Literary norm - These are the rules of pronunciation, use of words, and use of grammatical and stylistic means accepted in the linguistic practice of educated people. Norms are formed as a result of the conscious selection of linguistic means in the process of communication and are elevated to the rank of correct, universally binding ones. The norm is cultivated in print publications, the media, and in the process of school teaching of the Russian language. Codification norms call its consolidation in dictionaries, grammars, and teaching aids. The norm is relatively stable and systemic, as it includes rules for selecting elements of all levels of the language system; at the same time, it is mobile and changeable, since it can change over time under the influence of spoken language. The norms of the modern Russian language are enshrined in publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences: Grammar of the Russian Literary Language (M., 1970), Russian Grammar in 2 vols. (M., 1980), Dictionary of the Russian language in 4 vols. edited by A.P. Evgenieva (1981-1984) and other reference publications: dictionaries of grammatical difficulties, spelling dictionaries, dictionaries of paronyms, synonyms, etc.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of normalization and codification. According to L.K. Graudina, the term normalization denotes a set of problems that involve covering the following aspects: 1) studying the problem of defining and establishing the norm of a literary language; 2) research for normative purposes of language practice in its relation to theory; 3) bringing into the system, further improving and streamlining the rules of use in cases of divergence between theory and practice, when there is a need to strengthen the norms of the literary language" (Graudina L.K. Issues of normalization of the Russian language: Grammar and variants. - M., 1980. - S .3). The most optimal definition of normalization is the process of formation, approval of a norm, its description and ordering by linguists. Normalization represents a historically long selection from linguistic variants of single, most commonly used units. Normalizing activity finds its expression in the codification of a literary norm - its official recognition and description in the form of rules (prescriptions) in authoritative linguistic publications.

Thus, this or that phenomenon, before becoming a norm in a codified literary language, undergoes a process of normalization, and in the case of a favorable outcome (wide distribution, public approval, etc.) it is fixed, codified in rules, recorded in dictionaries with recommendatory marks .

The formation of norms is a complex and contradictory process. “The objective, dynamic and contradictory nature of the norms of the Russian literary language dictates the need for a conscious and careful approach to assessing the controversial facts of modern speech... Unfortunately, not all popular science books and mass textbooks on the culture of speech reveal a scientifically based and sufficiently delicate solution to complex problems of literary norm. There are facts of subjective amateur assessment, and cases of bias towards new formations, and even manifestations of administration in matters of language. Indeed, language is one of those phenomena of social life about which many consider it possible to have their own special opinion. Moreover, these personal opinions about right and wrong in language are often expressed in the most peremptory and temperamental form. However, independence and categorical judgments do not always mean their truth” (Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language. - M., 1981. - P. 32).

The norm of language is a socio-historical category in nature and dynamic in the nature of its functioning and development. It is stable and systemic and at the same time stable and mobile. In its implementation and consolidation, a large role is played by the desire of speakers and writers to consciously preserve traditions in the use of linguistic means.

Norms exist at different levels of language - phonetic, lexical and grammatical. Phonetic norms dictate the rules for the pronunciation of sounds, words and statements. Lexical norms determine the rules and order of use of words and set expressions (phraseologisms) of the language in accordance with their meaning and expressive-stylistic properties. Grammar rules establish rules for the formation of word forms, the correct construction of phrases and sentences, and recommendations for their use in certain areas of communication.

The norm varies in degree of stability at different levels of language and in different communication conditions. Thus, the scope of phonetic norms is systemic and mandatory. The set of norms of a literary language associated with the sound design of morphemes, words, sentences is called orthoepy. Orthoepy includes all pronunciation norms of the literary language, both systemic and variable. Systemic norms include the reduction of unstressed vowels of a non-upper rise - akanye, deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word, and a number of others, which are determined by the phonetic laws of the Russian language. Variable norms include the pronunciation features of representatives of different generations: for example, representatives of the older generation pronounce bakeryja, moloshnaja, mylsa, bralsa, z’v’er’, d’v’er’, ot’ech’eskj, and representatives of the younger generation – bakeryja, dairyja, washed, took, z’er’, door’, o’ech’esk’j. Various features of pronunciation can characterize the national and professional sphere of use, for example, doctors say A alcohol, miners - d O bull. Orthoepic pronunciation options may belong to different styles; in colloquial speech pronunciation is possible who, thousand, piss, Nikolaich etc. Phonetic norms are characterized as pronunciation, containing rules for the pronunciation of sounds and their combinations, and supersegmental, dictating the place of stress in a word and the choice of intonation structure.

At the lexical level, the norm regulates the use of stylistically and expressively colored or neutral lexemes in accordance with the content and purpose of speech. Thus, synonymous series are organized not only on the basis of similarity, but also on the basis of differences: synonymous words differ in stylistic and expressive coloring: run - rush, look - stare - hatch, eyes - eyes - eyes; compatibility: old – elderly (only about a person); look after - look after...; shades meaning: old - dilapidated - elderly. The speaker chooses the right word in accordance with his own intention and communication conditions; Thus, expressive vocabulary is acceptable in colloquial speech, journalism, and artistic speech, but its use in book styles - scientific, official and business - violates the established norms of the Russian literary language. Consequently, for the correct, normative use of a word or phraseological unit, it is necessary to know its meaning, compatibility and stylistic properties. Violation of lexical norms often occurs when using paronyms - words that are close, but not identical in sound and meaning, such as present – ​​provide, diplomatic – diplomatic, successful – lucky; phraseological units: to mislead - to lead by the nose, to fold one's head - to give an oak.

Following grammatical norms involves two types of requirements: following the norms of inflection (knowledge of the system) and choosing the right option, the right word form if the system offers several options. Grammatical difficulties in the Russian language include difficulties in forming, for example, the plural forms of some nouns: contract - contracts, lecturer - lecturers; genitive plural forms: partisans, oranges, shoes, hangnails; participial forms of the verb: leading, carrying and the like. In some cases, variants are presented in Russian, for example: a glass of tea and a glass of tea, a piece of cheese and a piece of cheese, in the cherry orchard and about the cherry orchard, in the forest and about the forest, camps and camps, tones and tones; in this case, the choice of the correct form is dictated by the norm that regulates the use of the word form in each specific case. Sometimes in a language there is a ban on the formation of any form of a word: I vacuum, mess and climb, run and win; in this case, the use of these forms should be avoided in bookish styles and in certain communication situations, but they can be used in common speech.

The grammatical norm also includes following the rules of syntactic construction of phrases and sentences; This should include knowledge of the gender characteristics of nouns: right shoe, old slipper, delicious broccoli; verb control: pay attention to something, pay attention to something, pay for something, pay for something., use of participial and participial phrases. In the Russian language there are a significant number of schemes for simple and complex sentences, some of them are used only in book styles of speech, for example, constructions with participial phrases, with subordinate attributives, indefinite personal sentences; and some are more typical of colloquial speech, for example, sentences with missing members, impersonal sentences with genitive negation or genitive quantitative ( there were a lot of people gathered, I didn’t rest for an hour).

The degree of obligation varies imperative and dispositive norms . Mandatory norms are strictly mandatory, their violation is interpreted as poor command of the Russian language; imperative norms include incorrect placement of stress, incorrect pronunciation, violation of the rules of declension, conjugation and syntactic compatibility of words, erroneous use of words and construction of sentences. Dispositive norms assume the existence of variants of pronunciation, grammatical and syntactic units; they recommend giving preference to one or another option depending on the communication situation. From variants that objectively exist in a language, it is necessary to distinguish variants that are outside the boundaries of the literary language.

Objective fluctuations in the literary norm are usually associated with the development of language, with situations where both options are transitional stages from obsolete to new or serve as a means of stylistic differentiation of linguistic elements. Sometimes the options do not differ in any way either in semantic or stylistic terms, then they are considered doublets, that is, completely equivalent: TV O horn and creation O g, gender And died and was born I, spasm and spasm, drip and drip.

The norm is one of the most important conditions for the stability, unity and identity of the national language; it limits and regulates the use of various units in the language. The norm of a literary language is dynamic, since it is the result of human activity, enshrined in tradition or patterns, and, therefore, is capable of change. When normalizing any education, one should take into account its regular reproducibility in speech and active interaction with other units of the system. The fluctuation of the norm is the result of the interaction of functional styles, the interaction of the literary language with dialects, vernacular, and professional speech.

The development of a literary language is, in essence, the formation, development and improvement of its norms in accordance with the needs of society and due to the internal laws of linguistic evolution. Each historical era brings its own content to the concept of a linguistic norm. During the period of the existence of developed national languages, the literary language, as the highest type of national language, gradually replaces dialects and becomes an exponent of the national norm. At the same time, the norm itself is undergoing qualitative changes towards democratization. The doctrine of the norms of literary language underlies scientific recommendations and forecasts in the field of speech culture.

Such phenomena of social life as anti-normalization and purism are closely related to the development of norms of the Russian literary language and their formation. Anti-normalization is a denial of scientific normalization and codification of language, based on the assertion of the spontaneity of language development. Purism is the rejection of all innovations and changes in language or their outright prohibition. The purist attitude towards language is based on the view of the norm as something unchangeable. In a broad sense purism– this is an overly strict, irreconcilable attitude towards any borrowings, innovations, and in general towards all subjectively understood cases of distortion, coarsening and damage to the language. Purists do not want to understand the historical development of language, the normalization policy: they idealize in language the past, long established and tested. However, despite the rejection of any innovations and changes in the language, purism at the same time plays the role of a regulator, protecting the language from the abuse of borrowings, excessive enthusiasm for innovations and promoting sustainability, traditional norms, and ensuring the historical continuity of the language.

The most important feature of a literary language is normalization - mandatory adherence to language norms, rules governing the use of language units (words, phrases, etc.). Standardization regulates both oral (how to speak correctly) and written (how to write correctly) forms of speech.

A linguistic norm is a generally accepted pattern of use of linguistic units, characteristic of a certain period of development of a literary language. The variants “norm”, “literary norm”, “norm of literary language” are used as synonyms for this term.

The linguistic norm prescribes how to put stress in words, how to pronounce sounds and their combinations, how to combine words in a sentence, which word endings to choose, how to construct sentences and compose texts. In other words, the language norm manifests itself at all levels of language, from phonetic (sound-letter) to text. Knowing the norms of the Russian literary language and following them allows you to avoid mistakes in oral and written speech.

On the one hand, the norm is determined by the internal laws of language development, on the other hand, by the traditions of society, by what is recognized and approved by it. Thus, literary norms are supported by speech practice and reflect the natural processes occurring in the language.

Literary standards are not established by linguists or dictionary compilers, individual writers or public figures. The main source of the literary norm is linguistic (speech) material: artistic and journalistic works, generally accepted modern usage, enshrined in the speech of educated people. All data relating to modern language use is summarized and analyzed by specialists. The results obtained are sent to the Russian Language Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where the final selection and recording of natural, stable features of the use of language units takes place.

Thus, the norms of a literary language are uniform rules of pronunciation, formation and use of words, use of grammatical and stylistic means, enshrined in the speech practice of educated people, i.e. rules for the exemplary use of language units in speech.

Functions of language norms are associated primarily with the preservation of the literary language, since they:

• 1) ensure the integrity and general intelligibility of the literary language (as opposed to dialects, argot);
• 2) protect the literary language from the penetration of jargon, dialectisms, and vernacular;
• 3) allow the language to perform an accumulative function - the function of accumulating and storing culture.

Main features norms of a literary language: universality, common usage, prevalence, stability, sustainability, compliance with the capabilities of the language system.

The norm does not divide the means of language into “good” and “bad” - it indicates their communicative expediency. Obviously, the use of non-literary elements (colloquial words, jargon) is inappropriate in a situation of official communication, etc.

Depending on the aspect of standardization of language use, different types of norms.

1. According to linguistic status, norms are divided into language, text And communicative (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2.

Linguistic norms regulate the rules for using linguistic units at different levels. These are norms for stress and pronunciation of words, lexical norms, grammatical norms (morphological and syntactic), spelling norms, etc.

Textual norms regulate the rules for creating texts of different styles and genres. These are functional-stylistic, genre, compositional-structural and other norms.

Communication norms regulate the speech interaction of people within a speech situation. These are norms of speech etiquette, national cultural norms, rules of speech/communicative interaction, etc.

2. According to the degree of severity, the norms are divided, taking into account the admissibility of options, into imperative And dispositive.

Rice. 1.3.

Imperative norms do not allow the presence of variants of the use of linguistic units; these are strict, mandatory norms, for example: petition (petition - mistake in accent); put (to survive - error in forming the word).

Dispositive norms are norms that allow the use of variants of the use of linguistic units: simultaneous And simultaneous(both variants of stress setting are normative); characteristic And characteristic(both grammatical forms are normative).

3. According to the scope of use, the norm can be commonly used or limited in scope.

Rice. 1.4.

A commonly used norm is a norm that denotes the most common linguistic units used by everyone: help, tell, give a task.

A norm limited in scope of use is a norm that limits the use of linguistic units within a certain functional style (see in more detail in section I): help(book), notify(official) puzzle(colloquial, joking).

4. Based on time, the norm is divided into “ older" And "younger"(Fig. 1.5).

Rice. 1.5.

The “senior” norm is a variant of linguistic use that is initially normative: ration, sufficient, banknotes(m.r.).

“Younger” norm is a variant recognized as normative along with the existing (original) variant of linguistic use: ration, sufficient, banknote(f.r.).

The process of the emergence of new variants of the use of linguistic units indicates that the norm, despite its stability, can change over time. Nobody's talking now music, friends, muze]y,sweets, although in the 19th century these were the only correct options. The process of changing the norm is long-term, since rapid changes are hampered by the stability and stability of the norm, and the consolidation of a new version in the literary language occurs in stages (Table 1.4). The duration of each stage is several decades.

Table 1.4

Stages of norm development

	Option A	Option B
	The only correct one concluded, security, bonus	Wrong option: concluded, security, bonus
	Predominant in speech use: normalize, simultaneous, included	It becomes acceptable and is regularly found in the speech of educated people: normalize, od damaged, switched on
	Remains valid, but is deprecated: otherwise, factory	Predominant in speech use: otherwise, factory
	It is erroneous and disappears from verbal use: premium, cooks	The only correct one: award, cooks

The slow development of a language norm ensures its stability and sustainability, despite some mobility and historical variability. The conservatism of the norm is considered by experts as a kind of filter that prevents rapid, random changes in the rules of linguistic use and contributes to the preservation of the literary language.

The emergence of a new variant of linguistic use does not mean that this variant will subsequently necessarily receive the status of normative

(see, for example, long-existing erroneous options for placing stress in words facilities , alcohol). In addition, the original version does not always fall out of widespread use over time. For example, the word coffee in the 1980-1990s. began to be used primarily as a neuter noun, although the normative version fixed the masculine form. Changes were even made to the dictionaries, indicating the possibility of variable use of the word. It could be assumed that in 20-30 years the main option would be the neuter form. However, modern speech practice supports the original version, which only gave way to widespread use for a few decades. Word coffee now used by native speakers as a masculine noun, variant strong coffee is perceived as erroneous.

It is quite obvious that describing the rules for using linguistic means and introducing changes that have received normative status in dictionaries and reference books is a complex and not always unambiguous process.

The process of fixing the norm is called codification. The presence of linguistic norms developed on a scientific basis that regulate the use of language units in written and oral speech, and the consolidation of these norms in reference publications is called normalization, or codification.

The formation of a literary language begins with the development of rules for the use of linguistic units, with the fixation of these norms. Gradually, the codification process becomes systemic and covers all levels of language - from audio to text, which is reflected in the emergence of multifaceted linguistic dictionaries and reference books. The presence of rich reference literature describing the literary language indicates its high level of development. Due to this codification is considered one of the important features of a literary language.

Literary language. Formation of literary language norms. "Basic" dialect.

A literary language is a “supra-dialectal dialect”, a variant of the national language, understood as an exemplary one. Also, a distinctive feature of the literary language is that it is based on a monologue (an organized system of thoughts expressed in verbal form with the aim of influencing others) in contrast to dialogue. It functions in written form (in books, periodicals, official documents, etc.) and in oral form (in public speeches, in theater and cinema, radio and television broadcasts). It is typical for him to have consciously applied rules, i.e. norms. Its written variety is the most strictly codified, its oral version is also regulated (in particular, by orthoepic norms), its everyday colloquial variety is the least regulated.

Literary language Always it is normative, therefore it is understandable to all speakers of a given language, including those using another dialect. But at the same time, speakers of a literary language always speak incomprehensibly to one degree or another; difficult understanding is a necessary accompaniment of literary and cultural speaking, which is due to the general complexity of cultural life.

Literary language is normative from the point of view of the prescriptive norm, which is enshrined in various kinds of dictionaries. A distinctive feature of a literary language is the presence of a linguistic ideal among speakers. Moreover, this ideal is extremely conservative, because the norm is always a little behind. In addition, it is local, usually the norm is formed on the basis of the capital’s dialect (“base” dialect). At the same time, elements of other dialects can be added to the “basic” dialect, but to a lesser extent: thus, having adopted the Moscow hiccup, akanye and other characteristic features, the Russian literary language also retains elements of the Old Petersburg norm (for example, we say kory/chn'/ evy, not measles/sh'/evy), etc.

Scheme of the emergence of a literary language: a conglomerate of closely related idioms à due to historical, economic, social reasons a center arises à the central idiom receives prestige and multifunctionality (legal proceedings, science, press, etc.) à becomes the official language of the country à the remaining idioms become dialects => differentiation of the literary language and its dialects is not made according to the methods of linguistics. There are differences between the literary language and the dialect in the areas of phonetics, grammar, and lexical composition.

As mentioned above, the main types of language norms (all of them prescriptive) are spelling norms, pronunciation and grammatical norms. The reasons for their change: 1) the desire to simplify and save effort; 2) the desire for the absence of options that complicate understanding; 3) the desire for logic and conditionality; 4) for spelling - the desire to get as close as possible to pronunciation.

A literary language serving several nations has corresponding variants. For example, there is a distinction between British and American literary English.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations of language units

Paradigmatic relationships- these are those relationships that unite language units into groups, categories, categories. For example, the system of consonants, the system of declension, and the synonymic series rely on paradigmatic relations. When using language, paradigmatic relationships allow you to select the desired unit, as well as form forms and words by analogy.

A paradigm is a relationship between units that can take the place of each other in the same position. For example, he was tall (medium, short), slov-o, slov-a, slov-u, etc. In these examples, the lexemes high, low, medium and inflections -o, -a, -u are combined into one paradigmatic series.

Syntagmatic relations combine units of language in their simultaneous sequence. Words as a set of morphemes and syllables, phrases and analytical names, sentences (as sets of sentence members) and complex sentences are built on syntagmatic relationships. When using language, syntagmatic relationships allow two or more units of language to be used simultaneously.

Syntagma- this is an intonation-semantic unity that expresses one concept in a given context and in a given situation and can consist of one word, a group of words and a whole sentence.

Syntagmatics includes linguistic rules for the compatibility of single-level language units and their implementation in speech. the elementary syntagmatic relation is two-term: for example, consonant + vowel in a syllable, word-formation base + word-formation affix, subject + predicate, etc.

The difference between syntagmatics and paradigmatics can be clarified with the following example. The form of the word road (vin. p. singular), on the one hand, evokes other forms of this word (road, road, roads, etc.) and words similar in meaning (path, path, way). The named forms of the word are case; they assign the noun road to a certain type and paradigm of declension. The word road and nouns close to it in meaning form a synonymous group, which is built on the paradigmatic relationships of lexical meanings.

On the other hand, the form road can be combined with verbs, adjectives and nouns: I see (cross, build, etc.) a road; wide (forest, summer, etc.) road; a road in a field, a road in a village, a friend’s road, etc. The given phrases reveal formal and semantic connections between words, built on syntagmatic relationships.

The acoustic aspect of the study of speech sounds.

The acoustic aspect of phonetics, associated with the field of physics, deals with the study of speech acoustics - a section of general acoustics that studies the structure of the speech signal, the system of automatic synthesis and speech recognition. Considering the sounds of speech in the acoustic aspect, their characteristics are identified such as height, strength, sound timbre, tones and noises, resonance, etc. (The material related to this issue, as well as to the previous one, is studied by students independently).

Acoustics of speech sounds

Speech sounds- These are vibrations in the air caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

Tone- These are periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise- these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength and duration.

Pitch is the number of vibrations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have a shorter wavelength. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range from 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one vibration per second. Sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds) are not perceived by humans, unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and higher, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).

The main frequencies of human communication are usually within the range of 500 - 4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds from 40 to 1700 Hz. For example, bass usually starts at 80 Hz, and soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural frequency of vibration of the eardrum is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for humans - the sound of the sea, the forest - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.

The range of vibrations of a man's speech sounds is 100 - 200 Hz, in contrast to women, who speak with a frequency of 150 - 300 Hz (since men's vocal cords are on average 23 mm, and women's are 18 mm, and the longer the cords, the lower the tone) .

The power of sound(loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the amount of deviation from the original position). The amplitude of vibrations is created by the pressure of the air stream and the surface of the sounding body.

The strength of sound is measured in decibels. A whisper is defined as 20 - 30 dB, normal speech is from 40 to 60 dB, the volume of a scream reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing at up to 110 - 130 dB. The Guinness Book of World Records records the record of a fourteen-year-old girl who screamed over a taking off airliner with an engine volume of 125 dB. When the sound intensity exceeds 130 dB, ear pain begins.

Different speech sounds have different strengths. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the greater the power. But, for example, in the word “saw” the vowel [i], being unstressed and generally having less power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed [a]. The fact is that higher sounds seem louder, and the sound [i] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitches are perceived as sounds of different volumes. It should be noted that sound intensity and loudness are not equivalent, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by a person's hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is background, equal to a decibel.

Sound duration, i.e. the oscillation time is measured in milliseconds.

Sound has a complex composition. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).

Base tone is a tone generated by vibrations of the entire physical body.

Overtone- a partial tone generated by vibrations of parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone (“upper tone”) is always a multiple of the fundamental tone, hence its name. For example, if the fundamental tone is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, etc. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of a body when it perceives a sound wave that has the same frequency as the vibration frequency of this body. The overtones are usually weak, but are amplified by resonators. Speech intonation is created by changing the frequency of the fundamental tone, and timbre is created by changing the frequency of overtones.

Timbre- This is a kind of coloring of sound created by overtones. It depends on the relationship between the fundamental tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, distinguish the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. Each person's timbre is strictly individual and unique, like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in forensic science.

Formanta- these are overtones amplified by resonators that characterize a given sound. Unlike the vocal tone, the formant is not formed in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it persists even when whispering. In other words, this is the band of concentration of sound frequencies that receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of resonators. With the help of formants we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important in the spectrum of a vowel sound are the first two formants, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person’s voice is characterized by its own voice formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.

The formant characteristics of consonants are very complex and difficult to determine, but vowels can be characterized with sufficient reliability using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of elevation of the tongue, and the second is the degree of advancement of the tongue). Below are tables illustrating the above. It should only be borne in mind that the quantitative data presented are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the vowel ratios, despite the discrepancy in numbers, remain approximately the same for everyone, i.e. the first formant, for example, of the vowel [i] will always be smaller than that of [a], and the second is larger.

The frequency characteristics of sounds are flexible, since the formants are correlated with the lowest fundamental tone, and it is also changeable. In addition, in live speech, each sound may have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound may differ from the middle and ending in formants. It is very difficult for a listener to identify sounds isolated from a stream of speech.

Diphthongization

In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs And diphthongs. A monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically uniform vowel.

A diphthong is a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special speech sound in which articulation begins differently than it ends. One diphthong element is always stronger than the other element. Diphthongs are of two types - descending And ascending.

In a descending diphthong, the first element is strong and the second weaker. Such diphthongs are characteristic of English. and German language: time, Zeit.

In an ascending diphthong, the first element is weaker than the second. Such diphthongs are typical for French, Spanish and Italian: pied, bueno, chiaro.

For example, in such proper names as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

In Russian language There are no diphthongs. The combination “vowel + th” in the words “paradise” and “tram” cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declensed, this quasi-diphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for the diphthong: “tram-em, para-yu”. But in Russian language meet diphthongoids.

A diphthongoid is a stressed heterogeneous vowel that has at the beginning or end the sound of another vowel, articulatory close to the main, stressed one. There are diphthongoids in the Russian language: house is pronounced “DuoOoM”.

Classification of consonants

There are 4 main articulatory features of consonants.

· Noisy voiceless words that are pronounced without voice (p, f, t, s, w).

Articulation method

The essence of this method is the nature of overcoming the obstacle.

· Occlusive consonants are formed by a stop that forms an obstacle to the air stream. They are divided into three groups:

a. explosive. Their bow ends with an explosion (p, b, t, d, k, g);

b. affricates. Their bow passes into the gap without explosion (ts, h);

c. stops nasals, which have a stop without a stop (m, n).

· Slotted consonants are formed by the friction of a stream of air passing through a passage narrowed by an obstacle. They are also called fricatives (Latin " frico" - true) or spirants (Latin " spiro" - blowing): (v, f, s, w, x);

· Occlusion-slit, which include the following sonants:

a. lateral(l), in which the bow and fissure are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);

b. trembling(p), with the alternating presence of a bow and a gap.

Active organ

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into three groups:

· Labial two types:

a. labiolabial (bilabial) (p, b, m)

b. labiodental (v, f)

· Lingual consonants, which are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual;

a. front-lingual divided into (according to the position of the tip of the tongue):

§ dorsal(Latin dorsum- dorsum): the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the front palate (s, d, c, n);

§ apical(lat. arekh- top, tip), alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng. [d]);

§ kakuminal(lat. cacumen- top), or bifocal, during articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upward (w, g, h) to the front palate, and the back is raised to the soft palate, i.e. There are two foci of noise generation.

b. although middle-language consonants, the middle part of the tongue approaches the hard palate, they are perceived as soft (th); this phenomenon is also called palatalization;

c. back-lingual consonants include (k, h). Plingual are divided into three groups:

§ reed (uvular), for example, French [r];

§ pharyngeal (pharyngeal) - Ukrainian (g), German [h];

§ Laryngeal: they are present as separate sounds in the Arabic language.

Passive organ

According to the passive organ, i.e. place of articulation, distinguished between dental (dental), alveolar, palatal and velar. When the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate, soft sounds are formed (th, l, th, s, etc., i.e. palatal). Velar sounds (k, g) are formed by bringing the tongue closer to the soft palate, which gives the consonant hardness.

Ternary(ternary)

/b/:/d/:/g/(bam-dam-gam) - opposition according to the active organ - labial - anterior tongue - posterior tongue.

In all languages ​​of the world there is a group opposition - vowel / consonant (but what about hieroglyphs and syllabic languages?)

DP /b/ in Russian

Sogl, labial, stop, non-nasal, noisy, sound, non-palatalysis.

Oppositions can also be:

Proportional

(the relationship between its members is proportional to the relationship between the members of others or other oppositions within a given language.)

Isolated (where there is no proportion, the opposition is called isolated)

Oppositions can also be:

Pure (simple) members differ in one way)

Mixed (complex) contrasting phonemes differ in several DPs)

NB!PHONEME is the shortest sound unit of a language, capable of being the only external distinguisher of the components of morphemes and words.

15. Phoneme variation; distribution of phonemes and their variants; limitation of the compatibility of phonemes on the syntagmatic axis.

The phoneme is realized differently in speech. Among the possible realizations of the phoneme, LFS supporters distinguish obligatory allophones(called, also shades and options), optional options And individual options.

MANDATORY - each of the lower positions, accordingly, phonetically, is strictly obligatory; replacement is impossible and would be perceived as an accent.

All obligatory allophones of 1 phoneme have equal rights, since their use is determined by the phonetic rules of the language.

But there is a main allophone - the most typical representative of a given phoneme. This is the least dependent on the environment. Allophone conditions.

There are COMBINATORY and POSITIONAL allophones -

COMBINATORY - arise under the influence of neighboring sounds (in language these are, for example, labialized)

POSITIONAL - the choice of positional is dictated by the position of the stress.

OPTIONAL OPTIONS - or “free variation” of a phoneme - when in any word where a given phoneme occurs in a certain specific position, it can have several options for implementation.

DISTRIBUTION OF A PHONEME is the totality of all possible allophones of a given phoneme. Allophones of 1 phoneme are in complementary distribution relationships. 2 different allophones of 1 phoneme cannot exist in 1 position.

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION:

1) CONTRAST - 2 units are able to appear in the same position and at the same time distinguish between symbolic units of language (at least morphemes) bal-mal, tak-tok

Attitude contrast. Distribution suggests that we are dealing with different phonemes.

2) ADDITIONAL - 2 units never meet in the same position. They will always be variants of 1 and that phoneme.

3) FREE VARIATION - 2 units are capable of appearing in 1 and the same position, but are not able to distinguish between the symbolic units of a given language system. These units are variants of the same unit.

SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONSHIPS are relationships into which units of the same level enter, connecting with each other in the process of speech or as part of units of a higher level.

Phoneme- the shortest sound unit of a given language, capable of being the only external distinguisher of exponents of morphemes and words.

Functions performed by phonemes

1)Constitutive, or tectonic. In this function, phonemes act as building material from which the sound shell of linguistic units endowed with meaning (morphemes, words and their forms) is created.
2) Distinctive, or distinctive. Phonemes can act as a word-discriminatory function, for example. bark - hole, or in a form-distinguishing manner, for example. hand - hand.

Phoneme distribution is the totality of all possible allophones of a given phoneme. Allophones of the same phoneme are in the relationship additional(non-overlapping) distribution (i.e. the first element is found in environments where the second is impossible).

The distribution of optional phoneme variants is of a different nature: the zones of their possible use coincide. This type is called free variation or non-contrastive parallelism.

CONCEPT OF DP. TYPES OF OPPOSITIONS.

DP-features that ensure the distinction of phonemes. They are identified in the opposition of phonemes. These are signs when only one feature distinguishes a phoneme from another.

Types of oppositions (Trubetskoy, basics of phonology)

-Private oppositions(1 of the members has the specified property, the other does not. An example is the opposite of voiceless/voice. The member of the opposition which is characterized by the presence of the attribute is called MARKED.

-Equivalent opposition-both meanings of DP are logically equal, neither is a simple negation of the other (for example, the opposition of different local series - the place of formation of consonants)

-Gradual oppositions-the members of which differ in the degree of manifestation of any feature. For example, opposition in rise or opposition of short, semi-long and long vowels.

Diff. pr.-pr., providing the difference between phonemes (there are also integral ones, nothing can be contrasted with them). They are identified in the opposite phonemes. To determine whether a sign is diff., you need to find a phoneme that is opposite ONLY by this sign.

*Opposition (opposition) is divided by:

1) REPEATABILITY. proportional (paired consonants) and isolated

2) NUMBER OF RECOGNITIONS, pure (only by recognition) and mixed (by several characteristics)

3) NUMBER OF PHONEMS. binary, 2 (t-t), ternary, 3 (n-t-to in place of image),

4) BY QUALITY RECOGNITION >Privative (if one phoneme has recognition and others do not, n., d-d, d-t) > Gradual opposition(degree of manifestation of recognition), degree of vowel rise: a-o-u

>Equivalent opp.(when recognitions are different, but equal, n., p-t, p-f)

A) Word stress

Methods of sound selection:

Accent functions:

1) Word-forming (

main emphasis, which opposes secondary, weaker . That.

Free

mobile motionless

Bound (fixed)

B) Syllable accent (or syllabic tone, syllable intonation )

Occurs where, throughout a single layer, various regular changes in the pitch of the fundamental tone of the voice or the intensity of the sound occur, which can, in opposition to each other, perform a distinctive function.

In the Chinese literary language, significant words have 4 syllable tones: 1) level, 2) rising, 3) falling-rising, 4) falling. In Vietnamese there are 6 tones (+ gradually descending and sharply descending).

Tonal (polytonic) languages– those that have a syllabic accent. Monotonic– which do not have contrasting types of tone movement within a syllable.

Polytonic ones include first of all, languages ​​of the syllabary structure (languages ​​in which a syllable is a stable sound formation that does not change either its composition or boundaries in the flow of speech), but also in a number of others. For example, in Swedish there is ACCURATE ACCENT, characterized by a smooth movement of pitch in a stressed syllable (either rising or falling), and grAvis, in which the tone within the stressed syllable rises and falls again, and again rises slightly in the overstressed syllable.

B) Phrase intonation

Covers all prosodic phenomena observed within the framework of syntactic units - phrases and sentences.

The most important component is melody- movement of the fundamental tone of the voice (raising and lowering), creating a tonal contour of the utterance and its parts, etc. connecting and dividing our speech. A significant decrease in tone indicates the completion of the message, and an increase indicates the incompleteness of the thought.

Melodica and intensity are used to emphasize certain parts of a statement.

The concept of intonation includes phrasal stress. Its neutral variety is syntagmatic stress(Shcherba) is a means of phonetic organization of syntagmas. Syntagma – a relatively small group of words united by proximity in the speech chain and a close semantic connection. In RL, syntagmatic stress consists in the fact that the last word of the syntagm (not the function word) is emphasized more than the others. Syntagmatic stress can be considered as establishing some gradation between word stress.

Logical stress observed in cases where the content of speech requires special highlighting of some parts of the statement I. Often considered as a deviation from the usual norms of syntagmatic stress. Logical y. can even violate the norms of verbal stress (“before eating or after eating?”)

The third component of intonation is speech rate, slowing down and speeding up.

Slowing down emphasizes more important words in a statement (a type of logical y.) or words that are most emotionally significant (emphatic stress). As the tempo increases, the less important parts of the utterance are usually pronounced.

Important components of intonation - pausing– placement of pauses and their gradation according to duration, and those timbre features that are associated with the expression of the general emotional mood of speech.

All components of intonation are used in close intertwining with each other.

Syntactic functions of intonation:

1) Intonation of interrogative sentences. Characterized by particularly high pronunciation of the word to which the question primarily refers. If this word is in the middle or beginning of a sentence, then a sharp increase in tone on its stressed syllable is invariably followed by a decrease. If this word is the last, then the entire sentence ends with a rise in tone. In a special interrogative sentence (which contains a question word), the melodic pattern turns out to be similar to the pattern of narrative sentences. And there, where interrogativeness is conveyed by inverted word order, interrogative intonation is not obligatory.

2) Intonation of enumerative constructions characterized by uniform movements of tone on each member of the series and pauses separating the members of the series from each other.

3) Intonation adjacency is created by a pause between words placed next to each other, forcing the listener to perceive them as unrelated to each other and attribute one of them in meaning to a word more distant in the text.

No. 21. Word stress. Different ways of highlighting a stressed syllable in different languages. Place of verbal stress in a word form. Proclitics and enclitics.

Verbal stress lies in the fact that in a word (or a group of words from the significant and auxiliary) with the help of certain sound means, one specific syllable, and sometimes other syllables, are emphasized, but to a lesser extent. Syllables that carry stress are stressed. The rest are unstressed.

Methods of sound selection:

Dynamic, or forceful (the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater intensity)

Quantitative or quantitative (syllable lengthening)

Musical, or tonic (distinguished by raising or lowering the tone)

Qualitative (special quality of sounds that make up a stressed syllable).

Methods of sound extraction most often appear in combination with each other.

Accent functions:

4) Word-forming ( stress in both a monosyllabic and a polysyllabic word acts as a sign of the word, an indicator of its “separateness”, some independence in a series of neighboring words). A special case of this function is “vertex-forming” (Trubetskoy): a stressed syllable makes up the vertex of a word, and unstressed syllables are adjacent to this vertex.

5) Distinctive (word- and form-distinguishing) – for languages ​​with free stress, in cases where two different words or its forms, having the same phonemic composition, differ only in the place of stress.

6) Word-delimiting (delimiting or “border signal” function") - for languages ​​with a fixed stress, when the place of stress is determined in relation to the word boundary (initial or final) and serves as an indicator of the proximity of the boundary.

In RY, the stress is more quantitative, but also dynamic. An important role is also played by a qualitative aspect - the timbre coloring of the stressed vowel.

There is a contrastive relationship between stressed and unstressed syllables of the same word. But word stress also expresses monosyllabic words. In the RY system, stressed and unstressed syllables are in a certain way opposed to each other, and this opposition remains valid in cases where within the framework of a particular utterance there are no unstressed syllables at all.

The unit formed and “united” by stress does not always fit the concept of a word that is used by orthography, or the one we encounter in dictionaries. For example: “under the window” with t.z. stress is one word, because there is only one emphasis . A segment joined together by stress and the impossibility of an internal pause is called accent word.

Words unable to have their own accent – clitics . (under, yes, same, would, whether). Depending on the position before or after the stressed word, they are divided into proclitics (YES, you know, UNDER THE WINDOW)And enclitics (why, I WOULD go). There are proclitics to which in certain cases the emphasis of the significant word shifts (on the field, behind the back). For the most part, clitics are function words, but they can also be “semi-functional” - pronouns or special forms of pronouns). Sometimes there is a coincidence in the phonemic composition of the clitic and the stressed word. For example: the conjunction “how” and the pronoun “how” coincide (as an elder, he wanted to help, but did not know how).

Sometimes there is more than one stress in one word. Usually in these cases the stresses are unequal. Eat main emphasis, which opposes secondary, weaker . That. the unity of the accented word created by the main stress is not violated; with the help of secondary stress, some division is created within a single semantic and phonetic whole. In Russian, secondary stress occurs only in longer compound words. In Germanic languages, secondary stresses in specific cases are strictly obligatory and occur very often.

Word stress can be free or bound.

Free– stress in those languages ​​in which it can be placed on any (initial, middle, final) syllables of the accented word. In each word and in each grammatical form of such a language, the place of stress is usually strictly fixed, so that hesitations (tvOrog-tvorOg) occur only in isolated cases.

Free stress can be mobile(beard-beard-beard-beard-beard) and motionless(peas-peas-peas-ogoroshit-peas) in the formation of word forms.

In languages ​​with free stress, the place of stress in a word form depends on its morphemic composition.

Bound (fixed)) – stress in those languages ​​in which it always/almost always falls on one syllable of the word defined in order 9 only on the initial, only on the final, only on the penultimate, etc.)

The place of stress does not depend on the morphemic composition of the word, but is determined in relation to the word boundary, and serves as an indicator of the proximity of this boundary.

Despite the wide distribution of stress, some languages ​​do not have it at all (Paleo-Asian, some Tungus-Manchu).

The word as a unit of language.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary - the vocabulary of a language. Vocabulary consists of words and fixed phrases.

A word is a two-sided unit that has a plan of content and a plan of expression.

The number of words amounts to hundreds of thousands, or rather cannot be counted, because... The vocabulary is constantly growing.

Lexicography deals with the collection and description of lexical units.

Semasiology deals with problems of meaning.

The word is the most familiar meaningful unit to us (as opposed to the morpheme).

Word vs. Morpheme.

Abstract on the topic Standards of literary language
Introduction
The culture of speech communication is understood as such a selection and organization of linguistic means that contribute to the most effective achievement of goals in this area of ​​speech communications, always taking into account literary norms.
Literary language is the historically established highest form of the national language, which has a rich lexical fund, an ordered grammatical structure and a developed system of functional styles.
Signs of a literary language:
1. traditionality and written recording;
2. universally binding norms and their codification, i.e. consolidation and description in dictionaries and grammars;
Non-literary variants include territorial dialects, social jargons, and vernaculars.
. Territorial dialects (dialects) are local varieties of language, this is the language of the villagers, going back into the past.
. Social jargons are a type of language used by different social groups.
. Vernacular is the language of uneducated urban residents.
In the last decade, a transition zone has been formed between the literary language and non-literary variants - a common jargon.
The main stages of the formation and development of the Russian literary language.
1) the formation of the Old Russian literary language (10-11 centuries);
2) Old Russian literary language (11-17 centuries);
3) Russian literary language of the 18th century;
4) modern Russian literary language (from Pushkin to the present day);
The norm of a literary language is the generally accepted use of linguistic means: sounds, stress, intonation, words, their forms, syntactic structures. The concept of norm is one of the key ones in linguistics. It is the norm that underlies the creation of a literary language. The literary language owes its emergence and existence to the norm. The main property of norms is that they are binding on all speakers and writers of Russian. We can point out two more important properties of norms: their stability and, at the same time, historical variability. If norms were not stable, if they were easily subject to various kinds of influences, the linguistic connection between generations would be disrupted. The stability of norms also ensures, in many respects, the continuity of the cultural traditions of the people, the possibility of the emergence and development of a powerful stream of national literature.
At the same time, the stability of norms is not absolute, but relative. The norm, like everything in a language, slowly but continuously changes under the influence of colloquial speech, local dialects, various social and professional groups of the population, borrowings, etc.
Changes in language entail the emergence of variants of certain norms. This means that the same grammatical meaning, the same human thought can be expressed differently, through different words, their forms and combinations, using different phonetic means.
The rigor of literary and linguistic norms in the 19th and 20th centuries became a mandatory sign of education. Currently, the norm loses its attribute of obligatory nature and becomes recommended.
Standards of literary language
Literary correct speech is constructed in accordance with language norms. Norm is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development. It is historical and can change one way or another over time. Studying the state of language in its speech manifestations (fiction and scientific literature, live speech, oral and written speech in the media, etc.), linguists identify certain norms inherent in it at this stage of its existence. The establishment of a norm and its assimilation by native speakers helps preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from the unjustified penetration of dialectal, colloquial and slang elements. It is compliance with the norm that allows the verbal means we use to perform the main function - to be a means of communication.
The norm can be imperative (Latin imperativus - not allowing choice and dispositive (Latin dispositivus - allowing choice). Violation of an imperative norm is regarded as poor command of the Russian language. Imperative norms include violation of the norms of declension, conjugation, belonging to grammatical gender, stress norms in some forms, etc. The dispositive norm allows options - stylistic or completely neutral.
There are orthoepic, accentological, lexical, grammatical and spelling norms. Their assimilation by native speakers of the national language occurs naturally if in early childhood a person hears correct, standardized speech. Mastery of norms continues at school and other educational institutions. But in speech practice, despite this, one or another violation of the norm occurs very often. This drawback can be overcome if you systematically work with various kinds of dictionaries and reference books.
Formation of literary language norms
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources for establishing language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.
Thus, the compilers of the dictionary of grammatical variants used sources stored at the Institute of Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences:
1) a card index of grammatical fluctuations, which was compiled on materials of Soviet artistic prose during 1961-1972;
2) materials of a statistical survey on newspapers of the 60-70s. The total sample amounted to one hundred thousand options;
3) recordings on music libraries of modern colloquial speech;
4) materials from the answers to the questionnaire;
5) data from all modern dictionaries, grammars and special studies on grammatical variants.
The compilers of the dictionary did a tremendous amount of work to determine which of the grammatical forms should be considered the norm, which should be limited in use, and which should be considered incorrect.
How do you pronounce: when or when? Where or Where? sometimes or sometimes?
Why are questions asked about the pronunciation of words when, where, sometimes?
This is explained by the fact that in a literary language the letter g in position before vowels, sonorant consonants (p, l, m, n) and conveys the sound [g]: newspaper, gnome, thunder, hum, nail. When the sound [g] is formed, the back of the tongue closes with the soft palate; noise occurs at the moment when a stream of exhaled air opens the closed organs of speech. Therefore, the sound [g] is called explosive, instantaneous.
Southern Russian dialects, including the Don ones, are characterized by [g] slotted. When a slit [r] is formed, the back of the tongue does not close, but only moves closer to the soft palate, and a gap is formed between them. The noise arises from the friction of exhaled air against the edges of the adjacent organs of speech. This sound is indicated by the letter “u”.
In the Russian literary language (with rare exceptions), only the pronunciation of [g] plosive is permissible. The exception is the word god in indirect cases: god, god, about god and sometimes, then, always. In them it was necessary to pronounce [g] fricative: bo[g]a, bo[g]om, about bo[g]e, ino[g]da, then[g]da, all[g]da.
It was important for scientists to find out what sound the majority makes and whether the norm should be changed.
At the end of words, the sound [g], like other voiced consonants, is deafened: shore[g]a - bere[k], but[g]a - but[k], la[g]u - la[k ]. In the South Russian dialect [g] at the end of words also turns into a voiceless consonant, but not in [k], as in the literary language, but in [x]: bere[g]a - bere[x], but [g]a - but[x].
Thus, a violation of one orthoepic norm, i.e., pronunciation [g] instead of [g], leads to a violation of other pronunciation norms.
Borrowed words, as a rule, obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian literary language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features.
Thus, in most borrowed words, the consonants before [e] are softened: ka[t"]et, faculty[t"]et, [t"]theory, [d"]emon, [d"]espot, [n"]nerves , [s"]section, [s"]series, mu[z"]ey, newspaper [z"]eta, [r"]enta, [r"]ector.
However, in a number of words of foreign language origin, the firmness of the consonants before [e] is preserved: sh[te]psel, o[te]l, s[te]nd, ko[de]ks, mo[de]l, ka[re], kash [ne], e[ne]rgia, mor[ze], k[re]do, etc.
How is it recommended to pronounce the words given in the Questionnaire? We find the answer in the “Spelling Dictionary”: a) artery [te and additional. those], bacteria [those and additional. te], brunette [ne], inert [ne], canned food [se], criterion [te and additional. those], port wine [ve and ext. ve], progress [re and additional. re], strategist [those and additional. te], topic [te], overcoat [not]; b) sandwich [te], degassing [de and de], dean [de and additional. de], demobilization [de and additional. de], intensive [te], international [te], instance [ze and additional. ze].
The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:
norm of the 1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;
the 2nd degree norm is neutral, allowing equivalent options;
the norm of the 3rd degree is more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide language means into good and bad, but indicates their communicative expediency.
The historical change in the norms of literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in social living conditions, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.
Types of norms
Accentological norms.
Peculiarities of stress in the Russian language. In Russian, the stress varies; it can be on any syllable.
In other Indo-European languages, stress is usually assigned to a specific syllable: in English it falls mainly on the first syllable, in French on the last, and in Polish on the second from the end.
It is known that the word in Russian is divided into morphemes (root, prefix, suffix, ending). In Russian, stress can fall on any part of a word.
Stress in the Russian language can be fixed (in all forms of a word it falls on the same syllable) and movable (when the word changes, the stress changes its place).
If the noun has variants in some forms (locksmith-mechanics, tenors-tenors), then the stress in one case will be fixed, in the other - movable.
Stress is of great importance in the Russian language and performs various functions.
The words “cotton”, “flour”, “organ”, “atlas”, “soar” when placing emphasis turn into ten words with different meanings: cotton - cotton, flour - flour, organ - organ, atlas - atlas, soar - soar . Such words are called homographs. They are written the same, but pronounced differently.
For the words “hands” and “words”, the stress indicates the grammatical form: hands are the nominative plural, and hands are the genitive singular.
In the words “protein”, “drank”, “my”, stress helps to distinguish the meaning of words and their forms: protein is the parent case of the word squirrel, and protein is the nominative case of a word that names a component of an egg or part of an eye. “The diversity of stress,” writes the famous linguist R.A. Avanesov, “makes it in the Russian language an individual feature of each individual word.”
That is why in ancient manuscripts each word was often marked with an accent. That is why in textbooks and books for reading intended for foreigners, emphasis must be placed. That is why it can be difficult for those for whom Russian is a native language to determine where to put the emphasis so as not to make mistakes.
The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases because for some words there are variations in stress. For example: explosive - explosive, drive - drive, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, agreement - agreement, meatballs - meatballs.
Literary language strives to avoid such fluctuations. How?
1. Both options are saved to distinguish the meaning of words. So, the word chaos means “in ancient Greek mythology - a yawning abyss filled with fog and darkness, from which everything that exists came” and chaos - “complete disorder, confusion”, jagged - “like a tooth, similar to a tooth” and jagged - - “consisting of teeth, forming teeth.”
In oral speech, people sometimes try to differentiate the word quarter by stress: 1) quarter - “a part of the city, limited by four intersecting streets” and 2) quarter - “a quarter of the year (three months).” This distinction is considered an error. The word quarter has in both meanings the stress on the last syllable.
2. Both stresses are preserved if one of them indicates that the word belongs to folk poetic speech. Compare: well done - well done, maiden - maiden, silk - silk, silver - silver.
In other cases, the fate of the options is different.
In order to avoid mistakes in placing emphasis, you should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another of them can be used. To do this, it is recommended to use special dictionaries and reference books. It is best to resort to the help of the “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language”. It provides a system of normative marks (unified for assessing pronunciation, accent and morphological variants), which looks like this.
1. Equal options. They are united by the union and: waves and waves; sparkling and sparkling; autarky and autarky; barge and barge; costume jewelry and costume jewelry; salmon and salmon. From the point of view of correctness, these options are the same.
2. Variants of the norm, of which one is recognized as the main one:
a) litter “acceptable” (additional): cottage cheese and additional. cottage cheese; gave additional gave; everyday life and extras boudin; cooking and extra cooking. The first option is preferable, the second is assessed as less desirable, but still within the correct range. Most often used in colloquial speech;
b) the mark “acceptably outdated” (additionally obsolete): industry and additional. outdated industry; got ready and extra. outdated got ready; hypocrisy and more outdated hypocrisy.
Pometta indicates that the option she evaluates is gradually being lost, but in the past it was the main one.
Of the two options, one of which is recognized as the main one, it is recommended to use the first one, which is considered preferable.
The dictionary also includes options that are outside the literary norm. To indicate these options, so-called prohibitive marks are introduced:
1) “not recommended” (not a recommendation) - alphabet! not rec. -- alphabet; pamper! not rec. pamper; teenage! not rec. teenage; treaty! not rec. negotiable.
This litter may have the additional characteristic "obsolete" (not rec. obsolete). Variants bearing this marking represent the former norm. Today they are beyond the norm, for example: dialogue! not rec. outdated dialogue; edge! not rec. outdated point; revolver! not rec. outdated revolver; Ukrainians! not rec. outdated Ukrainians;
2) “wrong” (wrong) - athlete! not right. athlete; not right. athlete; kitchen! not right. kitchen; agreement! not right. agreement; prey! not right. mining;
3) “grossly wrong” (grossly wrong) - document! grossly wrong. document; engineers! grossly wrong. engineer; tool! grossly wrong. tool; petition! grossly wrong, petition.
Anyone whose speech should be exemplary should not use variants with prohibitive marks.
A number of stress options are associated with the professional sphere of use. There are words in which a specific emphasis is traditionally accepted only in a narrowly professional environment; in any other environment it is perceived as a mistake. The dictionary records these options. For example:
dubbing, -a \ in professional. speech dubbing
spark \ in professional speech spark
ammonia, -a \ ammonia chemists
epilepsy \ epilepsy among doctors
syringe, -, pl. -s, ev \ among doctors units. syringe, plural -s, -s.
flute, -aya, -oe \ musicians have flute
compass, -a, pl. -s, -oe \ sailors have a compass.
Orthoepic norms.
Orthoepy (orthos - “straight, correct”, epos - “speech”) is a set of rules of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words.
The norms of Russian literary pronunciation developed in the 18th century. together with the grammatical and phonetic system of the literary language and were finally established in the Pushkin era. But this does not mean that they remained unchanged in the future.
Pronunciation is significantly influenced by spelling, which quite often diverges from pronunciation. Involuntarily, especially in the initial period of learning, those reading a text try to pronounce words the way they are written. Gradually this pronunciation becomes familiar. For example, under the influence of a letter they say [that], of course, big[ogo] instead of [shto], kone[sh]o, big[shov].
Deviations from the norm, becoming widespread, become fixed in speech, and therefore new pronunciation variants arise, which can then become the norm. So, according to the old literary norm, the reflexive particle -s was pronounced firmly: fight[s], dare[s], dress[s], wash[s]. Nowadays this pronunciation is very rare and is perceived as outdated. Soft pronunciation has become the norm: I fight[s"], I dare[s"], I dress[s"], I wash[s"]. Another example: in verbs with the suffix -iva after [g], [k], [x], according to the old norm, the back-lingual sounded firmly: otpu[g]vat, repay[k]vat, smear[hja]vat, now it is pronounced softly : let go[g"i]vat, pay[k"i]vat, smear[x"i]vat.
Maintaining consistency in pronunciation is important. Spelling errors always interfere with the perception of the content of speech: the listener’s attention is distracted by various incorrect pronunciations, and the statement is not perceived in its entirety. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the communication process. Therefore, the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses.
What pronunciation rules should you know?
1. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose clarity and clarity of sound; they are pronounced with weakened articulation.
The vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: ravine - [a]enemy, autonomy - [a]vt[a]nomiya, milk - mol[a ]ko.
In the remaining unstressed syllables (i.e., in all unstressed syllables except the first pre-stressed one), in place of the letters o and a after hard consonants, a very short (reduced) unclear sound is pronounced, which in different positions varies from a pronunciation close to [s], to a pronunciation close to [a]. Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the letter [ъ]. For example: head - head, side - side, road - d[a]rog; city ​​- city - watchman - watchman, for the house - for d[a]m, for the floor - for p[a]l, young - m6l[a]d, gardener - s[b]dov6d, steamboat - p[b]ship, on the water - n[b] water; squeezed out - squeezed out, worked - worked.
2. The letters e and i in the pre-stressed syllable indicate the sound intermediate between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is indicated by the sign [ie]: nickel - p[ie]so, feather - p[ie]ro.
3. The vowel [and] after a solid consonant, a preposition, or when pronouncing a word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical institute - medical institute, from spark - from spark, laughter and grief laughter [s] grief. If there is a pause, [and] does not turn into [s]: and came up and said, laughter and grief.
The absence of vowel reduction interferes with the normal perception of speech, since it reflects not the literary norm, but dialectal features. So, for example, the letter-by-letter (not reduced) pronunciation of the word [milk] is perceived by us as a vocal dialect, and the replacement of unstressed vowels with [a] without reduction - [malako] - as a strong akan.
The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are deafening and assimilation.
4. In Russian speech, there is a mandatory deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word. We pronounce hle[n] - bread, sa[t] - garden, smo[k] - smog, lyubo[f"] - love, etc. This deafening is one of the characteristic features of Russian literary speech. It should be taken into account that the consonant [g] at the end of a word always turns into a paired dull sound [k]: le[k] - lay down, poro[k] - threshold, etc. Pronouncing the sound [x] in this case unacceptable as a dialect: le[x], poro[x].The exception is the word god - bo[x].
Living pronunciation in its past and present state is reflected in poetic speech, in poetry, where one or another rhyme speaks of the pronunciation of the corresponding sounds. So, for example, in the poems of A. S. Pushkin, the deafening of voiced consonants is evidenced by the presence of such rhymes as treasure - brother, slave - arap, time - hour. The deafening of [g] in [k] is confirmed by rhymes such as Oleg - century, snow - rivers, friend - sound, friend - torment.
5. In the position before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v], the sound [g] is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant. Only in a few words, Old Church Slavonic in origin - bo[u]a, [у]ожь, bla[u]o, bo[u]aty and derivatives from them, do the fricative velar consonant [у] sound. Moreover, in modern literary pronunciation and in these words, [y] is replaced by [g]. It is most stable in the word [y] lord.
6. [G] is pronounced like [x] in combinations gk and gch: le[hk"]ii - easy, le[hk]o - easy.
7. In combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants (as well as voiceless and voiced), the first of them is likened to the second.
If the first of them is voiced, and the second is unvoiced, the first sound is deafened: lo[sh]ka - spoon, pro[p]ka - cork. If the first is unvoiced, and the second is voiced, the first sound is voicing: [z]doba - baking, [z]rubit - ruin.
Before consonants [l], [m], [n], [r], which do not have paired voiceless ones, and before [v], assimilation does not occur. The words are pronounced as they are written: sve[tl]o, [shv]ryat.
8. Similarity also occurs when consonants are combined. For example: the combinations ssh and zsh are pronounced as a long hard consonant [sh]: ni[sh]y - lower, vys[sh]yy - highest, ra[sh]yy - make noise.
9. Combinations szh and zzh are pronounced as double hard [zh]: ra[zh]at - unclench, [zh]zhiyu - with life, fry - [zh]rish.
10. Combinations zzh and zhzh inside the root are pronounced as a long soft sound [zh"]. Nowadays, instead of a long soft [zh"], a long hard sound [zh] is increasingly used: po[zh"]e and po[zh]e - later, dro[zh"]i dro[zh]i --yeast.
11. The combination сч is pronounced as a long soft sound [ш"], just like the sound conveyed in writing by the letter ь: [ш"]астье - happiness, [ш"]ет - counting.
12. The combination zch (at the junction of the root and the suffix) is pronounced as a long soft sound [sh"]: prika [sh"]ik - clerk, obra[sh"]ik - sample.
13. Combinations tch and dch are pronounced as a long sound [ch"]: dokla[ch"]ik - speaker, le[ch"]ik - pilot.
14. The combinations tts and dts are pronounced as a long sound [ts]: two [ts]at - twenty, gold [ts]e - little gold.
15. In the combinations stack, zdn, stl, the consonant sounds [t] and [d] fall out: charming - charming, po[zn]o - late, che[sn]y - honest, learning ]vivy - sympathetic.
If you write the words “sister”, “tear”, “spring” in the nominative plural, then in all words, in place of the unstressed “e”, an accent “e” appears, denoting the sound [o] and the softness of the previous consonant. The appearance of the vowel [o] in such a phonetic position is a characteristic feature of the Russian language. Now the remark of the German scientist M. Vasmer, the author of the “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, will be clear, who in the dictionary entry “Cross” wrote: “Borrowed from Church Slavonic, because otherwise it would have been expected.”
Morphological norms.
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, i.e. grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.
The peculiarity of the Russian language is that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the options may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, sphere of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express a thought, diversify your speech, and testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.
The largest group consists of options, the use of which is limited to the functional style or genre of speech. Thus, in colloquial speech one often encounters the genitive plural forms orange, tomato instead of oranges, tomatoes; from her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and spoken speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm.
The real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to denote varieties and types of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, oil, salt, marble. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use.
Options may vary in how long they are used.
Of particular interest are variants that violate the norm of the literary language and are classified as vernacular or dialectal. For example: lie down - lie down, he walks - he walks, they walk - they walk. Lie is a colloquial form; he walks, they walk - dialect form.
There are many morphological variants in the Russian language that are considered identical and equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in the spring - in the spring, doors - doors.
The words “keys”, “rails”, “sheets”, “shoes”, “giraffes”, “shutters” in the nominative singular case have variant endings and their relationship to the norm is different. Thus, according to standard dictionaries, the words keys, giraffes, shutters each have two literary forms: giraffe and giraffe, shutter and shutter, key and keys. In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language: rail, and rail is incorrect, shoe, and shoes and shoe is incorrect.
Let's pay attention to the genitive plural of nouns: oranges - oranges, tangerines - tangerines, lemons - lemons, tomatoes - tomatoes, eggplants - eggplants, but: apples - apples!
The genitive case of the plural of nouns also requires attention: socks - socks, boots - boots, stockings - stockings.
In the Russian language there are many masculine and feminine words to designate people by their position, profession, physical, moral, ethical qualities, by their appearance: student - student, schoolboy - schoolgirl, teacher - teacher, athlete - athlete, skier - skier. a liar is a liar, a slacker is a slacker. But there are words that can be applied to both men and women. These are common nouns.
Here is what Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov (1781-1864) wrote about these words in “Russian Grammar”, which was used by A. S. Pushkin and which was published in 1874 in the 12th edition: “Attached herewith is a list of common nouns in alphabetical order gender, from which it can be seen that most of these nouns belong to the vernacular; those ending in iitsa, dtsa are borrowed from the Church Slavonic language.”
The following is a list of 126 common nouns.
Most of those listed by A.Kh. Vostokov's words are still preserved in the Russian language: tramp, grumbler, poor thing, turntable, upstart, wretched, gulena, reveler, fidget, vein, bully, stutterer, dirty, onlooker, cripple, baby, gourmet, baby, slob, etc. Some words have fallen out of use, forgotten and even now incomprehensible: gomoza, gonosha, bail, pronoza, zashelshchina, copa, taranta, etc.
For words of general gender, adjectives are placed in the masculine or feminine gender: Misha is a big sleepyhead. Nina is a big sleepyhead. This student is an amazing loser. My sister is an amazing mess.
With nouns denoting a position, profession, rank, title, difficulties arising in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words.
What are they? Firstly, in the Russian language there are names of the masculine gender and there are no parallels for them in the feminine gender, or (much less often) there are only names of the feminine gender. For example: rector, businessman, financier, parliamentarian, architect, policeman, driver (on a train), teacher, lieutenant, major, academician, associate professor, typist (types), laundress, nanny, milliner, manicurist, dowry worker, midwife, lacemaker , seamstress-machine operator.
Secondly, there are names of both masculine and feminine gender, both of them are neutral. For example: athlete - athlete, poet - poetess, sorcerer - witch, hero - heroine, teacher - teacher, novice - novice, monk - nun, singer - singer, citizen - citizen, horseman - horsewoman, pilot - pilot, writer - writer.
Thirdly, both forms are formed (both masculine and feminine), but feminine words differ in meaning or stylistic coloring. Thus, the words professor, doctor have the meaning “professor’s wife”, “doctor’s wife” and a colloquial connotation, and as job titles they become colloquial. The generic parallels cashier, watchwoman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, watchwoman, ticket attendant are classified as colloquial, and doctor - as colloquial.
Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language. Such cases are increasing. According to scientists, the number of titles that do not have a female gender parallel is increasing every year, for example: cosmophysicist, television commentator, television reporter, bionicist, cyberneticist, etc., while this position can be held by a woman.
What way out do writers and speakers find?
According to linguists, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts and business correspondence, a syntactic indication of the gender of the named person is increasingly used, when with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable and do not violate the norms of the literary language.
The use of masculine nouns, which do not have a feminine word-formation parallel, as names for women has led to increased fluctuations in the forms of agreement. The following options became possible: the young physicist Yakovleva - the young physicist Yakovleva, the first cosmonaut Tereshkova - the first cosmonaut Tereshkova, our director Moiseeva - our director Moiseeva.
In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical Correctness of Russian Speech”, regarding this use of definitions it is said: In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the defined noun is accepted: the outstanding mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya; new Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi; famous cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova and others. A violation of the norm of agreement, registered in oral speech, is noted only in the form by him. case. Agreement in meaning with words-names that have a masculine form cannot be carried out throughout the entire system of case inflections: in indirect cases in these cases only agreement in the masculine form is possible, cf.: to our guide Ivanova; visiting the famous composer Pakhmutova; to the new director Petrova, etc.
Perhaps, in order to some extent resolve the issue of using masculine names when describing women, legislators of the Russian language, compilers of normative grammars and dictionaries should decide and translate the names of women such as cashier, accountant, hairdresser, diploma student, ticket attendant, watchwoman, janitor, director, which are widely used, are classified as neutral words, and newly appeared ones, for example, scuba diver, aquanaut, asphalt worker, barmaid, breaststroke swimmer, helicopter pilot, astronaut, archer, etc., are classified as neutral.
The most common grammatical errors are related to the use of gender of nouns. You can hear incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel, patent leather shoes. But the nouns rail, shampoo are masculine, and corn, parcel, shoe are feminine, so we should say: railway rail, French shampoo, big corn, custom parcel, patent leather shoe.
Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions in speech. Thus, the difference in semantic and stylistic shades between synonymous constructions with the prepositions due and thanks is not always taken into account. The preposition thanks retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb to thank, therefore it is used to indicate the reason that causes the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the correct treatment. If there is a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks and the indication of a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: I did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it is correct to say - because of illness.
In addition, the prepositions thanks to, contrary to, according to, towards according to modern standards of literary language are used only with the dative case: thanks to activity, contrary to the rules, according to the schedule, towards the anniversary.
Syntactic norms.
To express a thought, you need to combine words into a sentence. A peculiarity of the Russian language, as scientists believe, is that in it, compared to other languages, the law of “word order” does not apply to the same extent. For some proposals it may be free. The famous syntaxist A.M. Peshkovsky (1878-1933) gave an example: I came home last night. This sentence has 120 options, which do not differ in meaning and do not have any shades. Wed: Yesterday evening I came home; Last night I came home; Yesterday evening I came home. The same can be said about sentences: I will go for a walk tomorrow morning; The student completed the assignment diligently yesterday.
In most cases, word order in Russian performs grammatical, communicative and stylistic functions.
So, in the sentences There was a clock hanging near the door and The clock was hanging near the door, the word order in the first version emphasizes that the clock, and nothing else, was hanging near the door. In the second, the place where the clock hung is emphasized.
There are often errors associated with the use of prepositions. How to say: I miss you, I miss you?
A more ancient norm was the use of the preposition po and the pronoun in the prepositional case: by whom, by what, by him, by us, by you. The nouns in this construction had the form of the dative case: by father, by mother, by friend.
Since nouns with the preposition by had the form of the dative case, pronouns began to take on the same form: by whom, by him, by what, by them. Prepositional forms according to whom, according to him, according to what are currently outdated and are rare.
They retain the old form of the prepositional case after the preposition by the pronoun we, you: by us, by you. The use of the dative case for these pronouns (for us, for you) is considered a violation of the literary norm.
Nouns depending on the verbs grieve, cry, miss, yearn, from the nouns grief, melancholy, sadness, mourning, etc. after the preposition po and synonymous with it are placed in the dative case: miss mother, yearn for the Motherland, be sad for the family. The use of the prepositional case form to cry for a brother, mourning for a son is considered obsolete. But: miss your father, grieve your brother, grieve your son.
The prepositions na and v require special attention. They indicate staying in some place or moving to some place. The preposition c shows that the movement is directed inside something (into the garden, into the house, into the city) or denotes being inside (in the garden, in the house, in the city). The preposition na indicates that the movement is directed towards the surface of something (a mountain, a tree, a roof), or means being on some surface (on a roof, on a deck, on an observation deck). But more often the choice of preposition is determined by tradition.
With the names of states, regions, territories, regions, cities, villages, hamlets, villages, the preposition in is used: in Russia, in England, in the Krasnodar Territory, in the village of Veshenskaya, in the village of Molitovka.
With the names of islands and peninsulas the preposition na is used: on Kamchatka, on Dikson, on Capri.
The preposition na is used with the names of avenues, boulevards, squares, streets; preposition in - with the names of lanes, passages: on Vernadsky Boulevard, on Victory Square, on Suvorov Street, in Banny Lane, in Serov Passage.
If the names of mountain areas have a singular form, then the preposition na is used, if the plural form is the preposition v. Wed: in the Caucasus, on Elbrus, in the Pamirs and in the Alps, in the Himalayas.
The prepositions in and on in some constructions are antonymous to the prepositions from and with: went to Stavropol - returned from Stavropol, went to the Caucasus - came from the Caucasus.
Some residents of the Rostov region make the mistake of using the preposition s, saying: came from school, came from the area. Since these constructions are antonymous with the constructions went to school, went to the area, the norm requires using the preposition from, and not with: came from school, came from the area.
Lexical norms.
Lexical norms, i.e., the rules for using words in speech, require special attention. M. Gorky taught that words must be used with the strictest precision. The word must be used in the meaning (literal or figurative) that it has and which is recorded in Russian language dictionaries. Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. There are many examples of inaccurate use of individual words. So, the adverb somewhere has one meaning - “in some place”, “unknown where” (music started playing somewhere). However, recently this word has been used to mean “about, approximately, once”: Somewhere in the 70s of the 19th century; The classes were planned to be held sometime in June; The plan was fulfilled by about 102%.
The frequent use of the word order in the meaning of “a little more”, “a little less” should be considered a speech defect. In Russian there are words to denote this concept: approximately, approximately. But some people use the word order instead. Here are examples from the speeches: About 800 people studied in city schools before the revolution, and now there are about 10 thousand; The living area of ​​the constructed houses is about 2.5 million square meters, and the green ring around the city is about 20 thousand hectares; The damage caused to the city amounts to about 300 thousand rubles.
Words somewhere, of the order in the meaning of “about”, “approximately” are often found in colloquial speech:
- How many examples are selected on the topic?
- Somewhere around 150.
An error is also the incorrect use of the verb lay down instead of put. The verbs lay down and put down have the same meaning, but put down is a commonly used literary word, and lay down is a colloquial word. The expressions sound unliterary: I put the book back in its place; He puts the folder on the table, etc. In these sentences, the verb to put should be used: I put the books in place; He puts the folder on the table. It is also necessary to pay attention to the use of prefixed verbs put, fold, fold. Some people say put it in its place, put the numbers together, instead of put it in its place correctly, add the numbers.
Violations of lexical norms are sometimes due to the fact that speakers confuse words that are similar in sound but different in meaning. For example, the verbs provide and submit are not always used correctly. Sometimes we hear incorrect expressions like: The Word is presented to Petrov; Let me introduce you to Dr. Petrov. The verb to provide means “to give the opportunity to take advantage of something” (to provide an apartment, vacation, position, credit, loan, rights, independence, word, etc.), and the verb to present means “to transfer, give, present something, to anyone" (submit a report, certificate, facts, evidence; submit for an award, an order, a title, for a prize, etc.). The above sentences with these verbs correctly sound like this: The floor is given to Petrov; Let me introduce you to Dr. Petrov.
The words differ in their meaning: college (secondary or higher educational institution in England, USA) and college (secondary educational institution in France, Belgium, Switzerland); effective (effective, leading to the desired results) and spectacular (producing a strong impression, effect); offensive (causing offense, insulting) and touchy (easily offended, inclined to see offense, insult where there is none).
Recently, the following phrases have begun to be heard more and more often in radio and television programs: A team of athletes is doomed to win; The ensemble's performance is doomed to success; He is doomed to be a genius; The planned events are doomed to prosperity. Speakers do not take into account the origin of the word, nor its internal form, nor its original meaning. In all of the above sentences we are talking about positive results (victory, success, prosperity), while the verb to condemn means “to prescribe, by force of circumstances to forcefully put in some conditions.”
To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to take explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language and special reference literature.
Spelling standards.
Spelling norms cover rules of spelling and punctuation. Unlike pronunciation norms, they practically have no variations. Spelling rules include the spelling of vowels, consonants, letters ъ and ь, capital letters, as well as spellings combined and with a hyphen (dash). Punctuation rules include the use of punctuation marks: periods, commas, semicolons, colons, thyrsus, quotation marks, etc. Of course, both rules have changed over time for various reasons. The greatest changes in Russian spelling were made by the reforms of Peter I of 1708-1710. and government decrees of 1917-1918. As a result, “extra” letters were removed from the alphabet, i.e. conveying the same sounds. So, in the place ъ (yat) they began to write e, in the place and (fits) - f, in the place i (and decimal) - and so on. Outdated forms (such as red, blue) were eliminated, and the spelling of many words was defined or clarified (oak, not oak). The rules for using punctuation marks have also changed over time.
In 1956, for the first time, a single set of “Rules of Spelling and Punctuation”, mandatory for everyone, was published, prepared by a group of the country’s largest linguists. In this code, the existing rules were clarified and supplemented, the use of spellings was regulated, and the spelling of those words that were not subject to the accepted rules was established in the dictionary order.
The “Rules” of 1956 carried out only partial regulation of Russian spelling; they left a large number of exceptions, difficult to explain and illogical rules. Taking this into account, the authors of the new edition of these “Rules,” although they do not aim to reform spelling, still intend to make certain changes to them. These changes cover the following main cases:
- The use of the letter e after hard consonants: the list of corresponding words is expanded to include not only foreign words (such as racket), but also Russian ones themselves, formed from abbreviations (such as beteer, kagebeshnik). At the same time, attention is drawn to the inadmissibility of writing e after hard consonants at the end of a word (karat; tour).
- Writing n or nn in full adjectives that have the same form as participles. It is proposed that the choice of spelling be associated not with the presence or absence of a prefix, as was the case in the old rules, but with the type of verb. In formations from imperfective verbs should be written with one n (fried), from perfective verbs - two n (fried).
- Writing compound adjectives: draws attention to a trend that emerges when examining modern spelling practice. Hyphenation is most often found in compound adjectives, the first component of which has an adjective suffix (planned-market, party-state, civil-law). Otherwise, complex adjectives tend to be written together: pan-European, human rights, five-star.
- The use of capital letters in the compound names of government agencies, public organizations, state higher educational institutions and enterprises. In such names, it is recommended to capitalize only the first word, not counting proper names: St. Petersburg State Technical University, Ural Machine-Building Plant.
- The use of capital letters in the names of Christian holidays (Christmas, Trinity Day), in the words God, Lord, etc.
- Writing words with the prepositive part maxi=, mini=, midi=, in which it is recommended to use a hyphen: maxi-fashion, maxi-coat; mini-ballet, mini-war, midi skirt.
An interesting innovation awaits users of the new edition of the “Rules of Spelling and Punctuation” - the possibility of variant spelling, albeit in strictly defined cases. We are talking about cases where the same phenomenon can be considered in two ways. For example, in full participles (adjectives) from imperfective verbs, the compilers of the new edition intend to recommend writing neither in the presence of dependent nouns in the instrumental case with the meaning of the subject (soldier wounded by shrapnel) or time circumstances (recently wounded soldier). If there are other dependent words, it is allowed to write one or two n (wounded - a soldier wounded in the stomach). Another example of acceptable spelling variations: way/not/far - just a stone's throw away; they live /not/richly; the hour was /not/late; left, but/not/for long. The choice of option depends on the intention of the writer. If he wants to emphasize the negation, then he can write in these constructions not separately, if he does not want to, then together.
Everyone who uses written Russian can expect the publication of a new academic dictionary called “Russian Spelling Dictionary” (the previous one was called “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” and went through almost twenty editions). What new will the user find in the Russian Spelling Dictionary? First of all, its volume is increased by half, which covers about 160 thousand units. This number includes many new formations that were not previously included in standard dictionaries of the Russian language, as well as some colloquial, slang, obsolete and even dialect (regional) words. Here we should also add the terminology of economics and business, programming and computer technology, and church and religious vocabulary that has been updated over the last decade. More derivative words are included, as well as phrases equated to the words (subject to fire - fire at), and the same kind of verbal compounds (booster, repaired-repaired, constantly operating), as well as prepositional-case combinations similar to adverbs ( basically on the go), etc.
The “Russian Spelling Dictionary” differs from previous dictionaries of this type in the nature of the vocabulary. For the first time, words and phrases written with a capital letter are introduced, for example: names like Hamlet, Plyushkin, used in the plural in a figurative sense (Hamlets, Plyushkins), geographical names in which common nouns are used not in their usual meaning (Sosnovy Bor, Ursa Major), abbreviations that have a common noun meaning (computer, VHF). In the new dictionary it will also be possible to find an explanation of the differences between the combined and separate spelling of words with the particle (prefix) not, one n or nn in passive participles and in adjectives formed from them, stylistic notes indicating the scope of use of word variants and paronyms. In addition, the dictionary will include an updated Code of Spelling Rules.
literary language orthoepic lexical
Conclusion
From the above, we can draw a general conclusion that major social upheavals affecting the foundations of the social structure always leave a very noticeable mark on the language. Thus, Peter’s reforms opened a wide way for borrowings from Western European languages; after October 1917. In all areas of life, Marxist political and economic terminology took a dominant position. The terms that comprise it not only became evidence of the fundamental changes that the country’s politics and economy underwent as a result of the change in the social system, but also entered into the everyday speech of the population.
The events that took place in our country in the second half of the 80s. and in the 90s. had no less influence on the development of the Russian language, primarily its vocabulary, and ultimately on its lexical and other norms.
A linguistic norm is not a dogma that claims to be strictly followed. Depending on the goals and objectives of communication, on the peculiarities of the functioning of linguistic means in a particular style, in connection with a certain stylistic task, a conscious and motivated deviation from the norm is possible. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of our wonderful linguist, Academician L.V. Shcherby:
When a person’s sense of the norm is instilled, then he begins to feel all the charm of justified deviations from it.
Any deviations from the norm must be situationally and stylistically justified, reflecting the variant forms that actually exist in the language (colloquial or professional speech, dialect deviations, etc.), and not the arbitrary desire of the speaker.
It is necessary to know the norms not only for a better understanding of the processes occurring in the language, but also to improve the culture of speech in any sphere - everyday, educational or professional.

Coursework in the discipline
"Documentary linguistics"
on the topic of:
Literary language. The problem of flexibility and variability of language norms.
Scientific adviser:
Kazan, 2006
Content
Introduction.

Chapter 1. Literary language

Chapter 2. Definition of the norm

Chapter 3. Formation of norms of the Russian literary language

Chapter 4. Types of literary norms

Conclusion

List of references cheers

Introduction.

The literary language is the basis, the foundation of the entire Russian language. It is he who is the model, the bearer of the literary norm.
A linguistic norm is a model, this is how it is customary to speak and write in a given linguistic society in a given era. The norm determines what is right and what is not; it recommends some linguistic means and methods of expression and prohibits others. Linguistic norms are objectively formed in the process of language practice of members of society. Norms may change over time, but they are still stable over a long period of time. Compliance with norms facilitates the use of literary language. Norms permeate all tiers of the literary language.
The most important feature of a literary language is its normativity, which is manifested both in its written and oral form. Characteristic features of the literary language norm: relative stability; prevalence; common use; universal obligatory; correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional argot, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide language means into good and bad, but indicates their communicative expediency.

Chapter 1.Literary language

Literary language - a supradialectal subsystem (form of existence) of the national language, which is characterized by such features as normativity, codification, multifunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige among speakers of a given national language. Literary language is the main means of serving the communicative needs of society; it is contrasted with the uncodified subsystems of the national language - territorial dialects, urban koine (urban vernacular), professional and social jargons. The concept of a literary language can be defined both on the basis of the linguistic properties inherent in a given subsystem of the national language, and by delimiting the totality of speakers of this subsystem, isolating it from the general composition of people speaking a given language. The first method of definition is linguistic, the second is sociological. An example of a linguistic approach to clarifying the essence of a literary language is the definition given by M.V. Panov: “If in one of the synchronous varieties of the language of a given people the non-functional variety of units is overcome (it is less than in other varieties), then this variety serves as a literary language according to towards others." This definition reflects such important properties of a literary language as its consistent normalization (not only the presence of a single norm, but also its conscious cultivation), the universally binding nature of its norms for all speakers of a given literary language, the communicatively appropriate use of means (it stems from the tendency to functional differentiation) and some others. The definition has a differentiating power: it delimits the literary language from other social and functional subsystems of the national language. However, to solve some problems in the study of language, the linguistic approach to defining a literary language is not sufficient. For example, it does not answer the question of which segments of the population should be considered carriers of a given subsystem, and in this sense, a definition based on purely linguistic considerations is non-operational. In this case, there is a different, “external” principle for defining the concept of “literary language” - through the totality of its speakers. In accordance with this principle, the literary language is that subsystem of the national language spoken by persons who have the following three characteristics: this language is their native language; they were born and/or live in the city for a long time (all or most of their life); they have higher or secondary education obtained in educational institutions where all subjects are taught in a given language. This definition corresponds to the traditional idea of ​​a literary language as the language of an educated, cultural part of the people. Let us show, using the example of the modern Russian literary language, how important these characteristics are for identifying the totality of speakers of the literary form of the national language. Firstly, persons for whom Russian is not their native language, even in the case when the speaker speaks it fluently, reveal in their speech features that are, to one degree or another, due to the influence of their native language. This deprives the researcher of the opportunity to consider such people linguistically homogeneous with persons for whom Russian is their native language. Secondly, it is quite obvious that the city contributes to the collision and mutual influence of different dialectal elements of speech, the mixing of dialects. The influence of the language of radio, television, the press, and the speech of the educated strata of the population in the city is much more intense than in the countryside. In addition, in the village the literary language is opposed by an organized system of one dialect (albeit - in modern conditions - significantly undermined by the influence of literary speech), and in the city - a kind of interdialect, the components of which are in unstable, changing relationships with each other. This leads to the leveling of dialectal speech features or to their localization (cf. “family languages”) or to their complete displacement under the pressure of literary speech. Therefore, people, although born in the countryside, but living in cities throughout their entire adult life, should also be included, along with native city dwellers, in the concept of “city residents” and, other things being equal, in the concept of “native speakers of a literary language.” Thirdly, the criterion “higher or secondary education” is important because years of study at school and university contribute to a more complete, more perfect mastery of the norms of the literary language, eliminating from a person’s speech features that contradict these norms, reflecting dialect or vernacular usage. If the need for the three above-mentioned features as a collective criterion for identifying the community of speakers of a literary language seems to be beyond doubt, then their sufficiency requires more detailed justification. And that's why. Intuitively, it is quite clear that within the community thus identified there are quite large differences in the degree of mastery of the literary norm. In fact, a university professor - and a worker with a secondary education, a journalist or writer who professionally deals with words - and a factory engineer or geologist, whose professions are not based on the use of language, a literature teacher - and a taxi driver, a native Muscovite - and a native of a Kostroma village who has lived in the capital since childhood - all these and other representatives of heterogeneous social, professional and territorial groups find themselves united into one group of “native speakers of a literary language.” Meanwhile, it is obvious that they speak this language differently and the degree to which their speech approaches ideal literary speech is very different. They are located, as it were, at different distances from the “normative core” of the literary language: the deeper a person’s linguistic culture, the stronger his professional connection with the word, the closer his speech is to this core, the more perfect his command of the literary norm and, on the other hand, the more justified conscious deviations from it in practical speech activity. What unites such socially, professionally, and culturally diverse groups of people, besides the three characteristics we have put forward? All of them, in their speech practice, follow the literary linguistic tradition (and not, say, dialect or vernacular), and are guided by the literary norm. Researchers note one important property of the Russian literary language of our days: in contrast to languages ​​such as, for example, Latin, which was used as a literary language in a number of countries in medieval Europe, as well as artificial languages ​​such as Esperanto, which are initially literary and do not have branching into functional or social subsystems - the Russian literary language is heterogeneous (this property is also inherent in many other modern literary languages). It seems that this conclusion contradicts the main axiom associated with the status of the literary language - the axiom about the unity and universality of the norm for all speakers of the literary language, about its codification as one of the main properties. However, in reality, both the named axiom and the property of heterogeneity not only coexist together, but also complement and support each other. In fact, considered from the proper linguistic, communicative and social points of view, the property of heterogeneity of a literary language results in such characteristic phenomena as variable ways of expressing the same meaning (the system of paraphrasing rests on this, without which true mastery of any natural language is unthinkable ), multiplicity of implementation of systemic potentials, stylistic and communicative gradation of literary language means, the use of certain categories of linguistic units as means of social symbolism (cf. social differences in the methods of farewell provided for by the norm of the modern Russian literary language: from socially unmarked Goodbye to vernacular Bye and slang hop And ciao) and so on. The norm of a literary language, having the property of unity and universality, does not prohibit, but presupposes different, variable ways of speech. And from this point of view, variability - as one of the manifestations of the more general property of heterogeneity - is a natural, normal phenomenon in a literary language. The heterogeneity of a literary language is also manifested in its locally and socially determined variability: with a general and uniform set of literary language means (phonetic, lexical, grammatical) and the rules for their use, these means differ in the frequency of their use by different groups of speakers. The heterogeneity of a literary language has both social and linguistic manifestations; it is reflected in three main forms: 1) in the heterogeneity of the composition of the carriers - substrate heterogeneity; 2) in the variation of linguistic means depending on the social characteristics of speakers (age, social affiliation, profession, level of education, territorial characteristics, etc.) - social, or stratification, heterogeneity; 3) in the variation of linguistic means depending on communicative and stylistic factors - functional heterogeneity. The division of the literary language in a functional and stylistic sense is “stepwise”: the first, most obvious, is the dichotomy of book-written and spoken languages. Calling this division of the literary language into two functional varieties “the most general and most indisputable,” D.N. Shmelev wrote about this: “At all stages of the development of the literary language, even when overcoming the alienation of the written language in one way or another, with the dimming of the halo simply literacy and mastery of a special book language, speakers in general never lose the feeling of the difference between “how one can say” and “how one should write.” Book language is an achievement and heritage of culture. He is the main carrier and transmitter of cultural information. All types of indirect, distant communication are carried out by means of book language. Scientific works, fiction, business correspondence, legislation, newspaper and magazine products, and even such oral in form, but generally strictly codified areas of the use of literary language as radio and television, cannot be imagined without book language. Modern bookish and literary language is a powerful means of communication. Unlike another variety - colloquial literary language (and even more so in contrast to such subsystems of the national language as dialects and vernacular), it is multifunctional: suitable for use in a wide variety of areas of communication, for different purposes and for expressing a wide variety of content. The written form, as the main form of implementation of the book language, determines another important property of it: writing “extends the lifespan of each text (oral tradition gradually changes the text); thereby it enhances the ability of the literary language to be a link between generations. Writing stabilizes the language, slows down its development - and thereby improves it: for a literary language, slow development is good” (M.V. Panov).
The spoken variety of a literary language is an independent and self-sufficient system within the general system of a literary language, with its own set of units and rules for combining them with each other, used by native speakers of a literary language in conditions of direct, unprepared communication in informal relations between speakers. A spoken literary language is not codified: it certainly has certain norms (thanks to which, for example, it is easy to distinguish the oral speech of a native speaker of a literary language from the oral speech of a native speaker of a dialect or vernacular), but these norms have developed historically and are not consciously regulated by anyone or enshrined in in the form of any rules and recommendations. Thus, codification/non-codification is another, and very significant, feature that distinguishes book and colloquial varieties of a literary language. The next level of division of the literary language is the division of each of its varieties - book and spoken languages ​​- into functional styles. According to V.V. Vinogradov’s definition, a functional style is “a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally unified set of techniques for using, selecting and combining means of speech communication in the sphere of a particular popular, national language, correlated with other similar methods of expression that serve for other purposes, perform other functions in the speech social practice of a given people.” In short, variants of the literary language, determined by various spheres of communication, are functional styles. In the modern Russian book literary language, the following functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic, religious preaching. Sometimes the language of fiction is also classified as functional styles. But this is not true: in a prose or poetic text, both elements of all of the specified styles of literary language, as well as units of uncodified subsystems - dialects, vernacular, jargons can be used (cf., for example, the prose of I.E. Babel, M.M. Zoshchenko, V. P. Astafiev, V. P. Aksenov, some poems by E. A. Evtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, etc.). The writer subordinates the selection and use of these means to the artistic and aesthetic goals that he seeks to achieve in his work. Spoken language is not so clearly divided into functional styles, which is quite understandable: book language is consciously cultivated, society as a whole and its various groups and institutions are interested in the functional flexibility of book language (without this, the effective development of such spheres of public life as science, lawmaking is impossible , office work, mass communication, etc. ); spoken language develops spontaneously, without directional efforts from society. However, here too some differences can be observed, determined by (a) the scope of the spoken language, (b) the communicative purposes of speech, (c) the social characteristics of the speaker and listener and the psychological relationships between them, as well as some other variables. Thus, family conversations and dialogues between colleagues differ; conversation with a child and communication between adults; speech acts of condemnation or reproach and speech acts of request or exhortation, etc. Functional styles are divided into speech genres. A speech genre is a set of speech works (texts or statements), which has, on the one hand, specific features that distinguish this genre from others, and on the other, a certain commonality, which is determined by the belonging of a certain group of genres to one functional style. Thus, within the scientific style, speech genres such as article, monograph, textbook, review, overview, annotation, abstract, scientific commentary on the text, lecture, report on a special topic, etc. are distinguished. The official business style is implemented in the texts of such speech genres, as a law, decree, decree, resolution, diplomatic note, communiqué, various types of legal documentation: statement of claim, interrogation protocol, indictment, expert report, cassation appeal, etc.; Such genres of official business style as statements, certificates, explanatory notes, reports, announcements, etc. are widely used. The journalistic style includes such speech genres as correspondence in a newspaper, essay, report, review on international topics, interviews, sports commentary, speech at a meeting, etc. In functional-stylistic varieties of spoken language, speech genres are not as clearly opposed to each other as speech genres of book language. In addition, the genre and stylistic diversity of colloquial speech has not yet been sufficiently studied. The results available in this area of ​​research allow us to distinguish the following speech genres of spoken language. Based on the number of speakers and the nature of their participation in communication, they distinguish story, dialogue and polylogue (i.e. “conversation of several persons”: this term arose on the basis of the erroneous isolation in the Greek word “dialogue” of a part with the meaning “two” and, accordingly , understanding it as a “conversation between two persons”). According to the target orientation, the nature of the situation and the social roles of the participants in communication, we can distinguish such varieties as a family conversation at the dinner table, a dialogue between colleagues on everyday and professional topics, an adult’s reprimand to a child, a conversation between a person and an animal (for example, a dog), an altercation, various genres of speech invective and some others. So, the literary language is characterized by the following properties that distinguish it from other subsystems of the national language:
1) normalization; Moreover, the literary norm is the result not only of linguistic tradition, but also of purposeful codification, enshrined in grammars and dictionaries;
2) consistent functional differentiation of means and the associated constant tendency towards functional differentiation of options;
3) multifunctionality: the literary language is capable of serving the communicative needs of any field of activity;
4) communicative expediency; this property naturally follows from the division of the literary language into functional styles and speech genres;
5) stability and a certain conservatism of the literary language, its slow change: the literary norm must lag behind the development of living speech (cf. the famous aphorism of A.M. Peshkovsky: “The norm is recognized as what was, and partly what is, but by no means what will happen"). This property of a literary language has exceptional cultural significance: it provides a connection between successive generations of speakers of a given national language and their mutual understanding.
In social and communicative relations, one of the most important properties of a literary language is its high social prestige: being a component of culture, a literary language is a communicative subsystem of the national language that all speakers are guided by, regardless of whether they speak this subsystem or any other .

Chapter 2. Definition of the norm.

The term “norm” in relation to language has firmly entered into everyday use and has become the central concept of speech culture. Academician V.V. Vinogradov put the study of language norms in first place among the most important tasks of Russian linguistics in the field of speech culture.

In modern linguistics, the term “norm” is understood in two meanings: firstly, the norm is the generally accepted use of various linguistic means, regularly repeated in the speech of speakers (reproduced by speakers), and secondly, prescriptions, rules, instructions for use, recorded in textbooks , dictionaries, reference books. In studies on speech culture, stylistics, and the modern Russian language, several definitions of the norm can be found. For example, S.I. Ozhegov says: “A norm is a set of language means that are most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) for serving society, emerging as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic) from among coexisting, existing, newly formed or extracted from the passive stock of the past in the process of social, in a broad sense, assessment of these elements." In the encyclopedia "Russian Language" we read "Norm (linguistic), literary norm - rules of pronunciation, grammatical and other linguistic means, rules of word usage accepted in the social and speech practice of educated people." The definition has become widespread: “...a norm is the linguistic units and patterns existing at a given time in a given linguistic community and obligatory for all members of the collective.” their use, and these obligatory units can either be the only possible ones, or act as variants coexisting within the literary language." In order to recognize a particular phenomenon as normative, (at least) the following conditions are necessary: ​​regular use (reproducibility) of the given method of expression; compliance of this method of expression with the capabilities of the literary language system (taking into account its historical restructuring); public approval of a regularly reproduced method of expression (and the role of the judge in this case falls to the lot of writers, scientists, and the educated part of society). The above definitions relate to the linguistic norm. Linguistic norms are the same for the literary language as a whole, they unite all normative units, regardless of the specifics of their functioning. A literary language connects generations of people and therefore its norms, ensuring the continuity of cultural and speech traditions, must be as stable and stable as possible. The norm, although it reflects the progressive development of language, should not be mechanically derived from linguistic evolution. A linguistic norm, understood in its dynamic aspect, is “a socio-historically determined result of speech activity that consolidates traditional implementations of the system or creates new linguistic facts in terms of their connection both with the potential capabilities of the language system, on the one hand, and with realized patterns, on the other.” ". A linguistic norm is a historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as most suitable in a specific historical period. The linguistic norm is the result collective ideas about language, but is based on the private, individual use of linguistic means in the process of speech activity of each native speaker individually. This gives rise to the possibility of a conflict between “spontaneous use” and “linguistic norm.” If the spontaneous use of linguistic means by different speakers of a given language is characterized by identity, they speak of a linguistic norm that has developed naturally. If there is no identity, the norm is determined purposefully (artificially). Artificial norms are established as a result of the rule-making activities of linguists through the preparation and publication of authoritative dictionaries and reference books (and even legislative acts - see the “Links” section) on various aspects of language use. Establishing a norm is usually done in one of the following ways:

- preference for one of the options for spontaneous use based on the higher frequency of this option compared to alternative ones;

- preference for one of the variants of spontaneous use based on its correspondence to the internal patterns of a given language identified by linguists;

- recognition of several variants of spontaneous use “corresponding to the linguistic norm” (in this case they speak of a moving norm).

In addition to the main methods indicated above, sometimes other reasons are used to establish a particular linguistic norm, including aesthetic, ethical, political, etc. There are various approaches to establishing a norm, among which two main ones can be distinguished:
- descriptive (descriptive), in which the establishment of norms is carried out primarily on the basis of an analysis of the actual use of certain linguistic phenomena by native speakers;
- prescriptive (prescriptive), in which the establishment of a norm is carried out primarily on the basis of the authoritative conclusion of linguists about the correctness or incorrectness of a particular use.
Although neither approach appears to be used in its pure form, nevertheless the linguistic traditions of a particular country usually give preference to one of the approaches to the detriment of the other. Prescriptive rule-making usually presupposes a disdainful attitude towards dialects and other regional or social variants of the language, the presence of rigid and developed spelling and punctuation rules, unification of the school language curriculum, etc. At the same time, the descriptive approach is often expressed in the absence of strictly established rules for certain aspects of the language (for example, punctuation), a loyal attitude to dialects, recording a large number of different usage options in dictionaries, etc.
Linguistic norms (standards of literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences). A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as: compliance with the structure of the language; massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers; public approval and recognition. Linguistic norms were not invented by philologists; they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed administratively. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them. The main sources of language norms include: works of classical writers; works of modern writers who continue classical traditions; media publications; common modern usage; linguistic research data. The characteristic features of language norms are: relative stability; prevalence; common use; universal obligatory; correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural. A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication. The normalization of speech is its compliance with the literary and linguistic ideal. This property of the norm was noted by Professor A.M. Peshkovsky, who wrote: “The existence of a linguistic ideal among speakers is the main distinguishing feature of a literary adverb from the very first moment of its emergence, a feature that largely creates this very adverb and supports it throughout its existence.” Professor S.I. Ozhegov emphasized the social side of the concept of norm, which consists of a selection of available linguistic elements, formed again and extracted from the passive stock. S.I. Ozhegov drew attention to the fact that norms are supported by social speech practice (fiction, stage speech, radio broadcasting). In the 60-80s. XX century literary works and radio broadcasts could indeed serve as models of normative usage. Today the situation has changed. Not every literary work and not every radio and television broadcast can serve as an example of the normative use of language. The scope of strict adherence to language norms has narrowed significantly; only some programs and periodicals can be used as examples of literary normed speech. Professor B.N. Golovin defined a norm as a functional property of language signs: “A norm is a property of the functioning structure of a language, created by the community using it due to the constant need for better mutual understanding.”

Chapter 3. Formation of norms of the Russian literary language.

In order to understand what is happening with the Russian language today, in order to correctly assess the features of modern Russian speech, it is necessary to imagine the stages of development of the language. The modern norm did not arise out of nowhere; it was formed in the process of historical development.