Introduction
Any person for whom Russian is a native language knows what the words money, eat, cranberry, meadow, tractor mean, but not everyone is familiar with words such as finagi (money), beryal (eat, eat), pozhanka (meadow ), cranebird (cranberry).
The words money, eat, cranberry, meadow, tractor belong to the public vocabulary (the term “national vocabulary” is to a certain extent arbitrary, since most people do not use non-literary words in their speech. On the other hand, many literary and book words are unknown to people with little culture). Its understanding and use do not depend either on the place or on the professional affiliation of a person. It is the national vocabulary that forms the basis of the national Russian language. The popular vocabulary includes literary words: trees, think, tiny, liar, etc., non-literary vocabulary, which is common among people of various professions and ages: fool, brainy, foolish, will do, etc.
Non-popular vocabulary is vocabulary, the understanding and use of which is related to a person’s profession, place of residence, occupation, etc. Non-popular vocabulary includes dialect, special and slang words.
1 Dialectal (regional) vocabulary
Dialectal (otherwise regional) vocabulary is that part of non-national vocabulary that is a characteristic feature of the speech of the population of which
- or locality, region, district. There are words used only by residents of the northern regions: roe deer (plow), lava (bridge), teplina (fire), etc.
There are words characteristic of southern cities: order (forest), kozyulya (earth), ploshcha (bushes), etc.
Dialectal words that are used in fiction are called dialectisms. The term “dialectism” includes not only what refers to the peculiarities of the vocabulary of a particular dialect or dialect, but also what constitutes its phonetic, word-formation or grammatical feature. For example: floppy
(cheerful), rokh (tog), damno (long ago), entot (this) - phonetic dialectisms; tying hay (fresh hay), u me (me), stepya (steppe), scold (scolds) - grammatical dialectisms; odnova (once), face to face
(layer), along (along) – word-formation dialectisms.
Among lexical dialectisms they distinguish: lexical dialectisms themselves - words that have synonyms in the literary language with a different root: basque (beautiful), vir
(whirlpool), cats (boots), chapura (heron) and other semantic dialectisms are words that in a given dialect (spoken) have a meaning unusual for general popular use. For example: envious, in some dialects it means (zealous), cloud (thunderstorm), lips (mushrooms), order (forest), arrogant (sudden) and other ethnographic dialectisms - words naming objects and phenomena characteristic of the life of the population of only a given localities and unknown in other areas or differing from them in some specific way: duleika (wadding jacket), plakhta (skirt made of a piece of fabric), tonets (thin pancake made of unleavened dough), etc. In other words, ethnographic dialectism, or ethnographism, - it is a local name for a special, local thing. Ethnographisms do not have a national synonym, so their meaning can only be conveyed descriptively.
Phraseological dialectisms are stable phrases, known in this meaning only in some locality: to fall into boredom (get bored), as if one sat down in salt (withered), death without death (something difficult, heavy), etc.
2 Use of dialect vocabulary in speech
Since dialect vocabulary is one of the words that is not generally known, not popular, the natural question is how and to what extent it can be used for artistic purposes. The degree and nature of the use of dialect words are determined by the theme of the work, the object of the image, the goals that the author sets for himself, his aesthetic ideal, skill, etc. For example, in L. N. Tolstoy, dialectisms are found not only when conveying the speech of peasants, but sometimes in the author’s language, where they are given without any explanation. In I. S. Turgenev, such words have the nature of quotations, inclusions, alien to the general verbal context. At the same time, they are provided with notes that reveal their meaning, scope of use, and these graphic means in the text emphasize their difference from the general literary context.
The dialect words used by the authors can denote some objects, realities that are not known to popular use, and then the function of dialectisms is primarily denominative. The same function is often played by those actual lexical dialectisms that do not have a single-word equivalent in the literary language: Sitting down on the lawn under the oak tree, I decided to cook plum porridge.
Dialectisms can be a fresh, expressive means. It was the expressiveness of the word crawl (an old skin shed by some animals when molting) that delighted A. S. Pushkin, who heard it from the expert on folk speech V. I. Dahl.
Dialectisms of all types serve as a means of character individualization:
“It’s not for nothing that the frog screams,” explained the grandfather, slightly worried by our gloomy silence. “The frog, my dear, is always worried before a thunderstorm and jumps wherever he goes.” Nadysya I spent the night with an assistant, we cooked fish soup in a cauldron by the fire, and the frog—it weighed a kilo, no less—jumped straight into the cauldron and was boiled...” - “And nothing? – I asked. - Can I eat? ” - “Tasty food,” answered the grandfather (Paust); with their help it is possible to achieve ethnographic authenticity and artistic persuasiveness in reproducing everyday life, furnishings, etc.
It is unusual for modern writers writing about the village and widely using dialect words to provide a special explanation of these words, even those that may clearly be unknown to the reader.
Dialect means are also used in the newspaper, most often in an essay, where they characterize both a given hero, his speech, and individual features of life, the language of the area in which the hero lives.
Speaking about the use of dialect words in a newspaper, it is necessary to emphasize that the requirement for a motivated use of dialectisms acquires special significance here. And, first of all, because the newspaper must convey educated, literary speech to the reader. This means that the use of non-literary means in newspaper texts should be as justified as possible. For example: It was not for nothing that I placed Vasily Mikhailovich a little apart from other Bryansk taiga residents. And in this case, the use of a dialect word does not seem motivated either from an artistic or from any other point of view.
It should also be remembered that the dialect word used in the newspaper must be understandable to the reader, and therefore explained if it requires it by its nature. After all, the newspaper is read quickly and the reader does not have time to look for an unknown word in dictionaries.
3 Special (professional terminological) vocabulary
Special vocabulary is words and combinations of words used and understood primarily by representatives of a certain branch of knowledge or profession: mathematics. logarithm, normal; nerd. pollen, inflorescence, etc. Among the special words, terms and professionalisms stand out first of all.
A term is a word (or a combination of words) that is the officially accepted and legalized name of a concept in science, technology, art, etc. As a rule, a term is unambiguous in the system of this terminology, which distinguishes it from non-terminological words: chemistry. methyl, oxide, base; honey. hematoma, contraindications, hepatitis, etc.
Terms can be highly specialized and generally understandable, understood and used not only by specialists in this field of knowledge.
The boundaries between highly specialized and generally understood terms are fluid.
There is a movement of part of highly specialized vocabulary into generally used vocabulary, which is often no longer recognized as terminological. This movement is facilitated by a number of reasons, among which an important role is played by the increase in the general educational level of the population, as well as the importance of this or that science, branch of the economy at the moment, which is associated with widespread propaganda of the achievements of this science, branch of the economy by the media.
Understanding the meaning of a term and the transition of a term to the category of generally understandable words are also connected with its structure: words consisting of elements whose meaning is quite clear are usually easily acquired: seamless, adhesive concrete, rocket launcher, etc. Terms that arose as a result of rethinking are easily understood and assimilated words An example is the names of many parts of mechanisms that are similar in appearance, function, etc., to household items: fork, wiper, sled, etc.
Fiction and fiction also play an important role in popularizing the term. Thus, the romanticization of maritime professions in the stories of A. Green and other writers contributed to the acquaintance of a wide readership with many maritime terms: emergency, brig, wheelhouse, etc.
The origins of the terms are heterogeneous. Among them there are those borrowed entirely from other languages (dugout, breeze, vacuum, etc.) and formed on the basis of the international general educational fund, primarily Greek and Latin roots. A significant part of the terms is formed from Russian word-forming material: striker, ground, rootstock, etc., as well as from Russian and borrowed morphemes: biocurrents, foam concrete, glass wool, etc. Many terms arose as a result of rethinking words, most often based on metaphorization: shoe ( support), root (the main part of the word), etc.
In addition to terms, special vocabulary also includes professionalisms - words and phrases of a semi-official nature, denoting some special concept for which there is not yet an officially accepted designation in a given science, branch of technology, etc. Such, for example, are printing professionalisms: hanging line (an incomplete line with which a page begins or ends), etc. Professionalisms also refer to the names of special concepts and objects in various kinds of trades and crafts.
Adjacent to the terms and professionalisms are professional jargons - informal designations of concepts of a special and non-special nature that exist in the colloquial speech of representatives of a profession or a professional group. There are specific jargons in any profession. Usually such professional slang names are expressively colored.
4 Use of special vocabulary in speech
In addition to specialized literature, special vocabulary, mainly terms, are used along with other lexical means in non-industry newspapers and magazines, in fiction, etc. to convey scientific and technical information, indicating the production conditions in which the hero lives and acts , to create his speech characteristics, etc.
Special vocabulary is widely used to create words of a non-specialized nature, i.e. metaphors: and creativity, a chain reaction will never allow us to grow old in our souls.
Metaphorization of terms is one of the characteristic features of modern newspaper journalism. Words from military, theatrical, musical and sports terminology are most actively involved in the sphere of figurative use: labor landing, hockey trio, sprinter’s ampoule, start a career, etc.
Vocabulary is also used as a means of creating comedy. The comic effect is often achieved by the fact that the term finds itself in a context unusual for it, contradicting not so much the surrounding vocabulary as the situation itself - purely everyday, intimate, etc.: On the way, he solved in his mind a complex problem, how to more skillfully communicate to Raisa Pavlovna and Tanechka about the decision made, without causing an uncontrollable thermonuclear reaction.
In other cases, the comic effect is achieved by the fact that the term is used incorrectly in relation to a completely unusual class of objects or in a meaning misunderstood by the character: And in the kitchen their little dog, a poodle, attacks visitors and tears their legs.
When using special vocabulary for one purpose or another, it is necessary to present it in such a way that the reader understands the need for a special word, understands its meaning, or imagines, at least in general terms, the special subject and concept in question.
Basically, entering special words is the same as the methods for entering dialectisms. These are page-by-page footnotes or references to the dictionary located at the end of the book, or explanations in the text itself, inclusion in a context in which the meaning of a special word becomes sufficiently clear without any explanation. The newspaper's capabilities in this regard are more limited. In a newspaper, you can give a special word in such a context that the reader can guess its meaning, or resort to an explanation, brief or detailed, exact or approximate: A few years ago, all jets, or, more simply, metering devices for carburetors, were made at the factory by hand.
Cases when a special word is given without any explanation, and its meaning remains unclear, must be considered unsuccessful.
5 Slang vocabulary
Jargon is a set of features of colloquial speech that arises among people in similar professional and everyday conditions, united by common interests, spending time together, etc.
Thus, in the speech of students, slang terms for academic disciplines are common: litera, physical education; ratings: three, goose; actions, abilities of students: fuck (teach), knock (pass an exam or test), flog
(understand, understand), etc.
The lexicon has a lot of jargon that denote an assessment of something or someone, expressing an attitude towards something or someone: hammer (a positive assessment of a person’s actions), lazhovo (about something negative) completely
(indifferent), etc.
Fans of various games have their own jargon: kill a goat (play dominoes), drive, knock (skipping a move in the same game), color (suit of reds), half-color (suit of diamonds), etc.
The vocabulary of some slang words is very variable; Some slang words quickly cease to be used, being replaced by others. First of all, this concerns youth slang or student slang in particular. There are several reasons for the appearance of jargon in the speech of young people. One of them is a protest against standardization, clichéd language means, and against increased idle talk. But this protest in practice often leads to the emergence of a set of “walking” slang words and expressions that become a kind of “stamps inside out” and therefore unite speech.
A type of jargon is argot. Argo arises among people who want to make their speech incomprehensible to others. There was an argot of itinerant traders, wool beaters, card sharpers, thieves, beggars, etc.
It can be noted that some slang vocabulary over time passes into general popular use, into the category of expressive colloquial words. So, former jargons are: work hard (work hard), dust-free
(light), hokhma (humor), blatnoy (relating to the criminal world), etc.
6 Using jargon in speech
Writers and journalists sometimes use slang and argot vocabulary as one of the means of speech characterization of the hero, to show the characteristics and morals of a particular environment. Thus, the use of N. G. Pomyalovsky in
“Essays on Bursa” Bursat jargon, often explained in detail, helped the writer convey the gloomy flavor of the Bursat situation. Game of tricks, hit the lean ones, pfmfa.
Professional jargon, along with terms and professionalisms, can participate in the reproduction of a certain professional environment, introducing the special realities of this environment and at the same time with the colloquial designations of special explanations common in it.
For example, in the story “In August 1944,” the writer V. Bogomolov introduced readers to some military jargon: props
(depict something for some purpose), parsh (paratrooper agent), etc.
Professional jargon also serves this function in the newspaper.
(introduced, as a rule, into the speech of the heroes, in the speech of the journalist they are highlighted graphically): Then someone shouted: “Did you forget the pistols?” This surprised me.
What “pistols” are we talking about? It turns out that this is the name of the tackle for catching gobies in the sea; I press the brake pedal and take the levers. Too sharply - the car “bites”.
As for the use of other types of jargon, they are usually used as a means of speech characterization.
In the author's speech (except for those cases when they are necessary for a realistic reflection of any environment), jargon can be used as a means of ridicule, ionization, etc.: He needs a manuscript, just as an experienced schnifer needs an autogenous apparatus to open fireproof cash registers;
Unfortunately for us, there was a benefactor nearby who needed to drive the shaft according to his talents. And my friend and I fell into the category of young talents. Or in modern language, into the vein.
7 Computer jargon
Computer technologies, which have been rapidly developing since the second half of this century, and especially the massive invasion of our personal computer market in the mid-80s, have introduced into the language a huge number of special words and expressions, a rich branched terminology, for example: network card, microprocessor, operating system, formatting, installation, hard drive, pixels, dialog box, object (Delphi3.0 object for example), etc. Many of these terms are Anglicisms, but there are also a considerable number of words of “domestic” origin.
Along with computer-related science and production, virtual entertainment has also entered the market: computer games. A well-made game is a complex organism that requires a certain level of professionalism from the player. Games are divided into types that receive specific names; they often require many special terms and rules to designate various game processes (especially those with network capabilities, that is, the simultaneous participation of several people in the game): Quest,
Strategy game, Flight simulator, multiplayer, deathmatch, frag, etc.
As in any professional “language” among people who are in one way or another connected with computers, there are also unofficial designations for certain concepts, what can be called professional “argot” (or jargon).
Ways to form jargon:
A very common method (inherent in all jargon that stands next to certain terminology) is the transformation of a term, usually large in volume or difficult to pronounce. Here we can highlight
1) abbreviation: computer - computer, hard drive - screw, mac - poppy.
2) Univerbation: motherboard - mother, strategy game - strategy, role-playing game - roleplayer, inkjet printer - inkjet,
Zd studio max – max (the word is the name of the most popular program, not yet grammatically formed).
As in the professional language of computer scientists, there are many English borrowings in the jargon. These are often borrowed from English computer jargon:
The word Gamer is from English. Jargon Gamer (Professional computer game player). Smiley is a funny face that is a sequence of punctuation marks (: - |). From eng. slang smiley.
Doomer – Doomer (fan of the game Doom).
The “fathers” of jargon can also be professional terms of English origin, which already have an equivalent in Russian: hard drive, hard disk, heavy drive - hard drive (hard drive), connect - to connect (join), programmer - programmer (programmer) , user – user (user) to click – click
(click. Although now “click” is starting to compete with “click”).
The grammatical mastery of some borrowings by the Russian language is accompanied by their word-formation Russification. Zip (zip) - zip, zipped, zipovsky, User (user) - user.
Interestingly, there is also the opposite phenomenon here. A jargon synonymous with the term appears, derived from a word that has long been entrenched in the Russian language: Fortochki is a contemptuous name for the Windows operating system.
Borrowing, however, is by no means the only source of replenishment of the lexicon of a given lexical system. Some words come from the jargon of other professional groups, for example, motorists: kettle (novice user), engine (kernel, “engine”, programs. This word is also semantically equivalent to the English analogue engine). Sometimes the computer processor is called the motor, and the computer itself is called the machine. The word glitch and the word-formation series from it, widely used in youth slang, here takes on the meaning of “unforeseen errors in the program or incorrect operation of the equipment.” Wed. “My printer is buggy,” or “Windows98 is a pretty buggy product.”
The method of metaphorization is very productive (which is widely used in all slang systems). With its help, words such as:
Damn - CD disc (already outdated).
The Rat is a Soviet-made mouse.
A resuscitator is a specialist or a set of special programs for “bringing out of a coma” a computer whose software is seriously damaged and it is not able to function normally.
There are numerous verbal metaphors: slow down - extremely slow operation of a program or computer, demolish or kill - delete information from the disk.
An interesting number of synonyms is associated with the process of disrupting the normal operation of a computer, when it does not respond to any commands other than the reset button. They say about such a computer that it hangs, freezes, stands up, falls, collapses.
Although the word freeze (a freeze occurred, in the case of a freeze) can now be excluded from jargon - it is officially used as a term.
This is not the only example of the presence of synonyms in the jargon vocabulary; it is also worth noting: computer - wheelbarrow - device - computer - machine, screw - hard drive - hard disk - heavy drive.
You can also find the method of metonymy in the formation of jargon using the example of the word iron - in the meaning of “computer, components of a computer.” Buttons – in the meaning of “keyboard”.
You can find examples of phraseological units in which the motivation behind the meaning is clear only to the initiate: blue screen of death (error message text
Windows on a blue background before freezing), a combination of three fingers or send to three fingers (Ctrl-alt-delete - emergency deletion of any running program), stomp on loaves (work on the keyboard button).
A special place in computer jargon is occupied by words that do not have semantic motivation. They are in a relationship of partial homonymy with some common words (morphophonetic coincidences).
Lazarus – Laser Printer(Lazarus and Laser)
Vaxa is the VAX operating system.
Pentyukh – Pentium.
Quack – Quake game
Many words in computer jargon are formed according to word-formation models adopted in the Russian language. The suffix k is a very common affix method.
Shooter adventure
(Subsequently, these words were replaced by the terms simulator, quest, 3D action).
In the words “sidyuk” (compact disk or compact disc reader) or pisyuk - (PC) there is a suffix -yuk, characteristic of the vernacular.
The peculiar folklore of computer scientists is interesting, in which terminological vocabulary is used in a broad figurative sense.
(data from 1992).
Cant’ open – refusal to fulfill any request. (Computer message that a file cannot be retrieved.)
Here is an example of an arrangement of a famous work:
...How the Old Woman saw the Old Man -
I quarreled worse system massage:
“You fool, you simpleton!
I begged for OS, you fool,
I don't want to be a systems programmer
I want to do whatever my heart desires
So as not to mess with the assembler,
And write in pure Pascal
Various beautiful things...
You can often come across jokes, anecdotes, and puns specific to computer scientists: here are examples from the famous game
GEG: Macrohard Corporation (pomerphemic antonym of Microsoft), Gell Bates
- (inversion of the first and last name of the head of Microprose, Bill Gates), “Harry was sleeping, but he knew that at the first click of the mouse he would wake up.”
Computer jargon is an actively developing dynamic system (due to the unusually rapid progress of computer technologies). This is one of the ways of penetration of Anglicisms into the Russian language (sometimes completely unjustified). Many words from computer jargon become official terminology. Jargon exists not only in oral speech, not only in numerous electronic documents of letters and virtual conferences, they can also be found in print, they are often found in reputable computer publications: “...Monitors with a diagonal of at least 17 inches, with a “motor” not weaker than pentium120...PC World (A. Orlov, December 1997). And you can find them in abundance in magazines dedicated to computer games, for example: “And the monsters there strafe no worse than any doomer.” (italics are mine. Game world navigator March 1998, article - Underlight). A significant component of the vocabulary, distinguished by a colloquial, crudely colloquial coloring, expressiveness characteristic of youth slang, indicates that among computer scientists there are a lot of young people.
8 Archaisms
The lexical composition of the Russian language reflects the history of the people. Words are living witnesses to historical events, the development of science, technology, culture, and changes in everyday life.
With the disappearance of the corresponding concepts, many words cease to be used in speech. They are called archaisms, i.e. outdated words.
These include, for example, words denoting parts of the country's territory
(province, district, volost, etc.), names of institutions (department, zemstvo, etc.), names of Positions (deacon, governor, solicitor, etc.), etc.
In the Old Russian language there were words such as kuna (monetary unit), smerd (peasant), lyudin (person), beef (cattle), etc., which can now be found in historical dictionaries, and some - in the roots of modern words: beef, commoner
Not many people know that the word yara in the ancient Russian language was the name for spring.
The word itself has disappeared from Russian vocabulary, but the root and its meaning are preserved in the words yarka (a young lamb born in the spring), spring bread (spring crops are sown in the spring) and vernalization (pre-sowing seed treatment for spring sowing). In the fairy tale “The Snow Maiden” the sun is called yarilo, as was customary in Ancient Rus'.
Often old words are revived in the language, but filled with new content.
So, the word squad is ancient. It was used in Old Russian.
One of its meanings was “army of the prince.” Listen to it, and you will hear the ringing of chain mail, the thunder of battle. Think about it, and it will become clear: this word comes from the family of such courageous good brothers as friend, friendship, community...
In the meaning of “army of the prince,” A. S. Pushkin uses the word squad in “Song of the Prophetic Oleg”: With his squad, in Tsaregrad armor, the prince rides across the field on a faithful horse.
In modern Russian, the word squad is used to denote a voluntary association of people created for one purpose or another (fire squad, etc.).
9 Neologisms
The vocabulary of a language is closely related to the life of society. The historical development of society, the development of science and technology, literature and art, changes in everyday life cause the emergence of new words, which are called neologisms.
In the 70s, words such as felt-tip pen (a rod for writing and drawing), simulator (a training device for practicing any skills), florist (an artist who creates compositions from dried flowers and leaves), etc., as well as complex words like photo club, television club, photo frame (individual photograph), television show.
In colloquial speech, the words velik, kopeck piece, two-story, chatter (playful chatter), Czechs (light sports shoes), etc. are widely used.
Neologisms include not only completely new, but also previously known words that have acquired new meanings. So, for example, in recent years, the words détente have become widespread - in the sense of “detente of international tension”, scenario - in the sense of “plan, scheme for holding an event, exhibition, etc.” The words mercy, charity, etc. have returned to our lexicon (the vocabulary of the language).
10 Loanwords
The main part of the vocabulary of the Russian language consists of words already known in the Old Russian language. These include many common words. Every language has words borrowed from other languages. They also exist in Russian.
The Russian people have long entered into political, trade, scientific and cultural relations with other peoples. At the same time, the Russian language was enriched with words from other languages. These words named things, customs, concepts, etc. that were new to the Russian people. The vocabulary of the Russian language contains about 10% of borrowed words, the bulk of which are nouns. Among them there are words from Greek (bed, ship, sail), Latin (exam, student, excursion), English (sports, football, tram), German (master, assault), French (suit, broth, compote) and other languages .
Many borrowed words change their sound composition (for example, Osip from the Greek Joseph), obey the laws of Russian declension, etc., so that they are not always easy to distinguish from original Russian ones.
According to the laws of the Russian language, new words can be formed from a borrowed word, for example: sport - sportive - unsportsmanlike, highway - highway.
Some borrowed nouns do not change in case and number, for example: coat, cinema, depot, radio, cafe, coffee, cocoa.
Pay attention to the pronunciation of the words: kaf [e], but kof [e], incorrectly kof [e); shin"[e]el, but not shin[e]el; parterre, but not parterre; driver, but not driver.
11 Phraseologisms
Phraseologisms are stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word. Therefore, phraseological units can often be replaced with one less expressive word. Compare: at the edge of the world (earth) - far away; lather the neck - teach a lesson, punish; walks under the table - small; the tooth does not touch the tooth - it is frozen; hack on the nose - remember; how to look into the water - to foresee, etc.
Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms. Phraseologisms are synonyms: two pairs of boots, two birds of a feather (one is no better than the other); beat swords into plowshares, sheathe a sword (end a war, strife), etc.
Phraseologisms-antonyms: roll up your sleeves - carelessly, brew porridge - disentangle the porridge, heavy to lift - easy to lift, etc.
The phraseological unit the cat cried has a synonym little and an antonym a lot.
Most of the phraseological units reflect the deeply folk, original character of the Russian language. The direct (initial) meaning of many phraseological units is connected with the history of our Motherland, with some customs of our ancestors, their work, etc. Thus, the expression to beat the bucks (to mess around) arose on the basis of the direct meaning of “splitting a block of wood into sticks (chocks) for making them spoons, ladle, etc.”, that is, to do a very simple, easy task.
Phraseologisms are bright and expressive means of language. They are often found in speech. For example: - Once you pass the exams, you will be a free Cossack (free). (A. Kuprin.) Egor may be a debater, but he’s a wet chicken
(slut). He's afraid of cart squeaks. (M. Alekseev.)
Phraseologism plays the role of one member of a sentence:
The decoration and cleanliness of the casket caught the eye (it stood out, it was different). (AND.
Krylov.) The guys worked with their sleeves rolled up (okay, diligently).
Quotes from literary works acquire the meaning of proverbs and sayings: Happy people do not watch the clock. (A. Griboyedov.) Sow what is reasonable, good, eternal... (N. Nekrasov.)
Conclusion
By studying the vocabulary of the Russian language, we enrich our vocabulary, improve our speech culture, and expand our knowledge of the surrounding reality.
In this regard, Russian language dictionaries provide us with invaluable help.
Linguistic scientists carefully collected and are collecting words and phraseological units and published and are publishing them in special dictionary books. Back in the 19th century. Russian language dictionaries were compiled: “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” and
“Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. I. Dahl.
In 1935-1940 Four volumes of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” were published, edited by D. N. Ushakov. Based on the card index of the Russian language dictionary, numbering over 6 million quote cards from the works of classics of Russian literature and Soviet writers, in the creation of which many scientists took part, the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences compiled the most complete “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language”. Its publication lasted from 1948 to 1965. The dictionary consists of 17 volumes and contains 120,480 words.
The “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects” is being compiled (currently published
13 issues), regional dialect dictionaries. The “Dictionary of the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries” is being created. (4 issues published), dictionaries of professional words, etc. were published. There is still a lot to be done to record our vocabulary wealth, “this treasure, this property passed on to us by our predecessors” (I. S. Turgenev), which we must protect and which must be mastered to the best of our ability and ability.
The Russian language is one of the richest and most developed languages in the world.
Currently, the Russian language, due to its richness and social significance, has become one of the leading international languages. Many words of the Russian language are included in the vocabulary of foreign languages.
Literature:
1. Vvedenskaya L.A.
2. Anikina “Modern Russian language”.
3. Game world navigator.
Dialectisms are words and phraseological units, the use of which is characteristic of people living in a certain area.
Pskov dialectisms: lava'Street', scrape'shell', perechia'contradiction', harrow‘horse in the second year’, petun'rooster', barkan'carrot', bulba'potato', good'bad', slimy'slippery', readable'sober', kick‘to walk around doing nothing’.
For example, PU-dialectisms of Pskov dialects: even a finger in the eye'very dark', three legs fast ', live on dry spoons ' poor ’, from all worlds ‘ from everywhere ', show annexation ' fight back ’, lead the ends ‘ deceive ’.
From linguistic phraseological units, which lose the power of their impact, gradually losing their distinctive qualities in the constancy of nationwide use, dialectal phraseological units are distinguished by their unique imagery, brightness and freshness of naming realities. Wed: spinster (lit.) and Don Mikolaevskaya (Nikolaevskaya) girl“old maid” (a name from the times of Nicholas I, when the Cossacks left to serve for 25 years); Petra's girlI "spinster". Or: kick your ass (lit.) and Don with the same meaning: beat the buggies (baglay"idler"), beat frogs, beat kayaks (kaydak"idler"), knock down kitushka (kitushka“an earring near a flowering tree (birch, willow, etc.)”); Milky Way (lit.) and Don with similar semantics Batyev (Batyev, Batyev) way(named after the Tatar Khan Batu, who in his movements was guided by the Milky Way), Batyeva (Bateva, Bateva, Batyoeva, Patyoeva) road, Batyovo wheel.
Dialectisms are used mainly in the traditional form of speech, since the dialect itself is mainly the oral, everyday speech of residents of rural areas.
Dialectal vocabulary differs from the national vocabulary not only in its narrower scope of use, but also in a number of phonetic, grammatical and lexico-semantic features.
Depending on what features characterize dialectisms (as opposed to literary vocabulary), there are several types of them:
1) phonetic dialectisms- words that reflect the phonetic features of a given dialect: barrel, Vankya, tipyatok(instead of barrel, Vanka, boiling water)- South Russian dialectisms; kuricha, tsyasy, tselovek, nemchi(instead of chicken, watch, man, Germans)- dialectisms reflecting the sound features of some northwestern dialects;
2) grammatical dialectisms- words that have grammatical characteristics different from those in the literary language or differ from the popular vocabulary in morphological structure. Thus, in southern dialects, neuter nouns are often used as feminine nouns (the whole field, such a thing, the cat smells whose meat it ate); forms are common in northern dialects in the cellar, in the club, in the table(instead of in the cellar, and the club, in the table), instead of common words side, rain, run, hole etc. in dialect speech words with the same root are used, but different in morphological structure: sideways, dozhzhok, run, burrow and so on.;
3) lexical dialectisms- words that differ in both form and meaning from words in the popular vocabulary: kochet"rooster", korets"ladle", the other day"the other day, recently" speed up"harrow", on the ground"manure", drone"speak", inda"even" etc.
Among the lexical dialectisms, local names of things and concepts common in a given area stand out. These words are called ethnographisms. For example, ethnography is the word Paneva- this is how a special type of skirt is called in Ryazan, Tambov, Tula and some other regions - ‘ a type of skirt made from variegated homespun fabric’. In areas where floors are used as draft power, the word is widespread nalygach- designation of a special belt or rope tied to the horns of oxen. The pole at the well, with the help of which water is obtained, is in some places called ochep; birch bark bast shoes used to be called cats and so on. Unlike actual lexical dialectisms, ethnographic dialectisms, as a rule, do not have synonyms in the literary language and can only be explained descriptively.
4) Semantic dialectisms- words that have a special meaning in dialects, different from the commonly used one. Yes, in a word top in some southern dialects it is called a ravine, verb to yawn used to mean "shout, call" guess- meaning “to recognize someone by sight”, dark- meaning “very, strongly” (I love it dark"I love you very much"); in northern dialects plow means "to sweep the floor", in Siberian wonderful means "a lot"; ceiling- floor, coward- hare, etc.
Ceiling'attic', mushrooms'lips', coward'rabbit', cockerel‘butter mushroom’, plow'sweep', suffer‘to laugh, to have fun’.
It must be remembered that dialect words are outside the scope of the literary language, so if possible you should refrain from using local words, especially if there are literary words with the same meaning.
Some dialectisms are capable of penetrating into the literary language. For example, words of dialectal origin include wild rosemary, carefree, roach, coo, length, flabby, creepy, sweetheart, strawberry, in vain, strawberry, picking, clumsy, fawning, foliage, mumble, shaggy, hassle, annoying, tedious, roadside, careful, cloudy, spider, plowman, background, fishing, ingenuity, hill, dragonfly, taiga, smile, earflaps, eagle owl, nonsense and many others.
In the vast expanses of the Russian Federation - from the Baltic in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east and from the Barents Sea in the north to the foothills of the Caucasus in the south - the Russian national language is widespread. Therefore, it is heterogeneous; dialects are distinguished in it. All Russians understand each other, but not everyone speaks the same way. Sometimes we don’t notice this, and sometimes the differences from the usual structure of speech are so great that we immediately feel them and pay attention to them.
The word dialect comes from the Greek dialektos, which means “conversation, conversation.” For example, in Siberia they say: temple (hair), mink (nostril), foot (one room in the house), the soil (bottom of foot) salamat (jelly made from flour), tattoo (the headdress of a married woman. Dialects are an “inexhaustible treasury” in which countless archaic words and forms are stored, long lost in the literary language. Dialect words (they are also called regional words or provincial) are words that are used by the inhabitants of a particular area . There are words from Siberian, Volga, Don and others. Dialects form part of the national language, the Russian language literally grew out of them. Dialect words, especially narrow local ones, are a kind of passport of a person, like his pronunciation, they can indicate the place of birth and permanent residence. Dialect words , learned from childhood, remain in speech for a long time. A person has already graduated from school, received an education, but the words of childhood, no, no, and even break through in his speech.
Dialectisms are words used only by residents of a certain area, interspersed into the literary language: sula (pike perch), dyuzhe (very), sash (belt), golitsy (mittens), gutarit (talk), baskoy (beautiful). They lived and continue to live in separate places, in old villages and hamlets. Dialecticisms are usually used in works of art to convey local flavor.The eastern wind blows across the native steppe. Log was covered in snow. The valleys and ravines were leveled. There are no roads or paths.(M. Sholokhov). Log is a ravine. Padina is a narrow hollow. Yar - steep steep bank of the river. When speaking in a dialect, the following conversation can take place:- What are you eating? - I’m screaming at pickles. - Yes, you are a brat. They're skinny. In which, "die " means "doing", " scream " used in the sense of "trade", " lumber " - "deceiver", ""thin" means "bad".
The decisive sign that a word belongs to the dialect vocabulary is the local limitation of its use. There are no dialect words of general Russian distribution and use.
In a literary language, a dialect word is either a foreign element that does not carry any stylistic load, or is deliberately used for some stylistic or other purposes.
In other words, dialectism may have different functions, but it remains itself under any conditions.
Throughout the XIX-XX centuries. some of them have lost their dialectal limitations and become part of the literary vocabulary (for example:stubble, tugging flax, lambing sheep, blizzard, tundra, musheretc.) Here is I.S. Turgenev in the story “Biryuk” after the phrase: “My name is Foma,” he answered, “and by the nickname “Biryuk,” he makes a note: “Biryuk is a lonely and gloomy person in the Oryol province.” . And now this word is well known.
Dialect words can be divided into two main types: a) words that differ from all-Russian words in their morphological and phonetic composition, in other words, in their material design; These words can conditionally be called lexical dialectisms. This type of dialectism is represented by several varieties. Words whose roots are not in the literary language (wave – wool, bucket –clear weather, loni - last year, dezha - tub, kvolny - sick, kaliki - rutabaga ). Words with the same roots and meanings as in the literary language, but in a different affix form ( blueberry – blueberries, sowing - sowing, fence - fence, lie - lie, hedge - fence). Formation of roots represented in the vocabulary of the literary language (goiter - basket, attachment – old ship, grow - about to lay an egg).Words with the same roots, affixes and meanings as in the standard language, but with phonemic differences (irzha - rusty, omshanik - moshannik, mosquito - mosquito, bullfinch - bullfinch).
B) words that differ from the corresponding all-Russian words in their meanings; Such words can conditionally be called semantic dialectisms (ore - blood, hen - perch, bridge - canopy, plow - sweep, whiskey - hair, lips - mushrooms, weather - bad weather)
The importance of regional specialization allows us to show the richness and beauty of the folk word, its significance in the formation of a spiritual culture among schoolchildren, which includes, first of all, love for their small homeland. Meanwhile, the language of the people is an indicator of the spiritual and cultural level of the speakers of this language, a rich source of knowledge about the life and customs of the Russian people. In addition, the vocabulary of dialects is rich in words that reflect the unique natural conditions of the area.
Studying dialects helps solve spelling problems, that is, it facilitates the assimilation and conscious writing of “difficult words.” For example, the word finger, used in the meaning of finger, explains the spelling of the unstressed vowel in the word glove.
The basis of the vocabulary of the Ukrainian language is words that everyone understands and accepts. They are called commonly used. But there are words that are used only in a certain area, in certain dialects, adverbs. Such words are called dialectal.
What are dialects and dialectisms?
Dialects (or adverbs) are a division of a language that unites a group of dialects that are interconnected by a number of common phenomena that are unknown to other dialects.
The set of Ukrainian dialects, based on their phonetic features, lexical composition, morphological and syntactic differences, is divided into three dialect groups or dialects: northern, southeastern, southwestern.
Dialectisms (or provincial isms) are words used in individual dialects or dialects and are not common in the language of the entire people. These are territorial (regional) dialectisms and social ones, functioning only in a certain social group.
Dialect vocabulary is often found in everyday conversational style. A well-mannered person must monitor his speech and use commonly used standardized words of the Ukrainian language.
Dialect vocabulary is widespread in works of fiction. Examples of its masterful use for the purpose of depicting local color are observed in the works of Panas Myrny, Lesya Ukrainsky, I. Franko, O. Gonchar, M. Stelmakh, D. Pavlychko and others. This is how M. Kotsiubynsky describes pictures of the life and everyday life of the Hutsuls, using dialect vocabulary: “Now Ivan was already a guy, slender and strong, like a spruce, he smeared his curls with oil, wore a wide belt and a lush chair.”
It should be noted that excessive use of dialect vocabulary makes reading works difficult. We must be very careful when using dialect vocabulary, taking care that it does not clog up the language and does not make it difficult for readers to perceive the works.
In modern literary languages, dialect vocabulary is very rare. And it is not used at all in business speech, scientific and journalistic styles.
Literary language serves high forms of socio-political and cultural relations, and is richer in its lexical composition and grammatical structure. It has a standardized vocabulary, grammatical forms and pronunciation system, which are mandatory for everyone who uses it.
In the Ukrainian language there is a complex process of interaction between the literary language and dialect vocabulary, the process of erasing the differences between the literary national language and territorial dialectisms. Everything that is outdated in territorial dialectisms is gradually disappearing and being replaced by national means of expression. But the literary language does not simply displace local dialects from the linguistic practice of their speakers, but together absorbs from them everything that can enrich it with new means of expressiveness, imagery, expressiveness: new lexical and grammatical elements. However, excessive use of dialect vocabulary does NOT enrich the language, but only clogs it with unnecessary words.
So, on the one hand, the literary language absorbs all the best, most valuable, vital and typical from the dialect vocabulary and thanks to this it is enriched and improved. On the other hand, elements of the literary language penetrate into the dialect vocabulary and bring it closer to the common language. The literary language is increasingly influencing local dialects and helping to bring their system closer to the national language.
So Ivan flew in the valley until it was empty. The glass margins are back in the valleys, dismantled by the owners, the odtrembitals are compacting theirs, the trampled grasses lie... Only groups with spuzars remain. They must wait until the fire goes out, that fire of the valley that itself was born, like a god, the mass itself, and fall asleep. And when they were no longer there, a ghost and nipa came to the upset mountain in flocks and in paddocks, there was nothing left for her (M. Kotsyubinsky).
Words, the use of which is typical for people living in a certain area, constitute dialect vocabulary. Dialect words are used mainly in oral speech, since the dialect itself is mainly the oral, everyday speech of residents of rural areas.
Dialectal vocabulary differs from the national vocabulary not only in its narrower scope of use, but also in a number of the following features:
1) Phonetic;
2) Grammatical;
3) Lexico-semantic.
In accordance with these features, the following types of dialectisms are distinguished:
A) Phonetic dialectisms are words that reflect the phonetic features of a given dialect:
Barrel - barrel;
Vankya - Vanka;
Tipyayagok - boiling water (South Russian dialectisms);
Kuricha - chicken;
Tsyasy - clock;
A person is a person;
Nemchi - Germans (Northwestern dialectisms).
b) Grammar dialectisms are words that have grammatical characteristics different from those in the literary language.
1) The use of a neuter noun as a feminine noun in South Russian dialects: The whole field; Such a thing; The cat smells whose meat it has eaten.
2) In northern Russian dialects, the use of the dative case form instead of the prepositional case is common:
In the cellar - in the cellar; In the club - in the club; In the table - in the table.
3) Using words with a different morphemic structure, but having the same root, instead of commonly used lexemes:
Sideways - on the side;
Dozhzhok - rain;
Yech - to run;
Burrow - hole, etc.
c) lexical dialectisms - words that differ in form and meaning from words in the popular vocabulary:
Kochet - rooster;
Korets - ladle;
The other day - the other day, recently;
Inda - even;
Ground - manure;
Tutarit - to speak;
To clear away - to harrow, etc.
Among the lexical dialectisms, local (local) names of things and concepts common in a given area stand out. Such words are called ethnographisms, For example:
Paneva is a special type of skirt in the Ryazan, Tambov and Tula regions;
Nalygach is a special belt or rope tied to the horns of oxen in those areas where oxen are used as draft force; Ochep - a pole at a well, with the help of which water is obtained; Cats are birch bark bast shoes.
A dialectal word may differ from a commonly used word not only in form (phonetic, morpheme, grammatical), but also in lexical meaning. In this case they talk about semantic dialectisms, for example:
Yawn - scream, call;
Dark - very much (I love dark = I love it very much);
Guess - recognize someone by sight;
Top - ravine (South Russian dialects);
Plow - sweep the floor (Northern Russian dialects);
Divno - a lot (Siberian dialects), etc.
Dialectisms are often used as artistic means of expression in works of fiction to achieve the following goals:
1) Speech characteristics of the character;
2) Transmission of local color;
3) The most accurate naming of things and concepts.
Examples of such use of dialectisms can be found in the works of many word artists:
It was frosty and bitter, but in the evening it began to feel rejuvenated (T.)
The verb to rejuvenate in Oryol and Tula dialects means “to become cloudy, to tend toward bad weather,” as V. I. Dal explains in his dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language.
We went to the forest, or, as we say, to order (Turg.) The whole face seemed to turn blue (Babel) We are used to eating bread without weight (Shol.)