Purpose of the lesson:
1 Scientific style of speech, its main features.
2 Genre diversity and intra-style differentiation of scientific style.
3 Lexical and grammatical means of scientific style.
4 Scientific speech as a component of a specialist’s professional culture.
5 Compilation of statements-texts of scientific genres within the framework of future professional activities (message, report, review, review, annotation, article, abstract, scientific project, course work, graduation project, report in scientific and journalistic styles, summary, etc.).
6 Work with periodicals, analysis of articles.
7 Writing an essay, completing coursework in the disciplines of the curriculum
One of the spheres of human activity is the scientific and professional sphere. It is served by the scientific style.
The specific features of this style are determined by the purpose of scientific texts to convey objective information about nature, man and society. He receives new knowledge, stores and transmits it. The language of science is a natural language with elements of artificial languages (calculations, graphs, symbols, etc.); a national language with a tendency towards internationalization.
The scientific style of speech is divided into substyles:
scientific and informative (genres - abstract, abstract, patent description),
scientific reference (genres – dictionary, reference book, catalogue),
educational and scientific (genres - textbook, methodological manual, lecture),
popular science (essay, etc.).
A distinctive feature of the scientific style itself is an academic presentation addressed to specialists. The characteristics of this substyle are the accuracy of the information conveyed, the persuasiveness of the argument, the logical sequence of presentation, and conciseness.
The popular science substyle has other characteristics. It is addressed to a wide readership, so scientific data must be presented in an accessible and entertaining way. He does not strive for brevity or laconism, but uses linguistic means close to journalism. Terminology is also used here.
The scientific informative substyle must accurately convey scientific information with a description of scientific facts.
The educational and scientific substyle is addressed to future specialists and therefore it contains a lot of illustrative material, examples, and explanations.
The main feature of the scientific style is the precise and unambiguous expression of thoughts.
The task of science is to show patterns. Therefore, its features are: abstract generality, emphasized logic of presentation, clarity, argumentation, and unambiguous expression of thoughts. The tasks of communication in the field of science, its subject, and the content of speech require the transfer of general concepts. Abstract vocabulary, special vocabulary and terminology serve this purpose.
Terminology embodies the precision of scientific speech. Term – This is a word or phrase that accurately and unambiguously denotes the concept of a special field of knowledge or activity (diffusion, structural strength, marketing, futures, measurement, density, software, etc.). Concept – This is a thought about the general essential properties, connections and relationships of objects or phenomena of objective reality. The formation of concepts is an important condition for scientific speech. Definition of concepts gives definition (Latin definition) – a brief identification description of an item designated by a specific term ( Inductance is a physical quantity that characterizes the magnetic properties of an electrical circuit.)
To specific
consistency,
the presence of a definition (definition),
unambiguity,
stylistic neutrality,
lack of expression
simplicity.
general scientific (analysis, thesis, problem, process, etc.),
interscientific (economics, cost, labor, etc.),
highly specialized (only for a specific area of knowledge).
Terminology ensures information mutual understanding at the national and international levels, compatibility of legislative and regulatory documents.
3. At its core scientific speech - This is written speech bound by norms. Abstractly generalized character Scientific speech is emphasized by the inclusion of a large number of concepts, the use of special lexical units (usually, always), and passive constructions (metals are easy to cut). Verbs that have abstract generalized meanings and nouns denoting abstract concepts (speed, time) are widely used. Constructions are used that emphasize the relationship between the parts of the statement: introductory words (finally, so), As we further note, let's move on to the next part, a large number of prepositions expressing various attitudes and actions (thanks to, in connection with, as a consequence, etc.).
The lexical composition of the scientific style is characterized by homogeneity, there is no vocabulary with a colloquial tone, evaluative, emotionally expressive. There are many words of the neuter gender: phenomenon, property, development. A lot of abstract vocabulary - system, period, case. Scientific style texts use compound words and abbreviations: PS (software), Life Cycle (life cycle); contain not only language information, but also graphics, formulas, and symbols.
IN syntax complex sentences with participles, adverbial and participial phrases, temporary connections (in connection with something), simple sentences like what is what(hydrogen is a gas), impersonal sentences. Mainly declarative sentences are used, interrogative ones - in order to draw attention to the problem.
It should be remembered that in scientific style the pronoun "I", it is replaced by "We"(“from our point of view”, “it seems obvious to us”).
The scientific style created a strict system of genres and strict rules of text composition. A scientific text is distinguished by a pragmatic structure, everything in it serves to achieve the final goal and, above all, composition, but at the same time emotions, verbosity, polysemy, and subtext are discarded.
4. Scientific text has:
topic, i.e. object of consideration (study), the content of which is revealed in a certain aspect;
subtopic, i.e. a topic that is included in a broader topic, forming part of it and distinguished by a narrower aspect of consideration or consideration of one of the parts of a given object;
also exists micro theme, equal to a paragraph in the text and providing semantic connections between parts of the text.
The structural unit of a scientific text is paragraph. He contains certain ideas, positions, arguments, micro-topics. They are expressed in keywords that are easy to isolate, defining the essence of the paragraph. Every a paragraph has a beginning, a main paragraph phrase, a commentary part and a conclusion. The keywords are in the paragraph phrase.
To connect individual fragments of the text, prepositions, introductory words, and certain speech cliches are used (the author considers, it should be noted, this proves, etc.).
The main ways of constructing a scientific text are description, reasoning, and narration. Scientific text is a type of rigidly structured text.
Description- this is a verbal depiction of a phenomenon of reality by listing its characteristics.
Narration- a story about events, phenomena, conveyed in a certain sequence.
Reasoning- verbal presentation, explanation and confirmation of any idea.
A scientific description has the goal of revealing the characteristics of an object, phenomenon, process, and establishing connections (appearance, components, purpose, comparison). Everyone knows, for example, descriptions in chemistry of the properties of various substances (Titanium is a gray metal. It has two polymorphic modifications... The industrial method of producing titanium consists of enriching and chlorinating titanium ore with its subsequent reduction from titanium tetrachloride with magnesium metal...) ("Materials Science")).
The most common way to construct a scientific text is reasoning. The purpose of reasoning is to verify the truth or falsity of any statement with the help of arguments, the truth of which has been verified and is not questioned. Reasoning is a method of presentation through which the process of obtaining new knowledge is conveyed and this knowledge itself is communicated as a result in the form of a logical conclusion. Reasoning is constructed as a chain of conclusions based on evidence and refutations. Thus, in A. Chekhov’s story “Letter to a Learned Neighbor,” the author of the letter, a landowner, talks about the world: “You write that on the moon, i.e. during the month, people and tribes live and inhabit. This can never happen, because if people lived on the moon, they would obscure its magical and magical light for us with their houses and rich pastures. ... People living on the moon would fall down to the ground, but this does not happen...”
The task of a scientific narrative is to record and present the stages of changes, formations, i.e. time frame. That is, a scientific narrative represents a brief or detailed description of processes aimed at subsequent registration of individual stages of the process within the time frame of its occurrence. Narration is a story about phenomena, events in time sequence, it is a statement of the discovery of laws with conclusions and generalizations, comparisons. (“Firms also change their economic policies in the face of inflation. This is expressed, for example, in the fact that they undertake only the implementation of short-term projects that promise a faster return on investment. The lack of their own working capital pushes firms to search for new external sources of financing through the issue shares and bonds, leasing, factoring"). (" Economic theory").
Proof close to reasoning - a method of presentation through which the truth of knowledge that was in the nature of hypotheses is confirmed or denied. It, like reasoning, contains
thesis + arguments + demonstrations + conclusions.
The scientific style of speech involves the use of the following methods of logical organization of scientific text: deduction, induction, analogy and problem presentation.
Logical scheme of the text using deduction: thesis, hypothesis → development of the thesis, argumentation → conclusions.
Logical scheme of the text using induction: purpose of research → accumulation of facts, analysis, generalization → conclusions.
Deduction (Latin deduction) is the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from general laws to particular ones.
The word deduction brings to mind the words of the famous Sherlock Holmes: “It is not so difficult to construct a series of conclusions in which each subsequent one follows from the previous one. If you then remove all the middle links and tell the listener only the first link and the last, they will produce a stunning, although false, impression.”
The deduction method consists of three stages:
Stage 1 – a thesis is put forward(Greek: position, the truth of which must be proven) or hypothesis (Greek: basis, assumption).
Stage 2 – development of the thesis(hypothesis), its justification, proof or refutation. Various types of arguments (Latin arguments) are used here, serving as the basis for proof, facts and examples, comparisons.
Stage 3 – conclusions and proposals. This method is often used in seminars at universities.
The inductive method (lat. guidance) is the movement of thought from the particular to the general, from knowledge of one fact to a general rule, to a generalization. The composition is as follows: in the introductory part, the purpose of the study is determined. The main part presents the available facts, describes the technology for obtaining them, and carries out analysis, synthesis, and comparisons. Based on this, a conclusion is drawn and patterns are established. This is how, for example, students report on research work at a university.
A problem presentation is the formulation of problematic questions in a certain sequence. The method originates from the Socratic method. During it, the problem posed is examined and patterns are formulated. For example, during a lecture or report, a particular problem is formulated. The lecturer offers ways to solve it; he makes all listeners participants in the thought process.
So, the features of the scientific style include accuracy, logic, argumentation, and use of terms. In addition, it is necessary to remember about the methods of constructing a scientific text and the methods of logical presentation of the material in it.
Control questions:
What are the main linguistic features of the scientific style?
What are the requirements for terms?
What are the different ways and methods of creating a scientific text?
Select a scientific text in your specialty and consider it from the following points of view:
What method - inductive or deductive - does the author use?
Has a hypothesis been formulated?
How is the proof constructed?
TESTS
1st person singular;
1st person plural;
2nd person plural;
3rd person singular.
Commonly used;
general scientific;
colloquial;
terminological.
The Archean era appears to have been characterized by volcanic activity.
The Archean era appears to have been characterized by volcanic activity.
It is better to feed crossbills with pine and spruce cones.
This wheat grows well and produces a lot of grain.
The book review is due next week.
The abstracts for the article turned out to be very unsuccessful.
The abstract to the monograph was written by the scientific supervisor.
Name numbers in sequential order;
determine the exact amount of something;
draw some conclusion, admit, assume;
take into account, take into account.
We take a different point of view...
Seems wrong...
The merits of this approach to solving should be recognized...
The author rightly points out...
We are pleased with the results...
We are extremely pleased with the results...
We are pleased with the results obtained during the study.
The results are quite satisfactory to us.
Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it;
violation of style;
violation of passwords.
So!
Okay, notice to yourself.
Addendum to the text.
Very important.
1 Russian language and culture of speech: Course of lectures/G.K. Trofimova – M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2004. – P.70 – 77.
Practical work No. 5
Topic: Style and genre features of scientific style
Purpose of the lesson: theoretical review and implementation of exercises according to plan:
3 Writing an essay, completing coursework in the disciplines of the curriculum
"Scientific style"
1. Indicate the functions of the scientific style:
reporting information, explaining facts;
message + impact;
message;
image and impact;
communication
1. socio-economic, political, cultural relations;
2. legislation, office work;
3. formal setting;
4. fiction, memoirs;
5. everyday relationships, private letters, notes
3. Name the characteristic means of expression:
1. epithets;
2. metaphors;
3. rhetorical figures;
4. lack of means of expression;
5. emotionally charged vocabulary
4. In what genres is educational and scientific speech implemented:
1. message;
2. report;
3. instructions;
4. story;
5. interview
5. The scientific style of speech has varieties (substyles), indicate them:
1. scientific reference;
2. educational and scientific;
3. popular science;
4. diplomatic;
5. legislative
6. Determine the type of text:
I, Alekseeva Anna Ivanovna, residing at the address: St. Petersburg.................. I trust Olga Alexandrovna Khitrova, residing at the address: St. Petersburg. ..................., concluding an agreement with the publishing house "Lawyer" on my behalf.
05.29.03. Alekseeva A.I.
1. statement
2. announcement
3. receipt
4. power of attorney
5. summary
6.1. Does this text belong to the genre of scientific style?
2. no
7. Indicate special concepts of the scientific sphere of communication, special lexical units of scientific style:
1. figures of speech
2. terms
3. phraseological units
4. epithets
5. comparisons
8. Determine the type of text: Ocean (Greek ΩκεανМς, on behalf of the ancient Greek deity Ocean) is the largest body of water, part of the world ocean, located among the continents, having a water circulation system and other specific features.
1. definition (definition)
1. announcement
3. receipt
4. power of attorney
5. summary
Does this text belong to the genre of scientific style?
9. Name extralinguistic features that are not related to the scientific style:
1. logic
2. reasoning
3. abstractness
5. objectivity
10. Indicate what types of texts belong to the scientific style:
2. monograph;
3. letter;
4. memoirs;
5. dissertation
11.Indicate which style features of the proposed ones do not relate to the scientific style of speech:
1. imagery;
2. generality;
3. objectivity of presentation;
4. conscription;
5. evaluative
12. The morphological features of the scientific style include:
1. especially frequent use of personal and demonstrative pronouns
2. quantitative predominance of nouns
3. use of verb forms with weakened lexical and grammatical meanings
4. variant forms of nouns
5. Of the verb forms, infinitives are especially common here
13. Determine the style and type of speech.
The periodic law was formulated by D.I. Mendeleev in the following form (1871): “the properties of simple bodies, as well as the forms and properties of compounds of elements, and therefore the properties of the simple and complex bodies they form, are periodically dependent on their atomic weight.” With the development of atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the Periodic Law received a strict theoretical justification. Thanks to the classic works of J. Rydberg (1897), A. Van den Broek (1911), G. Moseley (1913), the physical meaning of the serial (atomic) number of an element was revealed. Later, a quantum mechanical model was created for the periodic change in the electronic structure of atoms of chemical elements as the charges of their nuclei increase (N. Bohr, W. Pauli, E. Schrödinger, W. Heisenberg, etc.). Currently, D. I. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law has the following formulation: “the properties of chemical elements, as well as the forms and properties of the simple substances and compounds they form, are periodically dependent on the magnitude of the charges of the nuclei of their atoms.” The peculiarity of the Periodic Law among other fundamental laws is that it does not have an expression in the form mathematical equation. The graphic (tabular) expression of the law is developed by Mendeleev Periodic table of elements.
1. journalistic style; reasoning
2. scientific style; reasoning
3. conversational style; narration
4. artistic style; narration
5. artistic style; description
14. In the scientific style, the following substyles are distinguished:
1. actually scientific, science fiction and jurisdictional; 2. actually scientific, diplomatic and political propaganda;
3. actually scientific, scientific and technical;
4. actually scientific, popular science;
5. actually scientific, judicial procedural and clerical
15. Which style is characterized by the following features:
1) use of figurative means;
2) the use of nouns in the genitive case as inconsistent definitions (near abroad countries, employment services);
3) the use of vocabulary denoting the concepts of morality, ethics, economics, medicine, psychology;
4) a combination of emotional means of language with strict logical evidence.
1. scientific
2. artistic
3. journalistic
4. conversational
5. official business
16. The syntax of the scientific style of speech is characterized by a tendency towards:
1. the use of interrogative and exclamatory sentences;
2. correctness and clarity of sentence construction, their simplicity and clarity;
3. the use of certain types of syntactic constructions: indefinitely personal, generalized personal and impersonal sentences;
4. the predominance of incentive sentences with an infinitive acting in the sense of an imperative mood;
5. use of clichéd phrases with denominative prepositions
17. The lexical components of the scientific style of speech are characterized by:
1. template figures of speech;
2. use of the word in a specific, definite meaning;
4. use of abbreviations and complex abbreviated names;
18. Determine the type of text:
Dear Viktor Ivanovich, I would like to inform you that I will not be able to arrive at my destination within the time period specified by you and begin to perform my official duties, since my health has deteriorated. I am in dire need of treatment. Please give me a vacation at your own expense.
Sidorov's assistant
1. statement
2. announcement
3. receipt
4. explanatory
5. summary
19. Does this text belong to the genre of scientific style?
2. no
20. Determine the type of text:
Article 1. All people are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and must act towards each other in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 3. Every person has the right to life, liberty and personal security.
1. summary
3. review
21. Does this text belong to the genre of scientific style?
22. In what style are all linguistic means used?
1. in a scientific style;
2. in the language of fiction;
3. in newspaper and journalistic;
4. in official business;
5. in all of the above.
23. Indicate which of the above features are not characteristic of the scientific style?
1. scientific phraseology;
2. wide use of vocabulary and phraseology of other styles;
3. preferential use of nouns instead of verbs;
4. logical sequence of presentation;
5. Constructions with participial and participial phrases are widely used.
24. Which of the following genres does not belong to the scientific style?
1. abstract;
2. dissertation;
4. abstract.
5. report.
25. What genre of scientific style of speech does this text belong to? “The article is devoted to the development of reading skills. It proves the importance of improving reading skills, examines types of reading depending on the purpose and setting for the degree of understanding, and also provides tasks that develop reading skills. The article is intended for students studying Russian as a second language, and is of interest to a wide range of readers.”
1. review;
2. abstract;
3. report;
4. abstract;
5. dissertation.
26. What is a concise, brief description of a book (article or collection), its contents and purpose called?
1. review;
2. abstract;
3. report;
4. dissertation;
5. abstract.
Control questions:
1 Compilation of statements-texts of scientific genres within the framework of future professional activities (message, report, review, review, annotation, article, abstract, scientific project, course work, graduation project, report in scientific and journalistic styles, summary, etc.).
2 Work with periodicals, analysis of articles.
3 Writing an essay, completing coursework in the disciplines of the curriculum.
Literature:
1 Vvedenskaya L.A. Russian language: workshop. Textbook for universities. –M., 2009.-120 p.
2 Kasymova Zh.S. Introduction to the specialty for students of specialty 5B072000 - Chemical technology of inorganic substances / textbook - Semey, 2013. - 239 p.
3 Tugambaeva T.B. Russian-Kazakh chemical-technological terminological dictionary, Oryssha-Kazakhsha chemistry-technology terminologylyk sozdik 050720 “Beyorganikalyk zattardyn khimiyalyk technologies”, 050721 “Organikalyk zattardyn khimiyalyk technologies” Mamandyktarynyn student terіne arnalgan adіstemelik nұsqaulary. – Pavlodar, 2007. – 39 b.
Practical work No. 6
Topic: Term and definition in scientific speech. Chemical terminology
Purpose of the lesson: theoretical review and implementation of exercises according to plan:
1. The task of science is to show patterns. Therefore, its features are: abstract generality, emphasized logic of presentation, clarity, argumentation, and unambiguous expression of thoughts. The tasks of communication in the field of science, its subject, and the content of speech require the transfer of general concepts. Abstract vocabulary, special vocabulary and terminology serve this purpose.
Terminology embodies the precision of scientific speech.
2. Term – This is a word or phrase that accurately and unambiguously denotes the concept of a special field of knowledge or activity (diffusion, structural strength, marketing, futures, measurement, density, software, etc.).
Concept– this is a thought about the general essential properties, connections and relationships of objects or phenomena of objective reality. The formation of concepts is an important condition for scientific speech. Definition of concepts gives definition(Latin definition) – a brief identification characteristic of an object designated by a specific term (Inductance is a physical quantity that characterizes the magnetic properties of an electrical circuit.)
To specific Features of the term include:
· consistency,
· the presence of a definition (definition),
· unambiguity,
· stylistic neutrality,
lack of expression
· simplicity.
One of the requirements for the term is that it modernity, i.e. outdated terms are replaced by new terms. The term may be international or close to terms that are created and used in other languages (communication, hypothesis, business, technology, etc.). The term also includes international word-forming elements: anti, bio, micro, extra, neo, maxi, micro, mini, etc.
Terminology is divided into 3 groups:
general scientific (analysis, thesis, problem, process, etc.),
· interscientific (economics, cost, labor, etc.),
· highly specialized (only for a specific area of knowledge).
Terminology ensures information mutual understanding at the national and international levels, compatibility of legislative and regulatory documents.
Composition of chemical vocabulary
General scientific, general technical and interdisciplinary terms are those words with which you can describe and characterize phenomena and processes in a wide variety of sciences; words that have often been transferred from common vocabulary and reinterpreted in a new way, with concepts firmly attached to them.
By means of general scientific words, special concepts are expressed that can be found in objects, phenomena, processes, properties, etc. different areas of the studied reality, including chemical science. By the nature of their meaning, general scientific terms are broad and generalized; by the nature of the concept, they are most often generic.
In scientific chemical texts, the most common general scientific terms are: system, method, structure, theory, experiment, design, analysis, temperature, energy, volume, mass, period, etc.
Also distinguished general technical terms. These include words that serve to designate basic technical concepts: apparatus, automatic, mechanism.
In polytechnic dictionaries, several meanings are recorded for such terms. For example, chain: small arms (military), tracked (technical), chain of atoms (chemical), electrical (physical), etc.
When a new terminological meaning arises, the information capacity of the term changes, which entails the phenomenon of terminological polysemy (polyfunctionality). Multifunctionality makes it possible to use already existing national and international language resources to express new concepts.
In chemical terminology, the process of conscious creative construction of terms has been going on for several decades at the international level.
The fragment “cryo” translated from Greek means ice, cold. Hence: cryolite – a cold stone (looks like ice); crystals - ice, rock crystal. The word "hygro", translated from Greek meaning humidity, and the word "hydro", meaning water, are included in fragments in modern words: hygroscopicity (humidity + observation); hydrophobicity (water + fear), etc.
The decoding of some terms formed by Greek words is at the same time a formulation of the corresponding concepts. For example, the term “amorphous” can be divided into two parts – “a” (negation) and “morph” (form, appearance). This means that the term “amorphous”, i.e. formless, includes the concept of substances that do not have a crystalline structure. Thus, when a teacher gives a translation of Greek words into Russian, he is, in essence, explaining the meaning of the terms.
Another example. The term "azeotropic" consists of three parts: "a" (negation), "zeo" (boiling), "trope" (change). This term characterizes mixtures of substances, during the distillation of which their separation does not occur and a condensate of the same composition as the original solution is formed.
Sometimes the Greek word is included in many terms. For example, the fragment “lys”, meaning decomposition, gives rise to the following terms: hydrolysis - decomposition of a substance with the help of water; electrolysis – decomposition of a substance by electric current; pyrolysis - decomposition by fire. A fragment of some modern terms “iso” means equal, identical in translation from Greek. Deciphering the terms leads to the definition of concepts: isomers (equal share) - substances that have the same qualitative and quantitative composition, but differ in properties; isotopes (equal place) - elements that occupy the same place in D.I. Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements, having the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Latin language until the beginning of the 19th century. was the international language of science, so it left a big mark on the terms. Terms derived from Latin words most often mean some kind of technological operation or action. For example: adsorption - absorption; association - connection; dissociation - separation; diffusion - distribution; neutralization - neither one nor the other (the reaction of an acid with a base, in which neither acid nor base remains).
The applied nature of the meanings of Latin words has been preserved in the most frequently used fragments of modern terms. For example, the fragment “ko”, meaning connection, is included in the terms complex (combination, coverage), condensation (condensation), coordination (ordering), and the fragment “de”, meaning separation, absence, removal, is found in the terms denaturation (loss of natural properties), destruction (loss of structure), dehydration (removal of water), dehydrogenation (removal of hydrogen).
Many chemical terms originate from the languages of other peoples: titer - characteristic (French), buffer - shock mitigation (English), agar-agar - algae (Malay).
An important feature of chemical term formation is existence of stable terminological systems.
Within chemical terminology, polysemous terms function in different lexical categories. Most of them were borrowed from the general literary language, then within the terminological system they developed metonymically (from Greek - renaming) derivative meanings. For example, hydrogen bridge, crystal lattice, three-neck flask, inert gas, noble metal, sandwich compound, chromium mixture, fume hood, Turnboole blue, Prussian blue, saturated solution, unsaturated solution, strong acid, etc.
Syntactic method term formation is one of the productive means of replenishing terminological vocabulary. This method involves converting ordinary free phrases into complex word equivalents. Collocation serves as a means of nomination, denoting an object, phenomenon, process, quality, called the core component and specified, specified by the dependent component.
The main layer of terminological phrases in chemistry consists of syntactically stable phrases, which are the most important for terminology. The nature of the stability of a terminological phrase is conceptual, i.e. Behind each compound term there is a standard reproducible structure of a complex professional concept.
Thus, terminological phrase is a semantic and grammatical combination of two or more full-valued words, serving as the name of a special, professional concept.
The most vivid and complete expression of a phrase as a category is attributive phrase. The common part can be both a qualifying and a defining member of a phrase. An example of terms of the first kind, with a common defined component: gas (flammable, explosive, dry, liquefied, ideal, inert, radioactive, etc.).
Terms of the second kind, which have a defining component in common, can be illustrated by the following example: emission analysis, effect, decay, stability, processing, decomposition, expansion.
The activity of the syntactic method of forming scientific terms is due to a number of advantages of term-phrases: they not only name concepts, but also to some extent reveal their content; satisfy the requirements for the accuracy of terms due to the ability to more fully reflect the characteristics of the concept; limit ambiguity in terminology.
One of the ways to replenish chemical vocabulary is borrowing. Currently, the problem of borrowing is becoming even more important, remaining one of the most complex in terminology.
The main criterion for distinguishing internationalisms from simple borrowings is that they express international concepts and function in several (at least three) non-related national languages. An equally important criterion for classifying foreign words as internationalisms is the similarity of their forms and meanings. Thus, the internationality of terms should be manifested in similarity both in terms of expression and in terms of content of lexical signs of a number of adjacent languages. This similarity of forms and meanings, determined by the obligatory condition of “international recognition,” does not, however, mean complete identity. Along with the same features, specific differences are possible in each language that do not interfere with the practical identification of international terms.
Distinguish
– terms created on the basis of a specific language and which have become internationalisms as a result of borrowing by many languages, for example: satellite (Russian), robot (Czech), font (German).
– terms created from ancient Greek and Latin elements, for example: ion – from Greek. ion(going), vacuum - from lat. vacuum(emptiness), gel – from lat. gelo(to freeze, freeze), dissociation - from lat. dissotiatio(separation), distillation - from lat. distillatio(flowing down by drops), diffusion - from lat. diffusio(dispersion), polymer – from Greek. policies- (a lot) and me"ros(part), phosphorus – from Greek. (light) and phoros(carrying), etc.
At definitional terminology Terminological naming is often based on a definition (definition), for example, “biology” - the study of living nature. In the process of such term formation, nominalization occurs - the transformation of an expanded syntactic whole into a single naming (geology, geography, etc.).
Tracing occupies a special place in terminology. The attitude of various researchers towards it is ambiguous. Tracing papers, according to M.N. Volodina, help “preserve the originality of a particular language, serve as the most important means of enriching it and at the same time freeing it from unnecessary direct borrowings.” Calques are relatively easily translated into other languages. This is their closeness to dictionary borrowing terms, which have become international terms. In many term systems, tracing is a fairly productive type of term formation. In chemical terminology there are calques from Latin and Greek, for example:
lat. aqua regia– Russian aqua regia - German Konigwasser;
Greek argentum vivum(“living silver”) – German. Quecksilver;
Greek hydrogen(“generating water”) - Russian. hydrogen - German Wasserstoff;
Greek oxygenium – rus. oxygen - German Sauerstoff.
Many European languages distinguish between international non-derived and derived stems, suffixes and prefixes. International term elements contribute to the motivation of international terms, because they are characterized by accessibility, accuracy, brevity and ease of education. They are convenient in that the meaning of a certain group of such elements is known to representatives of a particular specialty, and therefore the meaning of a term constructed from them will be understandable to specialists speaking a variety of languages. For example, the basis electric(electricity, electrification, electrician, electrification, electrification, electric, electrify, electrify).
The most universal Greek-Latin bases are: hydro-, hyper-, micro-, hetero-, thermo-, mono- etc. Most often they are found as part of international words (homogeneous, heterogeneous, hydrogel, macromolecule, etc.).
Currently, the process of terminological nomination is inextricably linked with national and international activities for standardization and unification of terms, as a result of which the terminologies of many branches of science and technology are becoming increasingly international in nature (table), which helps to simplify the international communication of specialists.
Table
Examples of internationalisms
A striking example of the systematic formation of term systems is chemical terminology, which is often considered a model of ordered terminology. The uniform rules of nomenclature developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) ensure the effectiveness of the international exchange of information in the field of chemistry, despite the unusually rapid growth of its terminology.
But sometimes words in different languages are not at all similar. For example:
rus. iron - fr. fer – eng. iron– German Eisen(lat. ferrum);
rus. silver - fr. argent– eng. silver– German Silber(lat. argentum);
rus. gold - fr. or– eng. gold– German Gold(lat. aurum).
Abbreviation(abbreviation) is an integral part of any modern language. In terminologies of various fields, including chemical terminology, abbreviated terms of various types are widespread. All of them have a specific prototype in the language - a complex unit, a descriptive phrase that characterizes structures, processes, connections, etc. For example, terms formed by sequential placement of capital letters: OVR, TED, DNA, RNA.
Often there are also designations consisting of a noun in full form as a nuclear (defined) component and an acronym * as a determinant, for example: NMR spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, -bond.
Terms obtained by universalization (i.e., creating forms that are more linearly concise by truncation of any part of the original word) can be found much less frequently.
Trivial expressions. The inextricable connection between the two spheres of vocabulary – common and terminological – is obvious. The transition of many terms from highly specialized to generally known is especially characteristic at the present time. At the same time, naturally, there is some impoverishment of the content, a simplification of the meaning of the word. The term loses its strict conceptuality, systematicity, unambiguity and enters into business, newspaper and everyday language. An example would be trivial names.
By origin, these terms are commonly used words that have been preserved since their inception. These are traditional, not structural terms; they are few in number and are inherent primarily in inorganic chemistry. For example, copper sulfate, ammonia, alkali, Glauber's salt, rock salt, sea salt, potassium permanganate, saltpeter, alcohol, salt, etc.
Metonymic formation used both in general literary language (formation of new meanings of words) and in terminology systems (formation of new terms).
In the terminology of chemical science, the metonymic model “name of the action – result of the action” is specific and especially productive. For example, precipitation - sediment, mixing - impurity, connection - bond, fusion - alloy, mixing - mixture, i.e. denotation in one word of an action and its result.
Many terms that arose as a result of metonymy acquire the ability to form the plural - a formal feature that distinguishes them, on the one hand, from commonly used words, and on the other, from words-terms with a process meaning (alloys, compounds, impurities, etc. ).
A special group is formed terms derived from the names of scientists and inventors. For example, Bakelite is the name of a resol resin formed during the synthesis of phenol-formaldehyde resin, created by the American scientist L. Baekeland (1863–1944); berthollides - compounds of variable composition, named in memory of the French chemist C.L. Berthollet (1748–1822); Wood's alloy is an organometallic alloy made by the American physicist R.W. Wood (1868 –1955).
There are nominal names of devices - Dewar flask, Hoffmann device, Buchner funnel, Wurtz flask, Tishchenko flask, etc. The open-hearth and Thomas melting methods were named after the inventors - the French metallurgists father and son Martin and the English metallurgist S.D. Thomas. Nominal names of laws and rules: Avogadro's law, Butlerov's theory, Pauli's principle, Hund's rule (Hunda). There is a huge number of named reactions, especially in organic chemistry: Kucherov’s reaction, Zelinsky’s reaction, Wurtz’s reaction, etc.
Terms from other sciences, such as mathematics, have penetrated into the chemical language. In chemical terminology, they acquired independence and were enriched with chemical meaning. Thus, we widely use terms such as index, coefficient, equation, equivalent, tetrahedron, etc. All this indicates that chemical terms are constantly changing words of diverse origin. Studying the origin of terms (etymology) contributes to a more conscious mastery of chemical concepts and laws. It is impossible to study chemical terminology without penetrating into the very essence of the foundations of science.
3. Chemical technology – scientific basis chemicalproduction
Modern chemical production is large-scale, automated production, the basis of which is chemical technology (from techno - art, skill + logos - study) - the science of the most economical and environmentally sound methods of chemical processing of raw natural materials into consumer goods and means of production. Objects of chemical technology – substances and systems of substances involved in chemical production; chemical processes technology is a set of various operations carried out during production with the aim of converting these substances into others. Modern general chemical technology arose as a result of a natural process of integration characteristic of all branches of science at a certain stage of development independent technologies for the production of individual products in result of generalization of empirical rules receiving them.
Modern chemical technology, using the achievements of natural and technical sciences, studies and develops a set of physical and chemical processes, machines and devices, optimal ways to carry out these processes and control them in the industrial production of various substances. Technology must study the most profitable methods, select from the possible the most acceptable ones based on the given conditions of time and place, in order to give the product the greatest cheapness with the desired properties and forms. Technologies are divided into mechanical and chemical. mechanical technologies are being considered processes in which the shape or appearance and physical properties of materials are changed, chemical technologies- processes of radical changes in the composition, properties and internal structure of a substance.
Raw materials are one of the main elements technological process, which largely determines the economics of the process, choice of technology.
Raw materials are called natural materials used in industrial production products.
In chemical production at various stages of processing the following can be distinguished:
material objects: initial substance or raw material itself, intermediate products (intermediates), by-products products and waste.
Intermediate refers to raw materials that have been processed at one or more stages of production, but not consumed as a finished target product. He can be used on subsequent stagesproduction. For example,
stone coal→ coke gas → hydrogen → ammonia.
Side effects a product is a substance formed during the processing of raw materials, along with the target product, but is not the goal of this process. For example, ammonium nitrate, chalk in production of nitroammophoska.
Waste production are the remains of raw materials, materials, intermediate products formed during production and who have completely or partially lost their qualities. For example, phosphogypsum in the production of superphosphate.
Intermediate products, by-products and waste after preliminary with or without processing, they can be used as raw materials in other processes.
All chemical raw materials classified according to various criteria: origin, chemical composition, reserves state of aggregation.
Chemical raw materials are usually divided into:
primary (extracted from a natural source;
secondary (intermediate and by-products);
natural;
artificial (resulting from processing of natural raw materials).
few stages production process;
state of aggregation of a system that requires minimal energy input to create optimal flow conditions process;
minimal dissipation of input energy;
possibly lower process parameters;
Control questions:
1 Commonly used, general scientific vocabulary. The place of terminological vocabulary in the system of modern Russian language.
2. Term and common word. Semantization of terms.
3. Working with texts in the specialty: terminological commentary of the text. Terminological minimum within the framework of the speech topic “Chemical technology as a science.”
Literature:
1 Shchukin A.N. Teaching verbal communication in Russian as a foreign language. - M.: Russian language. Courses, 2012. – 784 p.
2 Bukeikhanova R.K., Chumbalova G.M. Russian language. Training in translation of scientific and technical texts into Kazakh. – Almaty: AIES, 2006. – 48 p.
3 Butorina E.P. Russian language and culture of speech. Textbook for non-philological students. – M., 2009. – 150 p.
4 Vvedenskaya L.A. Russian language: workshop. Textbook for universities. –M., 2009.-120 p.
5 Kasymova Zh.S. Introduction to the specialty for students of specialty 5B072000 - Chemical technology of inorganic substances / textbook - Semey, 2013. - 239 p.
6 Tugambaeva T.B. Russian-Kazakh chemical-technological terminological dictionary, Oryssha-Kazakhsha chemistry-technology terminologylyk sozdik 050720 “Beyorganikalyk zattardyn khimiyalyk technologies”, 050721 “Organikalyk zattardyn khimiyalyk technologies” Mamandyktarynyn student terіne arnalgan adіstemelik nұsqaulary. – Pavlodar, 2007. – 39 b.
Practical work No. 7-8
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"ORENBURG INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND CULTURE"
Department of Philology and Foreign Languages
COURSE WORK
in the discipline "PKRO: English"
on the topic: "Translation of scientific style"
Orenburg, 2011
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Chapter 1 Characteristic features of style.
General characteristics of the scientific style………………………………….4
1.1 The origins of the scientific style…………………………………………. 9
1.2 Specifics of scientific prose………………………………………… 10
1.3 Genre diversity of scientific speech style……………………… 11
1.4 Lexical features of scientific style…………………………. 16
5 Phraseology of scientific style………………………………………….. 17
6. Grammatical features of scientific style………………………. 20
7. Syntax of scientific speech…………………………………………… 25
Chapter 2 Features of translating scientific style into Russian…… 29
2.1 Translation of scientific prose terms……………………………………………………31
2.2 Attributive combinations…………………………………………… 34
2.3 Translation of impersonal verbs and sentences………………………. 37
2.5 Translation transformations of the scientific style (explication, compression)……………………………………………………………………………….. 40
2.6 Absolute participial phrases………………………………… 42
2.7 Stylistic editing of the text during translation, the problem of translating metaphors………………………………………………………………………………………. 43
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………… 46
References……………………………………………………….. 47
Introduction
This course work is devoted to the study of scientific style and ways of translating it from English into Russian.
The object of the study is the language of scientific articles in English.
The scientific style occupies a special place among other functional styles, since its text has its own structure and a certain set of linguistic means used. Today, the scientific style is extremely widespread and is used in many areas of human activity, which explains its genre diversity. An important issue for us is the translation of text from one language to another, since in different languages the scientific style has its own characteristics.
The relevance of this work is due to the leading role of science in society and the need to disseminate scientific knowledge in all countries, incl. through the translation of scientific articles.
This work has practical value from the point of view of systematizing the most effective ways of translating scientific texts from English into Russian.
The purpose of this work is to describe the characteristics of the language of scientific prose as a functional style and to determine the methods and techniques of its translation from English into Russian.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were completed:
¨ define the functional style and list the main characteristics of its variety;
¨ give a general description of the scientific style, consider its origin, specificity, genre diversity, lexical, phraseological, grammatical and syntactic features;
¨ consider ways of translating scientific prose terms, attributive combinations, impersonal verbs and sentences. Transcategorial correspondences are determined, the use of translation transformations (explication, division, compression) is considered, taking into account the stylistic editing of the text during translation.
Chapter I . Functional style.
Style - from lat. stylos is the name of a pointed stick used for writing on waxed tablets. Even in Latin, the word “stylos” was rethought and began to mean not only a writing instrument, but also a manner of writing, a method of presentation, a syllable. In this second meaning, this word was borrowed into all European languages. The French and English changed the spelling of the root vowel in this word (y instead of i), erroneously deducing its origin from the related, but not having the same meaning, Greek noun “stylos” (“pillar”, “rod”).
Functional style is a subsystem of a language that has its own specific features in vocabulary and phraseology, in syntactic structures, and sometimes in phonetics.
The functional style of a language is, as defined by Academician V.V. Vinogradov, “a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally unified set of techniques for using, selecting and combining means of speech communication in the sphere of one or another popular, national language, in relation to other similar methods of expression that serve other purposes, perform other functions in speech social practice of a given people."
Each functional style, according to V.I. Maksimov. - this is a subsystem of the literary language, which is determined by the conditions and goals of communication in some sphere of social activity and has a certain set of stylistically significant linguistic means.
1. There are five functional styles: colloquial and everyday (communication function), scientific and official business (message function), newspaper journalistic and artistic (influence function).
1. Formal business style.
The main area in which the official business style of the Russian literary language functions is administrative and legal activity. This style satisfies the need of society for documenting various acts of state, social, political, economic life, business relations between the state and organizations, as well as between members of society in the official sphere of their communication.
Official business style is characterized by:
¨ highly regulated speech (a certain supply of means of expression and ways of constructing them);
¨ formality (rigor of presentation; words are usually used in their direct meanings; there is no imagery);
¨ impersonality (the specific and personal are excluded).
2. Conversational style.
The colloquial style functions in the sphere of everyday communication. This style is realized in the form of casual, unprepared monologue or dialogic speech on everyday topics, as well as in the form of private, informal correspondence.
The conversational style is characterized by:
¨ lack of official relations between participants,
¨ direct communication (no intermediaries),
¨ unprepared speech, improvisation.
3. Artistic style.
Artistic style as a functional style is used in fiction, which performs a figurative-cognitive and ideological-aesthetic function.
The artist of words influences not the mind, but the feeling, the imagination; he does not reason, does not prescribe, does not prove, but draws, shows, depicts. This is the specificity of the language of fiction.
The artistic style is characterized by the following features:
¨ focus on expressiveness,
¨ rich, varied vocabulary,
¨ individuality of the syllable (each writer chooses his own style of writing, his own system of artistic techniques)
4. Newspaper and journalistic style.
The newspaper-journalistic style functions in the socio-political sphere and is used in oratory speeches, in various newspaper genres, and in journalistic articles in periodicals.
One of the main features of this style is the combination of two trends - the tendency towards expressiveness and the tendency towards standard. This is due to the functions that journalism performs: informational and content function and the function of persuasion, emotional impact. Information in this area of public activity is addressed to a huge circle of people, all native speakers and members of a given society. For the relevance of information, the time factor is very important: information must be transmitted and become generally known in the shortest possible time. Persuasion is carried out through an emotional impact on the reader or listener, therefore the author always expresses his attitude to the information being communicated, but it, as a rule, is not only his personal attitude, but expresses the opinion of a certain social group of people.
5. Scientific style.
The sphere of social activity in which the scientific style functions is science. The leading position in the scientific style is occupied by monologue speech. This functional style has a wide variety of speech genres.
Features of the scientific style according to I.V. Arnold: the need for logical structure and maximum objectivity of presentation, the need for intelligibility and logical consistency in the presentation of the material, the presence of a harmonious, dense, stereotypical syntactic structure; absence or limited contact with the recipient, the scientific style meets the requirements of logical construction and maximum objectivity of presentation, reflects the work of the mind and is addressed to the mind.
Conclusion: Thus, many scientists have dealt with the problem of functional stylistics. There are many definitions of functional style, and, first of all, it is a subsystem of language and a set of techniques characteristic of a certain social circle. It is generally accepted to distinguish five functional styles: official business (business correspondence, government negotiations), colloquial (in everyday communication), artistic (characteristic of the book sphere), newspaper-journalistic (press, public speaking) and scientific (the language of science) styles.
Chapter II . General characteristics of scientific style.
1. The origin of the scientific style.
The style of scientific prose is called differently: scientific and technical style; business style; style of intellectual speech; rational syllable; scientific and professional style; technical style; style of scientific presentation; style of scientific papers, etc.
The origin of the functional style of scientific prose in English dates back to the 16th century. Before this, serious prose (scientific, philosophical, didactic) was the area of the undivided dominance of the Latin language. In English scientific literature of the 16th century, there was no genre differentiation of scientific prose; whatever the topic, purpose, scale of the research, they all took the form of a narrative.
In the 17th century, the process of genre ordering of scientific texts began, and fully formed genres of essay, treatise, argument, and pamphlet were observed. The scientific epistolary genre played a major role, especially before the appearance of the first scientific journals “Journal de Savants” in Paris, “Philosophical Transactions” in London, and “Acta eruditorum” in Leipzig.
In the 18th century, one of the leading features of English scientific prose became a further consistent orientation towards the norms of book writing. During this period, the genre of monographs (treaties) emerged with a clearly defined division of the text (into books, parts, chapters, etc.) and almost all other genres that exist today.
Special terminology began to take shape in the middle of the 19th century. And in 1965, the 300th anniversary of European scientific periodicals was celebrated.
Conclusion: Thus, the scientific style begins to take shape in English prose in the 16th century. Certain genres began to develop only in the 17th century. Since the 18th century, one of the leading features of English scientific prose has been a further consistent orientation towards the norms of book writing.
2. Specifics of scientific prose.
The function of scientific thinking is the knowledge of the world around us by creating logical categories. In turn, theoretical thinking, carried out in logically formulated concepts and systematized using words-terms, is included in the content of types of social consciousness - science, philosophy, ethics.
The tasks of scientific prose should first of all include the proof of certain provisions and hypotheses; argumentation; accurate and systematic presentation of scientific issues in order to describe, define and explain natural and social phenomena, in order to transfer the amount of knowledge, communicate new research results. With the help of a set of expressive means inherent in the language of scientific presentation, what actually exists is described and the truth is proven.
As a result, scientific prose consists mainly of a series of arguments and evidence. The accuracy of the latter is achieved by the completeness of the statement (which is not supplemented here by knowledge of the situation of a given moment, but is designed for constant significance) and semantic accuracy. Logical rigor, objectivity, consistency and accuracy are the properties that are considered the ideal of scientific prose.
The scientific and technical style is characteristic of presentation that has special content. The purpose of such a presentation is to convey a body of knowledge related to a particular field, report new research results, or explain both.
The scientific style is characteristic of texts intended to convey accurate information from any special field and to consolidate the process of cognition. The most striking, but not the only feature of this style is the use of special terminology.
Extra-linguistic factors that determine the formation of scientific prose in the process of its formation include the development of precise research methods, an increase in the degree of objectivity of knowledge, accompanied by a desire for brevity, consistency, logic and explicitness in the construction of a scientific text.
The style-forming factors are the need for clarity and logical consistency in the presentation of complex material, and greater traditionalism. The lack of direct contact or limited contact with the recipient of the speech (report, lecture) excludes or severely limits the use of extra-linguistic means; the lack of feedback requires greater completeness. The syntactic structure should be harmonious, complete and, if possible, stereotypical.
Conclusion: Thus, the main features of the scientific style are:
1. accuracy of reasoning of evidence, which is achieved by the completeness of the statement;
2. logical rigor, objectivity, consistency;
3. narrow focus of content;
4. the presence of special terminology.
3. Genre diversity of scientific speech style.
The widespread and intensive development of the scientific style led to the formation within its framework of the following varieties (substyles):
1) Proper scientific (monographs, dissertations, scientific articles, reports);
2) Popular science (lectures, articles, essays);
3) Educational and scientific (textbooks, teaching aids, programs, lectures, notes);
4) Scientific and business (technical documentation, contacts, test reports, instructions for the enterprise);
5) Scientific and informative (patent descriptions, informative abstracts, annotations);
6) Scientific reference (dictionaries, encyclopedias, reference books, catalogues).
Each substyle and genre has its own individual stylistic features, which, however, do not violate the unity of the scientific style, inheriting its general characteristics and features.
Genre varieties (within genres) are determined by the communicative intention of the author and the content of the given text. Thus, an article can be presented in the following varieties:
o Article – a brief report on the results of the research;
o A proper scientific article containing justification for the results of the research;
o An editorial summarizing a certain stage in the development of scientific research and defining tasks for the future;
o Historical review article on any issue;
o Scientific journalistic article;
Let us briefly describe the main of these genres.
Monograph– a scientific study written by one author or a team of authors, devoted to one question, topic, usually of large volume, and published in a separate publication. In the history of science and linguistics, there are often cases when the publication of a particular monograph marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of linguistics.
Article- a scientific essay of relatively small size, placed in a collection, magazine, or non-periodical publication. The article usually poses more specific questions than in monographs, but there have been cases, not uncommon, when not a monograph, but a small article determined the development of linguistics for a long time.
Essay– a brief summary of one or more works, combined according to some criteria (works of one author on different topics, works of different authors on the same topic, etc.). Abstract– a brief summary of the contents of the work, a small volume, written by the author himself. annotation- a brief summary of the contents of the work, a small volume, usually preceding the book. Abstracts- provisions that briefly outline the main thoughts, ideas of the lecture, report.
Review. The purpose of a review is to evaluate a particular publication, therefore it carries substantive and factual information - information about the structure and volume of the publication, and intellectual information - about the content of the publication and information of an evaluative nature, which, in turn, can be general or specific.
Whether a text belongs to a particular type or variety depends only to some extent on the genre of the scientific work. The type of scientific publication can impose only certain restrictions on the construction and selection of linguistic means in a scientific work.
Usually there are three or four main methods of presentation: description, narration, reasoning, and the critical-polemical method of presentation (consists of evaluating certain provisions and defending one’s point of view).
Scientific texts are constructed according to non-rigid models that are of a conventional nature.
Let's consider the main features of the genre of a scientific article. Any article has a heading complex that performs two functions - onomastic (the heading distinguishes one text from another) and contact-establishing (the heading directly and directly indicates the object of research). Next, indicate the name of the author and his place of work. The title complex also includes a brief abstract of the article, allowing the reader to form an opinion about its content. A characteristic feature of the annotation is its freer style, compared to a purely scientific one, which even allows the use of original metaphors.
The second necessary component of a scientific text, not just an article, is the introductive communicative block (ICB), which can be presented as a separate chapter (Introduction, Introduction, Preface) in monographs or several paragraphs in an article. The main function of the IKB is to give the addressee the minimum background knowledge necessary to perceive a given text and determine the need to read it. The IKB contains the following information: the formulation of the topic or object (subject) of the research, the objectives of the research being conducted, the connection of the problem under consideration with other similar or related problems, a description of the structure of the work.
The final communication blocks (FCB) - conclusion, afterword, conclusions - represent a condensed formulation of the most general conclusions of the study, and here it is possible to indicate the further direction of research in this area.
A special place in the texts under consideration is occupied by the so-called scientific apparatus of work. It means: a system of links to cited and used works, indications of sources of factual material used, formulation or clarification of existing formulations of the concepts with which the author will operate, a description of the research methodology used and description of the material, a list of used and cited literature, etc.
It is difficult to imagine a modern scientific work whose author would not, to a greater or lesser extent, resort to the use of data relevant to the topic of his research and obtained some time ago by other authors. Scientific works starting from absolute scratch, i.e. those that are not associated with accumulated knowledge and experience, already reflected in the specialized literature, practically do not exist. This connection may be greater or lesser, it may be direct or associative in nature, but its very existence, in other words, the presence of analogues and predecessors, is unlikely to be in doubt.
Bibliographical references are not just incidental mentions of the names of other authors and the titles of their works, but an extremely complex process of correlating one’s own research, one’s own experience with an already existing body of scientific data. Bibliographic references allow you to quickly identify connections between this scientific work and previous studies, characterize the source base of the study and, to a certain extent, the scientific positions of the author.
A bibliographic reference contributes to the creation of a unique dialogical nature of a scientific text: dialogue-agreement, dialogue-discussion, dialogue-disagreement. The very introduction of a bibliographic reference is an expression of evaluation. Perhaps it is not an exaggeration to say that a link is always an attitude, always an assessment. From here arise significant, not yet studied, modal possibilities of a scientific text.
Conclusion: Thus, the main genres of scientific style are: monograph, article, abstract, review. The structure of a scientific article consists of:
¨ header complex;
¨ introductive communicative block (minimum background knowledge for text perception);
¨ main communication block;
¨ final communication block (concise formulation of the most general conclusions of the study).
An important feature of scientific works are bibliographic references, which serve as an expression of evaluation and contribute to the creation of a kind of dialogic nature of the scientific text.
4. Lexical features of scientific style.
From a semantic point of view, the lexical and phraseological composition of the scientific style can be divided into three groups. The first includes words and expressions characteristic of the national literary language and used in book speech with the same meaning that is fixed in the language. They form the basis of the vocabulary and phraseology of the book style, but do not create its originality.
The second group includes words and expressions of the national literary language, which in a scientific style changed their semantics and became terms. Therefore, not their very presence in the text, but the specificity of the meaning can serve as an indication that the text belongs to the scientific style.
The third group includes special words and combinations that are not used anywhere except in scientific speech. This includes highly specialized and general scientific terminology.
According to Savory, “scientific vocabulary” consists of words that are characterized by: 1) unambiguity, 2) unchangeable meanings over the centuries.
Since the leading form of scientific thinking is the concept, almost every lexical unit in the scientific style denotes a concept or an abstract object. Special concepts of the scientific sphere of communication are accurately and unambiguously named and their content is revealed by special lexical units - terms. A term is a word or phrase that denotes the concept of a special field of knowledge or activity and is an element of a certain system of terms. Within this system, the term tends to be unambiguous, does not express expression and is stylistically neutral. Terms, a significant part of which are international words, are the conventional language of science.
The term is the main lexical and conceptual unit of the scientific sphere of human activity. In quantitative terms, in scientific style texts, terms prevail over other types of special vocabulary (nomenclatural names, professionalisms, professional jargon, etc.); on average, terminological vocabulary usually accounts for 15-20 percent of the total vocabulary of a given style.
Terms, as the main lexical components of the scientific style of speech, as well as other words in a scientific text, are characterized by use in one, specific, definite meaning. If a word is polysemantic, then it is used in a scientific style in one, less often - in two meanings, which are terminological: strength, size, body, sour, movement, hard (Strength is a vector quantity and at each moment of time is characterized by a numerical value.). The generality and abstractness of presentation in a scientific style at the lexical level is realized in the use of a large number of lexical units with an abstract meaning (abstract vocabulary). “Scientific language coincides with conceptual-logical language, ... conceptual language acts as more abstract.”
Conclusion: a scientific article uses:
1. neutral words (in direct meanings);
2. neutral words that have changed their semantics and become terms;
3. special words that are not used anywhere except in scientific speech.
5. Phraseology of scientific style.
The scientific style also has its own phraseology. The free equivalent of a phraseological unit is an actual type of phrase in scientific speech. In the scientific style, figurative-expressive phraseological units are practically absent as normative forms that reflect the essence of the style. They can occasionally be used only as accompanying elements in polemical, journalistic, and popularizing parts of a scientific work. The reasons for this lie in their semantic lack of differentiation, lack of independence and vagueness of the meanings of the components, the disorienting contradiction between the meaning of the whole and the sum of the values of the components, as well as the usual vagueness and incomprehensibility of the meaning of the whole in its dependence on the constitution.
This does not mean that in scientific speech there are no phraseological units at all and that there is no sign of phraseology at all. There are general linguistic phraseological units of a conceptual nature: rational grain, cornerstone, find the key to the problem, etc.
There is a concept of “terminological phraseological unit”. We are talking about special terminological concepts, the nominations of which have individual qualities of phraseological units. In addition to structural stability, which in itself is not a sign, they are conditionally metaphorical and the meaning of the whole is not identical to the sum of the meaning of the components. The last two signs can act with more or less activity, so that the remnants of “phraseology” in these nominations can manifest themselves to a greater or lesser extent. Therefore, in such, for example, terminological phrases as: solar corona, demographic explosion, artistic fabric - we fully feel the figurative and metaphorical connotations accompanying the concept and, accordingly, elements of phraseology. But – the abstract conceptual meaning dominates, the certainty of which is determined by the definition of the term.
In accordance with the scope of their use, phraseological units used in scientific literature can be divided into three types: colloquial, neutral and bookish. At the same time, the differences between colloquial and neutral vocabulary, on the one hand, and neutral and literary-book vocabulary, on the other, are primarily expressed in emotional and expressive overtones. The stylistic contrast of colloquial and literary-book phraseological units helps to distinguish them from the general background of neutral phraseology. The unusualness and seemingly inappropriateness of colloquial vocabulary in a scientific article, book, monograph, etc., gives it a noticeable emotional and expressive coloring.
Three types of phraseological units:
I . Conversational
at second hand - “from second hand, hearsay”
on hand - "available"
II . Neutral
on foot - "in motion"
to pave the way for something - “remove an obstacle, clear the way”
to throw light on something - “to shed light on something”
III . Literary and book
to fiddle while Rome is burning - “to have fun during a national disaster”
to pass the Rubicon - “cross the Rubicon”
In scientific speech, a distinction is made between atomic and molecular phrases. The activity of the attribute category, characteristic of scientific thinking and speech, causes the activity of the genitive case form, and in other cases. The attribute of a given object can be expressed in the genitive case through another object: a transformer coil, a base area. The sign of action can be expressed in the genitive case through the subject (the coil rotates - rotation of the coil) or “through a direct object” (accelerating the technical re-equipment of the enterprise, accelerate the re-equipment, re-equip the enterprise). This explains the exceptional activity of the genitive case in scientific speech, especially as part of a noun phrase.
Another characteristic feature of the noun phrase of scientific speech is the activity of forms of indirect-objective and adverbial control in its composition.
So, scientific speech at the level of phrases is characterized by the extreme passivity of phraseology itself and the activity of a special kind of freely connected combination of a conceptual nature, normative and general language in construction and more or less idiomatic for a non-specialist in content. The scientific style is characterized by the activity of multicomponent combinations, primarily nominative ones, and among them molecular ones, which represent the collapsed form of one or several sentences and thus provide greater semantic concentration. As a result of these transformations, the activity of the genitive case increases. As part of a phrase, homogeneous constructions acquire relative activity, however, without complicated configurations. In each sublanguage of science, with the general dominance of the principle of complete structural speech formation, processes of reduction of conceptual phrases slowly occur, enhancing their “ideomaticity” beyond the data of the sublanguage. Penetrating from scientific speech into newspaper-journalistic, colloquial, artistic, scientific-conceptual combinations usually lose their terminology and acquire new qualities of a sub-style - an adapter.
Conclusion: neutrally colored stable combinations of a conceptual nature are used. In the scientific style, phraseological units of three types are used: colloquial, neutral, bookish, characterized by the activity of the genitive case form and the activity of the forms of indirect-objective and adverbial control in its composition.
6. Grammatical features of scientific style
The abstractness and generality of scientific speech are manifested in the peculiarities of the functioning of various grammatical, in particular morphological units, which is revealed in the choice of categories and forms, as well as the degree of their frequency in the text. The implementation of the law of economy of linguistic means in the scientific style of speech leads to the use of shorter variant forms, in particular forms of masculine nouns instead of feminine forms: klyuchi (instead of key), cuffs (instead of cuff).
Naming concepts in scientific style predominates over naming actions, resulting in less use of verbs and more use of nouns. When using verbs, there is a noticeable tendency towards their desemantization, i.e. loss of lexical meaning, which meets the requirement of abstraction and generalization of the scientific style. This is manifested in the fact that most of the verbs in the scientific style function as connectives: to be, to be, to be called, to be considered, to become, to become, to conclude, etc. There is a significant group of verbs that act as components of verb-nominal combinations, where the main semantic load falls on the noun denoting an action, and the verb plays a grammatical role (denoting actions in the broadest sense of the word, conveys the grammatical meaning of mood, person and number): lead – to emergence, to death, to disruption; make - calculations, calculations, observations. The desemantization of the verb is also manifested in the predominance in the scientific text of verbs of broad, abstract semantics: to exist, to occur, to have, to appear, to change, etc.
Scientific speech is characterized by the use of verb forms with weakened lexical and grammatical meanings of time, person, number, which is confirmed by the synonymy of sentence structures: distillation is carried out - distillation is carried out; you can draw a conclusion - a conclusion is drawn, etc.
Another morphological feature of the style of scientific prose is the use of the present timeless (with a qualitative, indicative meaning), which is necessary to characterize the properties and characteristics of the objects and phenomena being studied: Ozone is one of allotrophic form of oxygen. Its molecule, in contrast to common O 2 consists of three atoms, due to which it acquires specific physical-chemical characteristics, responsible for unique biological effects. Live plants produce from 60 to 240 mn tons gas annually; 0.5 to 7 mn tons are produced by dead leaves.
Person forms of the verb and personal pronouns in a scientific style are also used in accordance with the transfer of abstract generalizing meanings. The 2nd person forms and pronouns you, you are practically not used, since they are the most specific; the percentage of 1st person singular forms is small. The most common in scientific speech are the abstract forms of the 3rd person and the pronouns he, she, it. The pronoun we, in addition to being used in the meaning of the so-called author's we, together with the form of the verb, often expresses the meaning of varying degrees of abstraction and generality in the meaning of “we are the totality” (I and the audience): We come to the result. We can conclude.
The desire to point to real objects, to operate with things, leads to the predominance of nominal structures in the English scientific and technical style, to its characteristic nominativity. The point is not only that technical texts contain many names of real objects. Research has shown that in such texts descriptions of processes and actions are also nominalized. Instead of saying to clean after the welding, the specialist says to do post-welding cleaning; if it is necessary to indicate that the particle is located near the nucleus, they say it occupies a juxtanuclear position; instead of The contents of the tank are discharged by a pump, preference is given to Discharge of the contents of the tank is effected by a pump. The removable cover in the device exists not just so that it can be easily cleaned and repaired, but for ease of maintenance and repair.
The desire for nominativity also leads to the replacement of adverbs with prepositional-nominal combinations. So, accurately becomes with accuracy, very easily - with the greatest ease or the easy way.
Only intensifying adverbs stubbornly resist this tendency, which act in scientific and technical texts as the main modal-expressive means, which does not look like an alien element in a serious presentation. These are the adverbs: clearly, completely, considerably, essentially, fairly, greatly, significantly, markedly, materially, perfectly, positively, reasonably, etc.
Evidence of the same anti-verbal tendency of the scientific and technical style is the widespread use of verbal adjectives with prepositions instead of verbs: to be attendant on, to be conducive to, to be destructive of, to be incidental to, to be responsive to, to be tolerant of , etc.
Of course, the nominative nature of the scientific and technical style does not mean that the materials of this style completely lack full-valued verbs in personal forms.
Verbality in scientific language appears not in the form of the verbs themselves, but in the form of derivatives of the verb. “Personal verbs usually denote specific actions. Verbal nouns express an abstract concept of action.”
Without such verbs it is difficult to imagine a coherent presentation of significant length, although according to some estimates the number of verbal predicative forms in scientific and technical texts is half as much as in literary works of the same length. Linguistic works have repeatedly noted such features of the use of verbs in the scientific and technical style of the English language as a significant predominance of passive forms and forms of the simple present tense, which is undoubtedly associated with the main characteristics and goals of scientific presentation.
One can also note numerous cases of omission in scientific and technical materials of the article, especially the definite one, where in texts of another type its use is considered absolutely mandatory: General view is that..., First uranium mine in the region was....
The article is often absent before the names of specific parts in specifications, technical descriptions, instructions, etc.: Armstrong Traps have long-live parts, valve and seat are heat treated crome steel, lever assembly and bucket arc stainless steel.
The same phenomenon is observed in front of the names of scientific fields: ...in such fields as work study, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, telecommunication, standardization, higher education, etc.
In linguistic works exploring the specifics of the scientific and technical style in modern English, a number of more specific grammatical features are also indicated, such as: the widespread use of the plural of material nouns (fats, oils, greases, steels, rare earths, sands, wools, gasolines, etc.), plural in the names of instruments (clippers, jointers, shears, dividers, compasses, trammels, etc.), the use of the preposition of to convey species-generic relations (the oxidizer of liquid oxygen, the fuel of kerosene), prevalence of attributive combinations with the words type, design, pattern, grade: Protective clothing and dry-chemical-type fire extinguisher should be readily available in the area.
The noted lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials have a direct impact on the communicative nature of such materials, which must be reproduced during translation.
Conclusion: The following morphological features are characteristic of scientific speech:
1. the use of shorter variant forms, in particular masculine forms of nouns instead of feminine forms;
2. less use of verbs and more use of nouns;
3. using verbal adjectives with prepositions instead of verbs;
4. predominance of passive forms;
5. use of the present timeless;
6. the most common are abstract third-person pronouns, as well as the author’s we;
7. replacing adverbs with prepositional-nominal combinations;
8. frequent omission of the article;
9. widespread use of the plural of material nouns.
7. Syntax of scientific speech.
The syntax of the scientific style of speech is characterized by a tendency towards complex constructions, which contributes to the transfer of a complex system of scientific concepts, the establishment of relationships between generic and specific concepts, between cause and effect, evidence and conclusions. For this purpose, sentences with homogeneous members and generalizing words with them are used. In scientific texts, various types of complex sentences are common, in particular with the use of compound subordinating conjunctions, which is generally characteristic of book speech: due to the fact that; due to the fact that, while, etc. The means of connecting parts of the text are introductory words and combinations: firstly, finally, on the other hand, indicating the sequence of presentation. To combine parts of the text, in particular paragraphs that have a close logical connection with each other, words and phrases indicating this connection are used: thus, in conclusion, etc. Sentences in a scientific style are uniform in the purpose of the statement - they are almost always narrative. Interrogative sentences are rare and are used to attract the reader's attention to some issue.
Such materials are especially characterized by definitions of concepts and descriptions of real objects by indicating their properties. This predetermines the widespread use of structures like A is B, i.e. simple two-part sentences with a compound predicate consisting of a linking verb and a nominal part (predicative): The barn is a unit of measure of nuclear cross sections, An adjective or prepositional phrase is often used as a predicate: The pipe is steel, The surface is copper . Similar structures are also used in the negative form, where instead of the usual verbal negation (do not), a compound predicate is often used, in which the predicate is preceded by the negation non: The stuff is non-shrink.
But in works from the field of social sciences and humanities, much more developed syntactic structures and much more flexible word usage are noticeable, allowing figurative rethinking and generally different figures of speech. In some literary, philosophical, pedagogical, etc. In his works, the scientific and professional style often alternates with the journalistic style.
American Scene Painting (c. 1931-42) describes a realist style of painting in the United States, which was particularly prevalent during the Great Depression. A government-sponsored reaction against the European styles that had surfaced following the New York Armory Show in 1913, it was an attempt to define a uniquely American aesthetic that combated Cubism, abstraction, and even Art Deco. It is loosely divided into two main schools: urban and politically-oriented Social Realism, and Regionalism, although the evocative Hopper and the fantastical Burchfield fall into neither camp.
An important characteristic of the English scientific and technical style, which is reflected in the selection and use of linguistic means, is also its desire for brevity and compactness of presentation, which is expressed, in particular, in the fairly widespread use of elliptical constructions. Misunderstanding of these constructions often leads to ridiculous errors in translation. Having encountered the combination a remote crane or a liquid rocket in the text, the translator should recognize in them the elliptical shapes of the combinations a remote-operated crane and a liquid-fuelled rocket.
The scientific and technical style is characterized, for example, by the replacement of attributive clauses with adjectives in postposition (especially with suffixes -ible, -able, -ive etc.): the materials available, excellent properties never before attainable, all factors important in the evaluation of, problems difficult with ordinary equipment, etc. The same goal can be achieved by using the infinitive forms in the function of determining: the properties to be expected, the temperature to be obtained, the product to be cooled, etc.
In connection with the consistency and evidence of scientific presentation noted above, there is also an increased use of cause-and-effect conjunctions and logical connectives such as since, therefore, it follows that, so, thus, it implies, involves, leads to, results in.
In scientific prose, we are faced with the use of a complex syntactic whole (supraphrasal unity), which, as a rule, is constructed as follows: at the beginning, one or another position (fact, hypothesis, concept) is formulated, and then its justification, motivation, and interpretation are given. The study of a complex syntactic whole in scientific prose as a structure characteristic of written book speech is of considerable interest precisely because the very nature and essence of scientific communication (its argumentation, the requirement of motivation, consistency in the presentation of the material) give rise to this method of syntactic organization of the utterance. It can be said without exaggeration that superphrase unity is that element of the syntactic organization of a scientific text, which (among other syntactic features of scientific prose) gives it qualitative certainty and originality.
The generalized-abstract nature of scientific speech and the timeless plan for presenting the material determine the use of certain types of syntactic constructions: vaguely personal, generalized personal and impersonal sentences. The character in them is absent or is thought of in a generalized, vague way; all attention is focused on the action and its circumstances. Vague-personal and generalized-personal sentences are used when introducing terms, deriving formulas, and explaining material in examples (Speed is represented by a directed segment; Consider the following example; Compare sentences)
Conclusion: The above-mentioned features of scientific prose are of a permanent nature, giving the style as a whole a stable linguistic expression.
Syntactic features of the scientific style:
1. different types of complex sentences using compound subordinating conjunctions;
2. introductory words and phrases;
3. use of a complex syntactic whole (supraphrasal unity);
4. the use of certain types of syntactic constructions, indefinitely personal, generalized personal and impersonal sentences;
5. simple two-part sentences with a compound predicate consisting of a linking verb and a nominal part;
6. increased use of cause-and-effect conjunctions and logical connectives.
Chapter III . Translation of scientific style.
According to Komissarov’s definition, translation is a type of language mediation in which the content of a foreign language original text is transferred to another language by creating a communicatively equivalent text in that language.
Krupnov defines the translation process as a kind of linguistic activity aimed at the most complete recreation in another language of the content and form of a foreign language text.
Translation, according to Breus, is a type of human activity, the process of transition from the source language to the target language, the resulting text and, finally, understanding the laws of the translation process.
Barkhudarov defines translation as the process of transforming speech in one language into a speech work in another language while maintaining an unchanged content plan, that is, meaning.
One of the main tasks of the translator is to convey the content of the original as completely as possible, and, as a rule, the actual commonality of the content of the original and the translation is very significant. It is necessary to distinguish between potentially achievable equivalence, which is understood as the maximum commonality of the content of two multilingual texts, allowed by the differences in the languages in which these texts are created, and translation equivalence - the real semantic similarity of the original texts and the translation, achieved by the translator in the translation process. The limit of translation equivalence is the maximum possible (linguistic) degree of preservation of the content of the original during translation, but in each individual translation the semantic proximity to the original approaches the maximum to varying degrees and in different ways. Differences in the FL and TL systems and the peculiarities of creating texts in each of these languages, to varying degrees, may limit the possibility of fully preserving the content of the original in translation. Therefore, translation equivalence can be based on the preservation (and, accordingly, loss) of various elements of meaning contained in the original.
Revealing the specifics of a separate subtype of translation, a special theory of translation studies three series of factors that must be taken into account when describing translation.
1) The very fact that the original belongs to a special functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques.
2) focus on a similar original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to select such linguistic means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL.
3) As a result of the interaction of these two factors, actual translation features can be discovered, associated both with the common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in the FL and TL, and with the special conditions and tasks of the translation process of this type.
In other words, a special theory of translation studies the impact on the translation process of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in a foreign language, a similar functional style in the TL, and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.
The dominant function of scientific and technical materials is to describe, explain or provide instructions for manipulating objects in the surrounding world. The pragmatic influence on the Receptor is to provide him with the necessary information to carry out certain activities of a scientific or technical nature.
Conclusion: So, the translation carried out by the translator must be adequate. That is, according to V.N. Komisarov’s definition, translation must ensure the pragmatic tasks of the translation act at the highest possible level of equivalence to achieve this goal, without violating the norms and usage of the TL, observing genre and stylistic requirements for texts of this type and compliance with the conventional norm of translation .
1. Translation of terms.
From the point of view of vocabulary, the main feature of the text is its extreme saturation with special terminology characteristic of this branch of knowledge. The term we call an emotionally neutral word (phrase) that conveys the name of a precisely defined concept related to a particular field of science or technology. Terminological vocabulary makes it possible to most accurately, clearly and economically present the content of a given subject and ensures a correct understanding of the essence of the issue being treated. In specialized literature, terms carry the main semantic load, occupying the main place among other general literary and functional words. The term is unambiguous, the term has no connotative meanings, the term is devoid of synonyms, regardless of the context, the term is translated by the term - a complete and absolute equivalent - and, therefore, according to unanimous According to experts, it is one of the units that does not hinder the translator. In ordinary speech, words are usually polysemantic, i.e. they convey a range of meanings that can sometimes diverge quite widely. Such polysemy of words in a common literary language is a factor indicating the richness of linguistic figurative means. The situation is different in scientific and technical texts.
Structurally, all terms can be classified as follows:
Simple terms type : glottis, range, strain, thalamus.
Complex terms, formed by compounding words. The components of such a term are often connected using a connecting vowel:
gas + meter = gasometer
In this case, truncation of components sometimes occurs:
Collocations, the components of which are in an attribute relationship, i.e. one of the components determines the other:
Directive current - direct current
Often the attributive element is itself expressed by a phrase representing a semantic unity. This unity is often expressed orthographically by writing with a hyphen:
High-frequency range - high-frequency range
Abbreviation, i.e. letter abbreviations of phrases:
SPL = Sound Pressure Level - sound pressure level
Part of the phrase may be abbreviated:
D.C. amplifier = direct current amplifier - direct current amplifier
Syllable contractions, turned into independent words:
radar (radio detection and ranging) - radar
Literal terms, in which the attributive role is assigned to a certain letter due to its graphic form:
T – antenna - T-shaped antenna
Sometimes this letter is only a conditional, unmotivated symbol:
X-rays X-rays
When translating terms, we may encounter the following points:
a) Some terms of an international nature are transmitted by transliteration and do not need translation:
antenna – antenna
formant - formant
b) Some terms have direct correspondence in Russian and are conveyed by corresponding equivalents:
voltage - voltage
cochlea - cochlea
c) A certain part of the terms during translation is translated, i.e., transmitted using Russian words and expressions that literally reproduce words and expressions of the English language:
superpower system - super-powerful system
d) It often happens that the dictionary does not give a direct correspondence to an English term. In this case, the translator must resort to a descriptive translation that accurately conveys the meaning of the foreign word in a given context:
Tonotopic - denoting the spatial organization of structures that ensure the conduction of tones of a certain frequency in the auditory pathways.
When translating terms, you should, if possible, avoid using foreign words, giving preference to words of Russian origin: that is, for example, instead of the word “impedance”, it is preferable to say “total resistance”.
Since a characteristic feature of a term is the clarity of semantic boundaries, it has significantly greater independence in relation to the context than ordinary words.
The dependence of the meaning of a term on the context arises only if there is polysemy in it, that is, if in a given field of knowledge more than one meaning is assigned to a term.
For example,
Most of the modern radio-transmitters can communicate both telegraph and telephone signals.
A translator who is thoroughly unfamiliar with radio business and the corresponding Russian terminology would translate this sentence as follows:
Most modern radio transmitters can send both telegraph and telephone signals.
However, a technically competent translation should be as follows:
Most modern radio transmitters can operate in both telegraph and telephone modes.
Conclusion: From all of the above, we can conclude that the following translation techniques are used when translating terms:
1. transliteration;
2. selection of the appropriate equivalent;
3. tracing;
4. descriptive translation.
When translating terms, you should, if possible, avoid using foreign words, giving preference to words of Russian origin.
2. Attributive phrases.
Attributive constructions are one of the most common types of free phrases in modern English. They are often found in socio-political and scientific-technical texts.
Translation researchers point out that prepositive attributive groups are of particular interest for translation, that is, such phrases in modern English that have “a number of specific features and pose many difficult tasks for the translator.”
In order to achieve the correct translation of attributive phrases, the translator must know the structural and semantic features of such phrases and imagine what means he has in Russian to overcome the difficulties that arise. Therefore, when considering the issue of translating such phrases, it is advisable to first dwell on their structural and semantic features, and then note the main methods of their translation.
The study of the structural and semantic features of attributive groups in modern English reveals a larger range of semantic connections between members of the phrase, compared to the Russian language. Let's look at this phenomenon using a number of examples.
welfare expenditures - expenses for social needs
Background paper - a reference document with a brief summary of the history of the issue birth control - birth control; birth control; family planning; intra-family regulation of family composition From the above examples it follows that the translator has to do significant analytical work in order to correctly convey in translation the semantic connections between elements in English attributive combinations.
On the other hand, it should be recognized that in many cases such semantic development is not required, and then the translation process is greatly facilitated.
district attorney - district prosecutor
space age - space era
expenditure pattern - expenditure structure
The most difficult to translate are attributive combinations that include more than two or three words, such as: "World without bombs" conference program - conference program for a world without bombs ; Africa denuclearization declaration - declaration declaring Africa a nuclear-weapon-free zone ; European Petroleum Equipment Manufacturers Federation -European Federation of Petroleum Equipment Manufacturers etc.
In these cases, you first need to find a keyword with which to start the translation. Such a word is always found at the end of an attributive combination. Then you should understand the internal semantic connections of the attributive construction, going from the final keyword to its immediate definition.
Auditory-nerve fiber - auditory nerve fiber
Low sound pressure level
In accordance with the above recommendation, we define the keyword. This word Level. Therefore, we are talking about level. Let's look at the definitions for the word level: pressure level- lit. "pressure level". Further semantic clarifications need to be made low sound pressure level – low sound pressure level. Thus, a whole chain of interconnected words related to the keyword is formed.
Of course, in scientific and technical materials, not only terminological and special vocabulary is used. They contain a large number of common words used in any functional style. When translating such lexical units, a translator of scientific and technical literature faces the same difficulties and uses the same techniques to overcome them as his colleagues working in other fields. There are also lexical elements in scientific and technical materials that are more characteristic of a conversational style, when translating which the translator has to face the need to choose expressive and stylistic options. Scientific and technical presentation sometimes turns out to be far from neutrally objective. Linguistic studies have repeatedly noted the use of seemingly foreign elements such as:
A large part of industrial America is rushing to get on the nuclear bandwagon.
Branched chain paraffins will be the fair-haired boys in our future gasolines.
Calcium cyanamide has been getting a big play in Germany recently.
Buick has stolen a march on the rest of the industry with a cast-iron V-6 engine.
Cellulose triacetate will give other fibers a run for their money.
Conclusion: Attributive phrases are especially difficult. In order to correctly convey in translation the semantic connections between elements in English attributive combinations, it is necessary to find a keyword. Then you should understand the internal semantic connections of the attributive construction, going from the final keyword to its direct definition
3. Translation of impersonal verbs and sentences; manifestation of the subject.
Characteristic of Russian-language scientific texts is the use of impersonal and vaguely personal sentences. These constructions do not have complete structural analogues in English and are mainly conveyed by sentences in which the subject of the sentence appears in the position of the first noun phrase. In this case, special mention should be made of sentences with the formal subject “it” and constructions with “there to be”, which in a sense can be likened to the impersonal constructions of the Russian language, with the only difference that in the Russian language some mysterious “it” is implied, and in In English, “it” - “it” is explicitly present. What can be hidden behind the formally expressed subject?
According to Stepanov Yu.S., in an impersonal sentence like Russian Freezing the subject will be something defined by the word "weather". Locus sentences in which the subject designates - in a broad sense - a place (or time) in the objective world: It’s cold today, etc.
If we consider the impersonal sentences of the Russian language and their possible translations into English, i.e. bilingual situation, then one can notice the “manifestation” of the subject. Moreover, the semantic characteristics of these subjects may be different, but to a large extent they are determined by impersonal verbs. In grammar, the following most common semantic groups of impersonal verbs are distinguished.
1. Impersonal verbs that denote natural phenomena.
Hot. It's hot. The day is hot.
It was getting dark. Dusk was falling. It was getting dark.
It was blowing on the terrace. There was draft on the terrace.
2. Impersonal verbs that denote a person’s state.
He was worried. He felt uneasy.
It's easy to breathe in the forest. It is easy to breathe in the wood.
He couldn't sleep. He couldn't sleep.
In communicative grammar, these sentence patterns are considered to have a subject, which is expressed in the dative or accusative form.
Let's look at the translation of this phrase made by a native English speaker.
Communicative grammar treats these sentence models as having a subject expressed by the forms of the Dative or Accusative cases.
From the point of view of simultaneous translation methodology, this option is the most correct. This method is called translation transformation.
NP (indirect case) -> NP (subject of an English sentence)
Sentence patterns that are classified as impersonal in traditional grammar are characterized in communicative grammar as involutive. The sign of involutivity is decisive for combining into one group of sentences in which the sentential predicator denotes an action (or state) performed (or taking place) against the will of the subject of this sentence.
3. Constructions with existential verbs, expressing the presence/absence of something, correlated with a certain locus.
All this has always been in abundance in Russian history.
Russian history has always had a lot of it.
4. Impersonal verbs that denote obligation.
You should stay at home.
You should stay at home.
English scientific speech requires the presence of a subject in a sentence. Conclusion: Considering the four groups of impersonal sentences mentioned above, we can conclude that in any such sentence there is a subject. The difference between the two languages is that in English this subject is “active”, but in Russian it is “passive” (that is, the subject is not named, but is implied).
The lack of complete coincidence between English and Russian linguistic constructions in scientific and technical texts can be detected by studying the comparative frequency of use of individual parts of speech in them. Scientific presentation as a whole is characterized by the sign of nominativity, i.e. greater use of nouns than in other functional styles. At the same time, a comparative analysis of translations shows that in Russian this tendency is more clearly expressed, and during translation English verbs are often replaced by nouns.
Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task.
The software is designed for prescription equipment instructions for performing tasks.
Memory is the system of component of the computer in which information is stored .
Memory is a system component of a computer for storage information.
Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data and graphics.
The printer is an external device for production copies of data and graphs on paper.
Conclusion: in Russian the tendency towards nominativity is more clearly expressed. When translated into English, verbs are often replaced by nouns.
5. Translation transformations in scientific texts.
During translation, expansions of structures may occur. For example, expanding a collapsed predicate into a clause.
All this had to be taken into account during the preparation of the concept.
We had to take this into account as we worked out the basis concept.
Explication or descriptive translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation in which a lexical unit of a foreign language is replaced by a phrase that explains its meaning, i.e. giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in PL. Using explication, you can convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original. The disadvantage of descriptive translation is its cumbersome and verbose nature.
Low-pressure producers – producers of polyethylene using the low-pressure method.
High-pressure chuck – chuck with high clamping force.
Abnormal steel - 1) low-carbon steel that cannot be carburized
2) steel with a pearlitic structure, which forms globular carbides along the grain boundaries when cooled.
They used in their work abnormal steel.
They used it at work not amenable to cementation steel.
Compression during translation or Integration of statements.
At the same time, there are many examples where the Russian language is more discrete than English. This leads to the need to use the opposite translation transformation, which involves not dividing, but combining statements.
The desire for a more detailed description of a subject situation is not only a property of the English language. There are many cases where the Russian language describes a situation in more detail than English. These two tendencies are balanced, and the combination of statements is the same widely used translation technique as division. Among the many reasons for combining statements, we will consider two that occur most often - the presence of a close semantic connection between them and the folding of a subordinate clause into a phrase with a verbal noun.
Scientific and technical materials in the English language are characterized by a predominance of simple sentences, which, according to rough estimates, constitute on average about 53% of the total number of sentences in the text. This phenomenon is unusual for the scientific style in the Russian language, where complex sentences are used very widely. In this regard, in English-Russian technical translations the technique of combining sentences is often used, as a result of which two or more simple sentences in the English original correspond to one complex sentence in the Russian translation.
This condition, however, changes at certain critical energies of the electrons. At this critical energies the gas atoms do absorb energy, and a sudden drop in the electron current is simultaneously observed.
However, this condition is violated at some critical electron energies, when gas atoms absorb energy and at the same time a sudden drop in electric current is observed.
Conclusion: The following transformations are used in scientific text:
1. explication or descriptive translation (expansion of structures);
2. compression during translation (one complex sentence in Russian translation often corresponds to two or more simple sentences in English).
5. Absolute participial phrases.
The absolute participial phrase of the English language is actually an independent sentence with its own “subject”, however, the verb in it is in non-finite form, i.e. is not a predicate in an English sentence. When translated into Russian, the impersonal form of the verb is transformed into the personal form and becomes the predicate in the subordinate clause. If the phrase is at the beginning of a sentence, then it is usually attached to the main one with subordinating conjunctions “since”, “although”, “if”, “after” and others.
The other conditions being equal , the acceleration will be the same.
If all other conditions equal , the acceleration will be the same.
If the phrase is at the end of a sentence, then during translation it is usually attached to the main sentence with coordinating conjunctions “and”, “a”, “and”.
Auditory-nerve fibers phase-lock most effectively to frequencies up to 800 kHz, progressively diminishing in their temporal encoding potential with increasing frequency.
The hairs of the auditory nerve most effectively carry out phase adjustment at frequencies up to 800 kHz, and the frequency increases , and the potential of time coding is progressively reduced.
Conclusion: The English language is characterized by the use of the absolute participial phrase. When translated into Russian, the non-finite form of the verb is transformed into the personal form and becomes the predicate in the subordinate clause
6. Stylistic editing of the text during translation, the problem of translating metaphors.
The scientific and technical style in both English and Russian is characterized by a desire for clarity and rigor of presentation, precise use of terms, rejection of indirect, descriptive designations of objects, and widespread use of stereotypes of special vocabulary. A more detailed analysis shows that rigor in the use of terms and customary formulations, in general, is more characteristic of the Russian scientific and technical style than the English one. Therefore, when translating into Russian, the translator often makes “stylistic edits” of the original, introduces an exact term instead of a description, and replaces the author’s phrase with a more familiar cliche.
Let us compare, for example, the following translation with its original:
It was discovered, however, that X-rays scattered by atoms exhibited not only the frequency V 0 of the incident X-rays but also a new frequency V 1 not present in the original X-rays.
However, it was discovered that the X-ray radiation scattered from the atoms contains not only the frequency V 0 of the incident radiation, but also a new frequency V 1 that was not in the spectrum of the original X-ray radiation.
English scientific literature is characterized by the use of various stylistic devices. In stylistic devices (compared to the lexical expressive means of language discussed above), the element of the subjective (creative, individual) and, therefore, emotional-evaluative is more significant. Characterizing one of the stylistic devices, namely metaphor, V.V. Vinogradov writes that a metaphor, if it is not stamped, is an act of affirmation of an individual worldview, an act of subjective isolation. In the metaphor, a strictly defined subject with his individual tendencies of worldview appears sharply. Therefore, a verbal metaphor is narrow, subjectively closed and intrusively “ideological,” that is, it imposes on the reader the subjective author’s view of the subject and its semantic connections.
According to our data, the main ways of translating metaphors of an English scientific text into Russian are tracing paper (for example, a “friendly” interface), transliteration, an appropriate image and explication. It should be noted that metaphor in English scientific prose is a very important cognitive tool.
According to the American philosopher and logician M. Black, metaphor works by projecting onto what we must understand a set of associative connections corresponding to a set of ideas about the pattern with the help of which a person masters the unknown. The authors of many metaphors in genetics are major biologists (A. Weisman, K. Waddington and others), for example, mitotic spindle, quantum species, biological clock.
Lakoff and Johnson describe in detail the process of structuring metaphors and identify three main areas of “conceptual structures” from which “root” metaphors are drawn. The first is the area of the “physical”, i.e. a structure that defines the understanding of objects and ideas as “objects that exist independently of us.” The second area is culture, the third is intellectual activity itself. These areas limit our ability to describe the world. By choosing a concept belonging to one of these conceptual frameworks and comparing it with a concept included in another structure, we connect different areas and “structure one in terms of the other.”
Big Bang Theory - big bang theory;
Axis of evil - axis of evil;
About the old bear – regarding a possible Russian threat.
Although the style of scientific prose is characterized by rigor of presentation, in English scientific texts there are often emotional epithets, figurative and figurative expressions, rhetorical questions and similar stylistic devices that enliven the narrative and are more characteristic of conversational style or artistic speech. Such freedom of style is less typical for scientific and technical materials in Russian. A comparative analysis of translations shows that translators regularly carry out stylistic adaptation of the translated text, omitting the emotional and stylistic elements of the original, which seem to them inappropriate in a “serious” scientific presentation. For example, evaluative epithets such as dramatic, successful, excellent, etc. often turn out to be redundant in Russian translation:
The spectral lines provide one dramatic example of the discreteness in nature.
Spectral lines are an example of discreteness in nature.
Conclusion: Despite the fact that the scientific style is characterized by rigor of presentation, emotional epithets, metaphors, figurative and figurative expressions and other stylistic devices are often found in English scientific texts. Metaphors are often introduced as terms, so they are most often translated literally. In other cases, emotional and stylistic elements in the Russian translation should be avoided.
Conclusion.
This paper examined the problem of translating scientific text from English into Russian. This topic was addressed by such famous linguists as Arnold I.V., Budagov R.A., Komissarov V.N. and many others. The origin of the scientific style dates back to the 16th century. And since then, the main features of the scientific style have been determined by its communicative orientation. The language of scientific prose is specific, logical, strict and objective. Among the many genres of scientific style, the scientific article is the most widespread. The main lexical feature of the article is the use of so-called terms. Phraseology is unexpressive and devoid of evaluation. Grammatical features - the use of the present timeless, the predominance of nominative constructions over verbal ones, etc. Complex sentences are used more often than simple ones. Characteristic use of introductory words, connecting conjunctions and complex words in prepositions.
The main ways to translate terms in a scientific article are:
¨ tracing;
¨ descriptive translation;
¨ transliteration;
¨ absolute equivalent.
Translation transformations are also used - explication, compression. Despite the fact that a scientific text is devoid of imagery, the translator may encounter cases of the author’s use of metaphors: if a metaphor is used as a term, then it should be translated literally, in other cases, emotional and stylistic elements should be avoided in the Russian translation.
Bibliography.
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M.: Higher. school, 2000. - 253 p.
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The systematicity of the main functional style consists of general linguistic (neutral) elements, linguistic-stylistic elements (stylistically colored language units outside the context) and speech-stylistic elements, which in a certain context (situation) acquire stylistic qualities and/or participate in the creation of the stylistic quality of the context, the text. Each main style has its own principles for selecting these elements and their relationship.
The scientific style is distinguished by a number of common features due to the peculiarities of scientific thinking, including abstraction and strict logic of presentation. It also has some of the particular features mentioned above.
Each functional style has its own objective style-forming factors. They can be depicted schematically as follows.
Each of the functional styles also has its own purpose, its own addressee, and its own genres. The main goal of the scientific style is to communicate objective information, to prove the truth of scientific knowledge.
However, the goals (and especially their ratio) can be adjusted to a greater or lesser extent during the process of creating the text. For example, at first a dissertation may be conceived as a purely theoretical study, but in the process of work (writing) prospects for the practical application of the theory will open up, and the work will acquire a pronounced practical orientation. The opposite situation is also possible.
The goals are specified in the objectives of this text. The goals and situation determine the selection of material that is used throughout the creation of the text. However, at the beginning this process is quantitative in nature, and towards the end it is qualitative.
The recipients of works of scientific style are mainly specialists - readers prepared to perceive scientific information.
In terms of genre, the scientific style is quite diverse. Here you can highlight: article, monograph, textbook, review, review, annotation, scientific commentary on the text, lecture, report on special topics, theses, etc.
However, when identifying speech genres of scientific style, one should pay attention to the fact that any functioning language has its own hierarchy of stylistic systems - subsystems. Each lower subsystem is based on elements of higher-ranking systems, combines them in its own way and supplements them with new specific elements. It organizes “its own” and “foreign” elements, including functional ones, into a new, sometimes qualitatively different integrity, where they acquire new properties to one degree or another. For example, elements of scientific and official business styles, when combined, give rise to a scientific and business sub-style, which is implemented in different genres, such as a research report, dissertation abstract, etc.
The functional-style classification of the scientific style of speech can be presented as follows.
Each of these genre subsystems assumes its own correlation of elements of the scientific and other styles itself and its own principles of organizing a speech work. According to A. N. Vasilyeva, “the model of this organization is formed in the speech consciousness (subconscious) of a person in the process of speech practice, and also often special training.” Such learning is greatly facilitated by educational and scientific literature, which, while presenting in an accessible form the foundations of a particular science, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other types of scientific literature (problem articles, private monographs, journal collections). Its main features are: subject-logical consistency and gradually unfolding manner of presentation; “compressed completeness”, which is expressed in the fact that, on the one hand, only part of the accumulated information about the subject of a given science is presented, and on the other hand, this part is basic, and in it the subject of presentation is characterized evenly and comprehensively.
In the scientific style, as in every functional style, there are certain rules of text composition. The text is perceived mainly from the particular to the general, and is created from the general to the particular.
The structure of a scientific style text is usually multidimensional and multi-level. However, this does not mean that all texts have the same degree of structural complexity. For example, they may be completely different in purely physical design. To understand what we are talking about, it is enough to compare the scientific monograph, article and theses. It should be borne in mind that the degree of complexity here is not absolute, since the same theses are difficult to write without writing at least a rough draft, an article, and without examining it critically.
Each of the genres of scientific style has its own characteristics and individual features, but due to the fact that it is difficult to describe the specific features of all genres and types of scientific style in one textbook, we will focus our attention on the genre of scientific theses, which is one of the most generally relevant genres of the language of science.
Theses can be written by a person for himself - in this case they are not the object of this consideration, because strict requirements of genre and style are not imposed on them. The subject of our interest is abstracts created for publication. It is they who must meet certain regulatory requirements, first of all, the requirement of substantive compliance with the topic declared in advance as a problem. No less important is the factor of scientific-informational valence, substantive relevance and value of information left within the framework of the declared problematic topic. Theses are one of the most stable and normative genres of a speech work, therefore, violations of genre certainty, normativity, purity, and genre mixtures are assessed in it as gross violations of not only stylistic, but communicative norms in general. Among typical violations, such as, for example, the replacement of abstracts with the text of a message, summary, abstract, annotation, prospectus, plan, etc., the most unpleasant impression is made by mixing forms of different genres. This confusion demonstrates the author’s lack of scientific speech culture and casts doubt on his scientific data in general.
Theses also have a strictly normative content and compositional structure. It highlights: 1) preamble; 2) the main thesis statement; 3) final thesis. A clear logical division of the thesis content is emphasized by headings, and in some cases, by highlighting paragraphs under one heading.
Theses also have their own strict norms of linguistic design, characteristic of the scientific style in general, but in this particular case they are even more strict.
According to A. N. Vasilyeva, the general norm of any scientific style “is the high saturation of the statement with subject-logical content.” This norm is implemented in the thesis work “in optimally overcoming the contradiction between content concentration and communicative accessibility” [ibid.]. It should be emphasized that in theses this contradiction is especially difficult to resolve due to the extreme concentration of subject-logical content.
Thesis works are subject to requirements of stylistic purity and uniformity of speech manner. Emotionally expressive definitions, metaphors, inversions and other other stylistic inclusions are absolutely unacceptable here. Theses have the nature of a modal affirmative judgment or conclusion, and not the nature of a specific factual statement, therefore, here it is necessary to especially carefully monitor compliance with a certain speech form.
Thus, using the example of one of the specific genres of scientific style, we were convinced of the rigid action in this functional area of the language of certain stylistic norms, the violation of which raises doubts in the scientific speech culture of the author. To avoid this, when creating works of a scientific style, it is necessary to strictly follow all the above-mentioned basic requirements of the genre.
Control questions
1. What common features distinguish the scientific style?
2. What main scientific genres do you know?
3. Name the main style-forming factors operating in the scientific style.
4. Give a functional-style classification of scientific style.
5. What are the characteristic features of a thesis work?
6. Using the texts of the reader, name the characteristic features of the monograph and article.
§24. Style and genre features of the scientific style
The systematicity of the main functional style consists of general linguistic (neutral) elements, linguistic-listical elements (stylistically colored linguistic units outside the context) and recitalistic elements, which in a certain context (situation) acquire stylistic qualities and/or participate in the creation of the stylistic quality of the context, the text. Each main style has its own principles for selecting these elements and their relationship.
The scientific style is distinguished by a number of common features due to the peculiarities of scientific thinking, including abstraction and strict logic of presentation. It also has some of the particular features mentioned above.
Each functional style has its own objective style-forming factors. They can be depicted schematically as follows.
Each of the functional styles also has its own purpose, its own addressee, and its own genres. The main goal of the scientific style is to communicate objective information, to prove the truth of scientific knowledge.
However, the goals (and especially their ratio) can be adjusted to a greater or lesser extent during the process of creating the text. For example, at first the dissertation may be conceived as a purely
theoretical research, and in the process of work (writing) prospects for the practical application of the theory will open, and the work acquires a pronounced practical orientation. The opposite situation is also possible.
The goals are specified in the objectives of this text. The goals and situation determine the selection of material that is used throughout the creation of the text. However, at the beginning this process is quantitative in nature, and towards the end it is qualitative.
The recipients of works of scientific style are mainly specialists - readers prepared to perceive scientific information.
In terms of genre, the scientific style is quite diverse. Here you can highlight: article, monograph, textbook, review, review, annotation, scientific commentary on the text, lecture, report on special topics, theses, etc.
However, when identifying speech genres of scientific style, one should pay attention to the fact that any functioning language has its own hierarchy of stylistic systems - subsystems. Each lower subsystem is based on elements of higher-ranking systems, combines them in its own way and supplements them with new specific elements. It organizes “its own” and “foreign” elements, including functional ones, into a new, sometimes qualitatively different integrity, where they acquire new properties to one degree or another. For example, elements of scientific and official business styles, when combined, give rise to a scientific and business sub-style, which is implemented in different genres, such as a research report, dissertation abstract, etc.
The functional-style classification of the scientific style of speech can be presented as follows.
Each of these genre subsystems assumes its own correlation of elements of the scientific and other styles proper and its own
principles of organization of a speech work. According to A.N. Vasilyeva, “the model of this organization is formed in the speech consciousness (subconscious) of a person in the process of speech practice, as well as often special training.” Such learning is greatly facilitated by educational and scientific literature, which, while presenting in an accessible form the foundations of a particular science, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other types of scientific literature (problem articles, private monographs, journal collections). Its main features are: subject-logical consistency and gradually unfolding manner of presentation; “compressed completeness”, which is expressed in the fact that, on the one hand, only part of the accumulated information about the subject of a given science is presented, and on the other hand, this part is basic, and in it the subject of presentation is characterized evenly and comprehensively.
In the scientific style, as in every functional style, there are certain rules of text composition. The text is perceived mainly from the particular to the general, and is created from the general to the particular.
The structure of a scientific style text is usually multidimensional and multi-level. However, this does not mean that all texts have the same degree of structural complexity. For example, they may be completely different in purely physical design. To understand what we are talking about, it is enough to compare the scientific monograph, article and theses. It should be borne in mind that the degree of complexity here is not absolute, since the same theses are difficult to write without writing at least a rough draft of the article and examining it critically.
Each of the genres of scientific style has its own characteristics and individual features, but due to the fact that it is difficult to describe the specific features of all genres and types of scientific style in one textbook, we will focus on the genre of scientific theses, which is one of the most generally relevant genres of the language of science.
Abstracts can be written by a person for himself - in this case they are not the object of this consideration, because strict requirements of genre and style are not imposed on them. The subject of our interest is abstracts created for publication. It is they who must meet certain regulatory requirements, first of all, the requirement of substantive compliance with the topic declared in advance as a problem. No less important is the factor of scientific-informational valence, substantive relevance and value of information left within the framework of the declared problematic topic.
Theses are one of the most stable and normative genres of a speech work, therefore, violations of genre certainty, normativity, purity, and genre mixtures are assessed in it as gross violations of not only stylistic, but communicative norms in general. Among typical violations, such as, for example, substitution of abstracts with the text of a message, summary, abstract, annotation, prospectus, plan, etc., the most unpleasant
The impression is made by the mixture of forms of different genres. This confusion demonstrates the author’s lack of scientific speech culture and casts doubt on his scientific data in general.
Theses also have a strictly normative content and compositional structure. It highlights: 1) preamble; 2) the main thesis statement; 3) final thesis. A clear logical division of the thesis content is emphasized by headings, and in some cases, by highlighting paragraphs under one heading.
Theses also have their own strict norms of linguistic design, characteristic of the scientific style in general, but in this particular case they are even more strict.
According to A.N. Vasilyeva, the general norm of any scientific style “is the high saturation of the statement with subject-logical content.” This norm is implemented in the thesis work “in optimally overcoming the contradiction between content concentration and communicative accessibility” [ibid.]. It should be emphasized that in theses this contradiction is especially difficult to resolve due to the extreme concentration of subject-logical content.
Thesis works are subject to requirements of stylistic purity and uniformity of speech manner. Emotionally expressive definitions, metaphors, inversions and other other stylistic inclusions are absolutely unacceptable here. Theses have the nature of a modal affirmative judgment or conclusion, and not the nature of a specific factual statement, therefore, here it is necessary to especially carefully monitor compliance with a certain speech form.
Thus, using the example of one of the specific genres of scientific style, we were convinced of the rigid action in this functional area of the language of certain stylistic norms, the violation of which raises doubts in the scientific speech culture of the author. To avoid this, when creating works of a scientific style, it is necessary to strictly follow all the above-mentioned basic requirements of the genre.
Control questions
- What common features distinguish scientific style?
- What main scientific genres do you know?
- Name the main style-forming factors that operate in the scientific style.
- Give a functional-style classification of scientific style.
- What are the characteristic features of a thesis work?
- Using the texts of the anthology, name the characteristic features of the monograph and article.
The main function of the scientific style is the transmission of logical information and proof of its truth (in the complete absence of expression of emotions). Depending on the topic, scientific-technical, scientific-natural, scientific-humanitarian varieties of scientific speech are usually distinguished. In addition, depending on the specific tasks and scope of use, one can distinguish such substyles as: scientific, scientific-informative, scientific-reference, patent, educational-scientific, popular science. These substyles are used in different genres of scientific speech:
a) scientific itself - a monograph (scientific work that develops in depth one topic, one range of issues), article, report, etc.;
b) scientific and informative - abstract (brief summary of the content of a scientific work), abstract (brief description of a book, article, etc.), textbook, study guide, etc.;
c) popular science – essay, book, lecture, etc.
With all the diversity of varieties and genres, the scientific style is characterized by the unity of its dominant, that is, the most important feature organizing the style. The dominant feature of the scientific style is conceptual accuracy and emphasized logic of speech.
The accuracy of scientific speech presupposes the selection of linguistic means that have the quality of unambiguity and the ability to best express the essence of a concept, that is, a logically formulated general thought about an object or phenomenon. Therefore, in the scientific style they avoid using (but still sometimes use) various figurative means, for example, metaphors. The only exceptions are metaphorical terms.
Compare: in physics – the nucleus of an atom; in botany - the pistil of a flower; in anatomy - eyeball, auricle.
Personal emotions are not allowed here. That is why in scientific speech only neutral means are used and expressive ones are unacceptable.
8. Functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning.
Depending on the content of the statement, our speech can be divided into the following types: description, narration, reasoning. Each type of speech has distinctive features.
Description- this is an image of a phenomenon of reality, an object, a person by listing and disclosing its main features. For example, when describing a portrait, we will point out such features as height, posture, gait, hair color, eye color, age, smile, etc.; the description of the room will contain such characteristics as size, wall design, furniture features, number of windows, etc.; when describing a landscape, these features will be trees, river, grass, sky or lake, etc. What is common to all types of description is the simultaneity of the appearance of features. The purpose of the description is for the reader to see the subject of the description and imagine it in his mind.
1. Apple tree - ranet purple - frost-resistant variety. The fruits are round in shape, 2.5-3 cm in diameter. Fruit weight is 17-23 g. Average juiciness, with a characteristic sweet, slightly astringent taste.
2. The linden apples were large and transparent yellow. If you look through the apple into the sun, it shines through like a glass of fresh linden honey. There were black grains in the middle. You used to shake a ripe apple near your ear and you could hear the seeds rattling.
Narration is a story, a message about an event in its time sequence. The peculiarity of the narrative is that it talks about successive actions. All narrative texts have in common the beginning of the event (commencement), the development of the event, and the end of the event (denouement). The narration can be conducted from a third person. This is the author's story. It can also come from the first person: the narrator is named or designated by the personal pronoun I.
Such texts often use verbs in the past perfect form. But in order to give the text expressiveness, others are used simultaneously with them: a verb in the past tense form of the imperfect form makes it possible to highlight one of the actions, indicating its duration; present tense verbs allow you to imagine actions as if they were happening before the eyes of the reader or listener; forms of the future tense with the particle how (how will jump), as well as forms like clap, jump help to convey the swiftness and surprise of a particular action.
Narration as a type of speech is very common in genres such as memoirs and letters.
Example narration:
I began to stroke Yashka’s paw and thought: just like a child’s. And tickled his palm. And when the baby pulls his paw, it hits me on the cheek. I didn’t even have time to blink, and he slapped me in the face and jumped under the table. He sat down and grinned.
Reasoning- this is a verbal presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought.
The composition of the argument is as follows: the first part is the thesis, i.e., an idea that must be logically proven, justified or refuted; the second part is the rationale for the thoughts expressed, evidence, arguments supported by examples; the third part is the conclusion, the conclusion.
The thesis must be clearly provable, clearly formulated, the arguments must be convincing and in sufficient quantity to confirm the thesis put forward. There must be a logical and grammatical connection between the thesis and arguments (as well as between individual arguments). For the grammatical connection between the thesis and arguments, introductory words are often used: firstly, secondly, finally, so, therefore, in this way. In argumentative texts, sentences with conjunctions are widely used: however, although, despite the fact that, since. Example reasoning:
Words-terms denoting abstract mathematical concepts: “segment”, “tangent”, “point”, come from very specific verbs of action: cut, touch, stick (poke).
In all these cases, the original concrete meaning takes on a more abstract meaning in the language.