaning (onion, coffee, honey) and as part of phraseological units (usually of an adverbial nature), especially for those nouns that are not used at all outside the phraseme (let it go, go astray, I won’t know, I won’t know); nouns, which are also used outside phraseological units, can appear in both forms as part of a phraseme (with a swing - with a swing, a mosquito won’t erode your nose - a mosquito won’t erode your nose, don’t give way - don’t give way).
The normative form is on _у (_у) in a quantitative-exclusive meaning in the position of the main member in sentences like Darkness to the people! ; There's snow! ; There's a lot of smoke; Weighs five pounds; Kvass!
In the Belarusian language, forms in _у (_у) are used much more widely than in Russian. They are formed from nouns denoting all abstract concepts (reason, abavyazka, adpor, pain, enthusiasm), and from nouns with the meaning of space, place, volume, size (zakhada, garyzonta, edge, meadow, stepu, prastor, rear), with In this case, the use of the form on _у (_у) is not limited to the partitive meaning. Compare: made of metal - crushed with metal, no control - no control, removal of sand - removal of sand. This is one of the reasons for fluctuations in the use of singular genitive forms of masculine nouns in the conditions of Belarusian-Russian bilingualism.
In the prepositional singular case of masculine nouns, the main ending is _e. The variant ending _у is only possible in combination with the prepositions in and on in the adverbial meaning of place, less often - the state or time of action: in the workshop, in the snow, on the shore1. Difficulties usually arise in the use of nouns that equally easily take inflection _e and inflection _y: on vacation/y, in the workshop/y, at the airport/y, etc. Literary norm in in this case allows both forms, but they are differentiated stylistically. Thus, the forms in the workshop, on vacation, have a neutral color, and in the workshop, on vacation, they are colloquial; the forms on the shore, at a ball, in the garden, in a haystack, on board, on a wardrobe, etc., have a tinge of obsolescence.
The Russian language is characterized by a tendency to reduce the number of words ending in _у. Thus, the words island, tower, sand, hill and others, widely used with inflection _у in the literary language of the 19th century, now have the ending _e. This process in a number of lexemes it is accompanied by semantic delimitation of variant forms, naming and phraseologization of prepositional combinations with the ending _у, while in grammatically free combinations the form ending in _e is used. Compare: house number - work from home, in marching step- at every step, in apple juice- boil in your own juice.
In the Russian speech of Belarusians, the ending _e is often replaced by the ending _у under the influence Belarusian language, where, firstly, the inflection _у is freely used in combination with the preposition ab (ab tsehu, ab stsyagu, ab subzvigu), and secondly, the range of words with this ending is much wider compared to the Russian language: it is accepted not only by inanimate , but also animate nouns, regardless of the nature of the stem (ab son, husband, dzed, tavarysh, vuchnyu).
In the Russian speech of bilinguals, errors occur when forming instrumental case singular masculine nouns in _a: Vanem, Sashem, Petem (by analogy with the Belarusian forms).
Fluctuations in the formation of nominative plural forms are most often observed in disyllabic borrowed (and some Russian) words with a base on a sonorant consonant: boat, bunker, bill, jacket, tenor, cruiser, tractor, sector, turner, etc. For the majority three-syllable words have a normatively traditional ending _ы (_и); First of all, words of Latin origin in _tor (inspector, proofreader, searchlight) are subject to fluctuations. Forms in _а (_я) of two- and three-syllable nouns are fixed in the Russian language unevenly, selectively, the norm is established in dictionary order, taking into account individual characteristics and the established usage of a particular lexeme. Words used in modern Russian with the ending _а (_я) do not have clear semantic and morphological characteristics; their main feature is accentological: these are words with the accent in the singular on the stem, and in the plural on the ending. Therefore, the forms found in speech on _a (_я) of nouns with a fixed type of stress cannot be recognized as normative. This includes words with the prefix vy- (reprimand, departure, expulsion, exit, etc.) and words of French origin in _er, _er (driver, actor, director, officer, etc.).
Monosyllabic nouns have variants within literary norm are noted only in individual words: workshops - workshops, years - years (but: years of what - war, youth; 60s; in your years). The rest of the monosyllabic words have the normative ending either _a (sides; houses, meadows, etc.) or _ы (plans, cakes, ports, fronts, soups, headquarters, etc.), although in the speech use of such words it is often There are deviations from the norm.
In polysyllabic words, under the influence of a tendency towards rhythmic balance, as a rule, the traditional ending _ы (_и) is preserved: architects, librarians, transformers, capacitors, etc.
Speech errors arise when using the inflection _ы (_и) or _а (_я) without taking into account the stylistic or semantic features of the corresponding form. In the speech of Belarusians, the distinction between such forms is complicated by the fact that the Belarusian language has a unified ending for the nominative plural _i (_ы): garads, dyrektars, prafesars, beragi, plows, plugs.
Normative variants in the genitive plural are characteristic of those nouns in which the generic variants are equal: skird - skirds and skird - skird, idiom - idioms and idioms - idioms. Variant forms are also formed by nouns, the gender of which fluctuates: dahlia - dahlia and dahlia - dahlia, rail - rails and rail - rail, etc. The first of these forms are general literary, the scope of use of the second is limited to colloquial speech, professional speech.
Fluctuations in the formation of genitive plural forms are observed in certain groups of masculine nouns with a solid consonant, serving as the names of measures and units of measurement, vegetables, fruits, fruits, as well as paired objects. Most units of measurement have a firmly fixed zero ending in the genitive case (ampere, watt, volt, coulomb, hertz, erg, etc.). Variant forms are observed in the nouns gram, kilogram, hectare. Forms ending in _ov are used mainly in written speech, but the zero ending is acceptable in spoken language. For nouns - names of vegetables, fruits, fruits, the common literary ending is _ov (oranges, eggplants, bananas, lemons, etc.). However, in oral speech the zero form is common, especially in the nouns orange, tangerine, tomato. The scope of its use is limited to colloquial speech, and even here it is permissible only in standard quantitative combinations with words denoting units of measurement: a ton of tomatoes, a kilogram of orange. In other combinations and in colloquial speech, the ending _ov is normative for these words: buy tangerines, the smell of oranges, a box of tomatoes.
For nouns - names of paired objects or objects consisting of two or more parts2, the norm is zero inflection: boots - boot, shoulder straps - shoulder straps, shorts - shorts, stockings - stocking, etc.; exception of socks - socks. In modern speech, the sock form is widely used, which does not contradict the linguistic system, and therefore can be considered normative. As a colloquial version, it is already included in some dictionaries3.
In the Belarusian language, variant endings of the genitive plural are more common than in Russian: dreў - drevaў, nations - natsyyaў, vishan - vishnyaў, song - songў, forms - formaў, etc. Under the influence of the Belarusian language, in the Russian speech of Belarusians there are errors such as partisan(s), soldier(s), letter(s).
case ending instrumental case
Posted on Allbest.ru
Similar documents
Spelling case endings of nouns. Differences between parallel forms of proper names. Formation of genitive plural forms in homonym words. Case endings of nouns in the story by N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls".
abstract, added 11/28/2014
Studying a noun - an independent part of speech with the meaning of objectivity. Case endings for nouns in singular and plural. Examples of spelling of case endings of nouns in the works of V.Ya. Bryusova.
abstract, added 12/14/2016
Consideration of the main characteristics of the stress of masculine nouns that have a predisposition to change stress. Accent minimum of the most common names of masculine nouns, allowing fluctuations in stress, with variations.
abstract, added 07/15/2014
Semantic characteristics of the instrumental case in the Russian language. Its functions and formal paradigmatic and syntagmatic indicators. Methods of transmitting case meanings of the Russian language into English. Lexico-grammatical problems in translation.
course work, added 09/09/2013
Category of gender of nouns, its formal indicators. Category of case of nouns. Basic meanings of cases. Participation of prepositions in the expression of case meanings. Declension of nouns. Declension system.
cheat sheet, added 01/26/2004
Determining the gender of nouns. Formation of paired feminine nouns according to productive models. Replacing an existing masculine noun with a feminine noun of a different root. Plural gender of nouns.
presentation, added 06/01/2013
The ending "-s" as a plural indicator and possessive case noun. Use of the ending "-s" in the 3rd person singular Present Simple. Demonstrative pronouns as substitutes for nouns, comparative constructions.
test, added 11/24/2010
Category of masculine persons in modern Russian language. The concept, the most striking features and contradictions of the categories of animation and inanimateness. Manifestation of the animate-inanimate category of nouns in prepositional-case forms.
course work, added 12/25/2010
The order and principles of changing the number of nouns in English language, their spelling. Expressing case relations of nouns. Features of the translation into Russian of definitions expressed by nouns. Various meanings one and it.
test, added 10/17/2010
Morphological category nouns, singular and plural. Nouns pluralia tantum. Noun paradigms and case inflections. Determinative, objective and abstract meaning of the case. Characteristics of cases.
Options for endings of R.p. units h. noun m.r..
# a glass of tea/tea, a bottle of lemonade/lemonade, a lump of sugar/sugar, a lot of people/people
At the same time, as mentioned above, there is a tendency towards unification in favor of ending -and I.
In the 19th century , normative for lit. language were considered forms in ~a/~i, predominant forms on -у/-у were considered colloquial. And in modern literature more wide use forms on -a/-z: a glass of tea, a lot of people. In oral speech, young people prefer forms in -a/-i, a elder in -y/y: a glass of tea, a lot of snow, a lot of air.
There is a gradual displacement of the form on –у/-у, by the form on –а/-я. The degree of intensity of this process depends on: + the style of speech, + the frequency of use of the lexical combination + the nature of the construction (verbal, nominal), + the type of syntactic construction, the degree of phraseologization, expressiveness, etc.
Forms on -у/-у, most often stylistically colored (colloquial connotation), found in the following cases:
1. Exists with real value when indicating quantity, i.e. to indicate parts of the whole: glass of tea(cf.: tea aroma); kilogram of sugar(cf.: taste of sugar); before-
become kerosene (wax, wood, glue, poppy, chalk, turpentine); buy peas (fat, onions, peppers, rice, honey, cheese); same with accented ending; kilogram of sand, add boiling water, get garlic.
Happy ending -y are usually used noun, having in its composition diminutive suffix : drink tea (kvass); eat honey (sugar, cheese);
BUT: if such a thing stands definition, then the form is usually used -a/-z: a glass of hot tea; a pack of dried tobacco;
2. In single collective noun With same quantitative value: a lot of people(Wed: history of the people).
3. U abstract beings with a touch quantitative o values: make a lot of noise, talk nonsense, instill fear, Perhaps this crazy girl will cause a scandal(Writing); This involuntary decoration gave me weight in his eyes...(M.G.)
4. In phraseological combinations, in expressions having adverbial character: a week without a year, no time for laughter, eye to eye, with the world on a thread, there is no end, give up, give in a couple, get confused, our regiment has arrived, without clan and tribe, no doubt, pick up the pace; Vasya, as best he could, ran towards the kitten(L.T.).
5. After prepositions from, from, with when designating removal from somewhere or reasons for action; after a preposition before (in the achievement sense); after a preposition without when indicating the absence of something; after the particle neither (in all these cases the expression may have a phraseological character): twenty years old, to die of hunger, to scream in fright, to dance until you drop, to die for, to talk incessantly, not a step further, neither heard nor breath, never been; I deliberately overlooked supervision(L.A.); Any more or less sensible person should have seen this the first time(T.); When the father died, the sons could not share without dispute...(L.T.)
6. B negative offers: not to show it, there is not enough spirit, there is no peace, there is no wear and tear, there is no end, there was no refusal; He didn't even show that he was pleased with me.(Ax); If you don't know the ford, don't go into the water(ate.); A mosquito won't hurt your nose(verbal).
In some cases possible differentiation of the meanings of forms into -у/-у and on -and I. So, leave the house means “to leave one’s home” (i.e. the place where a person lives), and leave the house- “to leave a certain type of building” or “to leave a designated house.” Wed: And I ran headlong out of the house(Adv.); Alexey came out of the house in a white canvas shirt(M.G.). Wed. Also: leave home for work(for a while) - leave home(leave family); walk home(to accompany you home) - take you home(to a certain place); no forest(no forest) - there is no forest(no building material).
Plays a role and availability of definition; compare: A wolf ran from the forest into the village(Kr.); From dark forest an inspired magician comes towards him(P.).
Ending on – y is retained longer for monosyllabic/bisyllabic native Russian words # cottage cheese, cheese, kvass. Three-syllable / borrowed words use the form on -A.
Example that the forms on -у/-у are decreasing: the famous saying of V.I. Dahl A spoonful of honey and a barrel of tar modern Russian language dictionaries we find: A fly in the ointment and finally: A fly in the ointment.
Synonyms of the endings of nouns of the masculine gender of the second declension in the genitive case singular
Some nouns The masculine gender has two forms in the genitive singular: in -a (-я) and in -у (-у): a cup of tea - a cup of tea. Currently, forms ending in -у (-у) are decreasing and have a colloquial connotation.
Forms ending in -y (-yu) are found in the following cases:
1) for nouns with a real meaning when indicating quantity: a kilogram of sugar, a piece of cheese, a spoonful of honey. Literary forms starting with -a (-z): a kilogram of sugar, a piece of cheese, a spoonful of honey;
2) for abstract and single collective nouns when indicating quantity: a lot of noise, few people (cf.: the nature of noise, the history of the people [no indication of quantity]). But along with forms in -y (-yu) of a colloquial nature, they are also used in the meaning of parts of a whole literary forms na -a (s): a lot of noise, few people;
3) for nouns in some phraseological phrases: give pepper, it’s no laughing matter, don’t give a damn about the world;
4) after the prepositions from, from, with, to, without and the particle neither: to lose sight of, to enter without asking, not a step further, twenty years old.
Accusative case of animate and inanimate nouns
For animate nouns accusative coincides in form with the genitive case, in inanimate - with the nominative case. For example: The girl saw (who?) the teacher and put (what?) her notebook on the table.
There are fluctuations in which nouns - animate or inanimate - some of them are classified as.
Let us list several such cases.
1. The names of dishes prepared from animals, fish, birds are declined as animate nouns: eat boiled crayfish, roast duck, smoked pig. Exception: there are sprat, sardines, sprats (as a ready-made canned product).
2. The nouns bacteria, bacilli, microbes, germs, larvae, embryos, etc. are declined as inanimate: Students studied bacteria and bacilli.
3. The names of the planets are declined as inanimate nouns, the corresponding mythological names of gods - as animate: The astronauts observed Mars. People asked Mars for mercy.
4. The word character is declined as an inanimate noun, and the word addressee - as an animate one: introduce tragic character; find the addressee.
5. The word person in the meaning person is used in the plural as an animate noun: to reward individuals.
6. Words used in figuratively, bow as if animated: At the film festival one could see the stars of the screen (cf.: watch the stars in the sky). The same applies to the sayings: Honor the rank of rank.
7. The names of living beings, used as titles of works of art, are declined as animate nouns: read “Elephant and Pug.”
Synonyms of the endings of nouns of the masculine gender of the second declension in the prepositional case singular
For singular masculine nouns in the prepositional case, possible endings are -е and -у (-у). The difference between the forms in -е and -у (-у) is associated with the meaning or stylistic coloring of the word in a sentence.
Let's consider variable forms.
1. Forms ending in -у (-у) are used if the noun (masculine, inanimate) has the prepositions in, on. The form in -e is often used with the preposition o: on the shore - about the shore, in the ranks - about the ranks, on the Don - about the Don.
2. The form in -y has an adverbial meaning (member of the sentence - adverbial), the form in -e has an objective meaning (member of the sentence - addition): to hang on the weight (in a hanging position) - to gain on the weight (of the product).
3. The form in -e is formed from nouns used in figurative meaning or included in phraseological units: all in a sweat - to work hard, a garden in bloom - in the prime of life.
4. The form in -e is inherent in nouns that are part of the title: was on the Don - was on “Quiet Don” (the name of the opera); walk in the garden - attend “The Cherry Orchard” (the name of the play).
5. The form ending in -у (-у) is used in combinations close in meaning to adverbs: in weight, at a gallop, on the move, etc.
6. Forms in -e are bookish, forms in -y (-yu) are colloquial: on vacation - on vacation, in the workshop - in the workshop, in alcohol - in alcohol.
Synonyms of the endings of nouns of the masculine gender of the second declension in the nominative plural
Masculine nouns have variant forms of the nominative plural in -ы (-и) and -а (-я).
Forms ending in -ы (-и) are characteristic book speech, forms in -a (-я) - colloquial. Let us note, however, that forms ending in -а (-я) are very productive in our time and often become neutral, while forms ending in -ы (-и) are becoming obsolete, for example, toms, poplars and some others.
The choice of word form is determined by a number of factors. Let's list them.
1. Word structure and stress location. The ending -a (-я) has monosyllabic words such as run - run, forest - forests and two-syllable words with emphasis on the first syllable in the singular, for example: evening - evenings, voice - voices. But: cake - cakes, handwriting - handwritings, etc. Polysyllabic (and some trisyllabic) words with emphasis on the middle syllable gravitate towards the ending -ы (-и): librarian - librarians. Forms with -ы (-и) are preferred in words with an emphasis on the last syllable: agreement - agreements, boxer - boxers.
2. Origin of the word. The ending -ы are words of French origin with the final stressed suffix -er and -er: engineer - engineers, actor - actors, make-up artist - make-up artists. Words with the Latin suffix -tor, denoting inanimate objects, form forms in -ы (such words belong to book vocabulary and are used in the function of terms): inductors, capacitors, reflectors. Words in -tor, denoting animate objects, have the ending -a if they have become widespread and have lost their bookish character (for example, directors, doctors), and the ending -ы if they have retained a bookish connotation (for example, lecturers, speakers).
3. Difference in meaning. Paronymous, i.e., similar in sound but different in meaning, forms include the following words (some of them are used only in the plural): camps (military, pioneer, tourist) - camps (political groups); images (icons) - images (artistic and literary); tones (changes of color) - tones (sound).
4. Stylistic coloring. Book forms in -ы (-и) are contrasted with colloquial (tractors - tractors, contracts - contracts), professional (drivers - drivers, proofreaders - proofreaders) and colloquial (engineers - engineer).
Of the forms in -a (-z) of masculine nouns in the nominative case, the plural, the most common are the following: addresses, cities, forests, horns, runs, directors, meadows, sleeves, banks, doctors, masters, snow, sides, houses, seine, variety, sides, great snipe, number, watchman, buer, huntsman, cuff, tenor, buffer, gutter, ham, tower, fan, pearl, district, black grouse, century (but: forever and ever; millstone, order, paramedic, for once), bin, sail, weather vane, bill of exchange, shako, passport, cold, monogram, jacket, quail, farm, evening, bell, cook, skull, heap, edge, cellar, silk, eye, dome, train, stamp , voices, coachman, guts, fitting, ploughshare, professor, sharper.
Synonyms for endings of nouns in the genitive plural
Masculine nouns with a stem ending in a hard consonant have the ending -s or a zero ending in the genitive case, plural: five kilograms of four hundred grams of tomatoes and five kilograms of four hundred grams of tomatoes.
Null ending is preferred in:
names of paired items: a pair of boots, felt boots, stockings (but: socks);
names of nationalities based on n and r: to live among the British, Armenians, Bulgarians, Bashkirs (but: blacks, Hungarians); names of nationalities with a stem on another consonant have the ending -ov (-ev): live among the Mongols, Uzbeks, Germans;
names of military groups, former branches of the military: partisan detachment, soldier, hussar, cadet (but: party of cadets);
names of units of measurement, usually used with numerals: number of amperes, watts, volts; in case of hesitation, more is preferred short form; the ending -ov is preserved in the forms: hectares, centners.
When choosing an ending, you should also take into account stylistic usage words; in the name of vegetables and fruits, as well as units of measurement, for example grams, kilograms; in written speech the ending -ov is used, in spoken speech the zero ending is used. Therefore, you should stick to the following options: five kilograms of four hundred grams of tomatoes (written speech) and five kilograms of four hundred grams of tomatoes (oral speech).
For feminine nouns in the genitive plural there is a noticeable tendency towards zero ending. Regulatory are following forms: waffle (wafer), apple tree (apple tree), poker (poker), sheet (sheet), etc.
Of the variant forms of neuter nouns, the normative ones are: saucer (saucer), towels (towel), shoulders (shoulder), coast (coast). These nouns also tend to have zero endings.
Nouns used only in the plural often have endings -ей, -ов, -ев. Regulatory forms: rake, manger, everyday life, frost, but skis, palms, twilight.
Features of the declension of some names and surnames
Russian and foreign names and surnames ending in a consonant are declined if they refer to men, and not declined if they refer to women: poems by Adam Mickiewicz (cf.: the family of Maria Mickiewicz); novels by Gustav Flaubert (cf. novels by Anna Seghers).
Male surnames consonant with the name of an animal or inanimate object, V official documents not inclined, in other cases they are inclined: work by K.I. Bear, works of L.K. Greben.
Ukrainian surnames do not fall into an unstressed -ko: the anniversary of Taras Shevchenko, the works of V. Korolenko.
Surnames are inclined to the unaccented -a, -ya: the work of Pablo Neruda. Exception: surnames do not decline to -a, -ya with a preceding vowel and (films by Danelia, stories by Gulia, orders by Kartozia); Finnish surnames ending in -a (Kutssela’s speeches). There are fluctuations in the use of Japanese surnames: statement by Prime Minister Ikeda (or: Ikeda).
Of the surnames, only Slavic ones are inclined to the accented -a, -ya: I read the philosopher Skovoroda, talked with the student Po-doprigora.
Russian surnames do not decline to -ago, -yago, -ovo, -yh, -ikh:
meet Sedykh, see Dubyago; foreign-language surnames ending in a vowel sound (except for unstressed -a, -ya, see above): read the novels of Dumas, knew the poems of Hugo.
In compound Korean, Chinese and Vietnamese given names and surnames, it is declined the last part: Choi Heng's speech, Pham Vandong's statement.
Non-Russian surnames referring to two or more persons are given in the form:
1) plural, if: a) the surname has two male names: August and Wilhelm Schlegel; b) the surname has a combination of two common nouns masculine: father and son Strauss;
2) singular if: a) the surname has a male and a female name: August and Caroline Schlegel; b) the surname contains a combination of two common nouns indicating different genders: Lord and Lady Hamilton (but: husband and wife Wagner), brother and sister Neering; c) with the surname there are two female names: Irina and Tamara Press: d) with the surname there are the words spouses, brothers, sisters: brothers Pokrass.