Vocabulary that is no longer actively used in speech is not immediately forgotten. For some time, outdated words are still understandable to speakers, familiar to them from fiction, although when people communicate, there is no longer a need for them. Such words become part of the passive vocabulary; they are listed in explanatory dictionaries with the mark (obsolete). They can be used by writers depicting past eras, or by historians when describing historical facts, but over time, archaisms completely disappear from the language. This was the case, for example, with the Old Russian words komon - “horse”, usnie - “skin” (hence a hangnail), cherevye - “a type of shoe”. Individual obsolete words sometimes return to the vocabulary of the active vocabulary. For example, the words soldier, officer, ensign, gymnasium, lyceum, bill, exchange, department, which were not used for some time, are now again actively used in speech.
The special emotional and expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics. “To say that, for example, the verbs rake and march (...) have such and such meanings without defining their stylistic role,” wrote D.N. Shmelev, “this means, in essence, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it with an approximate formula of subject-conceptual comparisons.” This places obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires a lot of attention to them.
1.9.2. Composition of obsolete words
The archaic vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts (chain mail, hussars, food tax, NEP, October child (a child of primary school age preparing to join the pioneers), NKVD officer (employee of the NKVD - People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), commissar, etc. .P.). Historicisms can be associated both with very distant eras and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history (Soviet power, party activists, general secretary, Politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.
Archaisms are names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary (cf.: every day - always, comedian - actor, zlato - gold, know - know).
Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them there are original Russian (full, shelom), Old Slavonic (glad, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages (abshid - “retirement”, voyage - “travel”).
Of particular interest stylistically are words of Old Church Slavonic origin, or Slavicisms. A significant part of Slavicisms were assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary (sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also Old Church Slavonic words that in modern language are perceived as an echo of high style and retain their characteristic solemn, rhetorical coloring.
The history of poetic vocabulary associated with ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavicisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols (lyre, ellisium, Parnassus, laurels, myrtles), artistic images of ancient literature in the first third of the 19th century. formed an integral part of the poetic vocabulary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavicisms, strengthened the opposition between sublime, romantically colored speech and everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary were not used for long in fiction. Already among the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poetisms are archaized.
1.9.3. Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech
Writers often turn to outdated words as an expressive means of artistic speech. The history of the use of Old Church Slavonic vocabulary in Russian fiction, especially in poetry, is interesting. Stylistic Slavicisms made up a significant part of the poetic vocabulary in the works of writers of the first third of the 19th century. Poets found in this vocabulary the source of the sublimely romantic and “sweet” sound of speech. Slavicisms, which have consonant variants in the Russian language, primarily non-vocal ones, were shorter than Russian words by one syllable and were used in the 18th-19th centuries. on the basis of “poetic license”: poets could choose from two words the one that corresponded to the rhythmic structure of speech (I will sigh, and my languid voice, like a harp’s voice, will die quietly in the air. - Bat.). Over time, the tradition of “poetic license” is overcome, but outdated vocabulary attracts poets and writers as a powerful means of expression.
Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the flavor of distant times. They were used in this function, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy:
« Land of Ottic and Dedich- these are the banks of deep rivers and forest clearings where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced off his dwelling with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries.
And he imagined many things - difficult and difficult times: the red shields of Igor in the Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on Kalka, and the peasant spears mounted under the banners of Dmitry on the Kulikovo field, and the blood-drenched ice of Lake Peipsi, and the Terrible Tsar, who parted united, henceforth indestructible, the limits of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea...".
Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech a sublime, solemn sound. Old Church Slavonic vocabulary performed this function even in ancient Russian literature. In poetic speech of the 19th century. Old Russianisms, which also began to be used to create the pathos of artistic speech, became stylistically equal to the high Old Slavonic vocabulary. The high, solemn sound of outdated words is also appreciated by writers of the 20th century. During the Great Patriotic War, I.G. Ehrenburg wrote: “By repelling the blows of predatory Germany, it (the Red Army) saved not only the freedom of our Motherland, it saved the freedom of the world. This is the guarantee of the triumph of the ideas of brotherhood and humanity, and I see in the distance a world enlightened by grief, in which goodness will shine. Our people showed their military virtues…»
Outdated vocabulary can take on an ironic connotation. For example: Which parent does not dream of an understanding, balanced child who grasps everything literally on the fly. But attempts to turn your child into a “miracle” tragically often end in failure (from the gas). The ironic rethinking of outdated words is often facilitated by the parodic use of elements of high style. In a parody-ironic function, outdated words often appear in feuilletons, pamphlets, and humorous notes. Let us cite an example from a newspaper publication during the preparation for the day the president took office (August 1996):
The new head of the working group preparing the celebration, Anatoly Chubais, set to work with enthusiasm. He believes that the script of the ceremony should be developed “for centuries”, and therefore there is no place in it for “temporary”, mortal delights. The latter included an ode already written for the holiday, which could conditionally be called “On the day of President Yeltsin’s accession to the Kremlin.” The work suffered a bitter fate: Chubais did not approve it, and on August 9 we will not sing:
Our proud state is great and majestic.
The whole country is full of strength, she made the choice!
("Inauguration is not a game")
There is an opinion that outdated vocabulary is common in official business style. Indeed, in business papers certain words and figures of speech are used, which in other conditions we have the right to consider as archaisms [for example, the legal terms act, capable, deed, punishment, retribution in dictionaries are accompanied by the mark (arch.)]. In some documents they write: this year, attached to this, the undersigned, the above, etc. These special official business words do not have an expressive connotation within “their” functional style. Such outdated vocabulary in an official business style does not carry any stylistic load.
Analysis of the stylistic functions of archaisms in a particular work requires knowledge of general linguistic norms in force in the era being described. For example, in the works of writers of the 19th century. There are words that were archaized at a later time. So, in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin’s “Boris Godunov”, along with archaisms and historicisms, there are words that became part of the passive vocabulary only in Soviet times (tsar, reign, etc.); Naturally, they should not be classified as outdated vocabulary that carries a certain stylistic load in the work.
1.9.4. Errors caused by the use of outdated words
The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive coloring becomes the cause of gross stylistic errors. For example: Sponsors were greeted with joy at the boarding school; The laboratory assistant came to the boss and told him about what had happened. The young entrepreneur quickly saw the efficiency of his manager - in these proposals the Slavicisms are archaic. The word welcome is not even included in S.I.’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language.” Ozhegov, in “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. D.N. Ushakov it is given with the mark (obsolete, poetic); the word to tell Ozhegov marked (obsolete), and Ushakov - (obsolete, rhetorician); see has a mark (old). A context in which there is no attitude towards a humorous coloring of speech does not allow the use of outdated words; they should be replaced with synonyms (greeted, told, saw [noticed]).
Sometimes authors, using an outdated word, distort its meaning. For example: As a result of a stormy meeting of household members, house renovation was begun - the word household, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary, is explained as “people who live in a family as its members,” and in the text it is used in the meaning of “tenants” . Another example from a newspaper article: At the meeting, even the most unpleasant shortcomings in work were revealed. The word impartial means “impartial”, moreover, it has limited lexical compatibility possibilities (only criticism can be impartial). The incorrect use of archaisms is very often complicated by a violation of lexical compatibility: Andreev was certified as a person who had worked on this path for a very long time (the path is chosen, the path is followed, but they do not work on it).
Sometimes the meaning of an outdated grammatical form of a word is distorted. For example: He refuses to testify, but this is not the point. The essence is the third person plural form of the verb to be, and the subject is singular, the connective must be consistent with it.
Outdated words can give the text a clerical feel. (Similar buildings that are not needed at one construction site are needed at another; Classes must be conducted in the appropriate premises). In business papers, where many archaisms have become established as terms, the use of such special vocabulary should be appropriate. It is impossible, for example, to consider it stylistically justified to resort to outdated figures of speech at your discretion, I add herewith, the above-mentioned violator, upon receipt of them, etc.
Stylists note that recently obsolete words that are outside the boundaries of the literary language have become widespread; and often they are given a new meaning. For example, the word is incorrectly used in vain, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary and is explained by synonyms fruitlessly, in vain [Intentions to find a reasonable compromise remained in vain; The issues of creating crop rotations and using a complex of fertilizers remain unanswered (better: It was not possible to find a reasonable compromise; ... Crop rotation has not been introduced and a complex of fertilizers is not used)]:
With frequent repetition, outdated words sometimes lose the archaic connotation that previously distinguished them. This can be observed in the example of the word now. In Ozhegov, this adverb is given with the stylistic marks (obsolete) and (high) [cf.: ... now there, along the renovated banks, slender communities are crowded with palaces and towers... (P.)]. Modern authors often use this word as stylistically neutral. For example: Many MIMO graduates have now become diplomats; Nowadays there are not many students at the faculty who would be content with a scholarship - in the first sentence the word now should have been omitted, and in the second it should have been replaced with the synonym now. Thus, neglecting the stylistic coloring of outdated words inevitably leads to speech errors.
archaisms completely disappear from the language. This was the case, for example, with the Old Russian words komon - “horse”, usnie - “skin” (hence a hangnail), cherevye - “a type of shoe”. Individual obsolete words sometimes return to the vocabulary of the active vocabulary. For example, words that have not been used for some time soldier, officer, ensign, gymnasium, lyceum, bill of exchange, exchange, department are now actively used in speech again.
The special emotional and expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics. “To say that, for example, the verbs rake and march (...) have such and such meanings without defining their stylistic role,” wrote D.N. Shmelev, “this means, in essence, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it with an approximate formula of subject-conceptual comparisons.” This places obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires a lot of attention to them.
The archaic vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts ( chain mail, hussar, tax in kind, NEP, October(a child of primary school age preparing to join the pioneers), NKVD officer (employee of the NKVD - People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), commissar, etc.). Historicisms can be associated both with very distant eras and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history ( Soviet power, party activist, general secretary, Politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.
They are names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary (cf.: every day - always, comedian - actor, gold - gold, know - know).
Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them there are native Russian (full, shelom), Old Slavonic ( smooth, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages (abshid - “retirement”, voyage - “travel”).
Of particular interest stylistically are words of Old Church Slavonic origin, or Slavicisms. A significant part of Slavicisms assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary ( sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also Old Church Slavonic words that in modern language are perceived as an echo of high style and retain its characteristic solemn, rhetorical coloring.
The history of poetic vocabulary associated with ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavicisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols ( lyre, ellisium, Parnassus, laurels, myrtles), artistic images of ancient literature in the first third of the 19th century. formed an integral part of the poetic vocabulary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavicisms, strengthened the opposition between sublime, romantically colored speech and everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary were not used for long in fiction. Already among the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poetisms are archaized.
Writers often turn to outdated words as an expressive means of artistic speech. The history of the use of Old Church Slavonic vocabulary in Russian fiction, especially in poetry, is interesting. Stylistic Slavicisms made up a significant part of the poetic vocabulary in the works of writers of the first third of the 19th century. Poets found in this vocabulary the source of the sublimely romantic and “sweet” sound of speech. Slavicisms, which have consonant variants in the Russian language, primarily non-vocal ones, were shorter than Russian words by one syllable and were used in the 18th-19th centuries. as “poetic license”: poets could choose from two words the one that corresponded to the rhythmic structure of speech ( I will sigh, and my languid voice, like a harp’s voice, will die quietly in the air.- Bat.). Over time, the tradition of “poetic license” is overcome, but outdated vocabulary attracts poets and writers as a powerful means of expression.
Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the flavor of distant times. They were used in this function, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy:
« Land of Ottic and Dedich- these are the banks of deep rivers and forest clearings where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced off his dwelling with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries.
And he imagined many things - difficult and difficult times: the red shields of Igor in the Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on Kalka, and the peasant spears mounted under the banners of Dmitry on the Kulikovo field, and the blood-drenched ice of Lake Peipsi, and the Terrible Tsar, who parted united, henceforth indestructible, the limits of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea...".
The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive coloring becomes the cause of gross stylistic errors. For example: Sponsors were greeted with joy at the boarding school; The laboratory assistant came to the boss and told him about what happened . The young entrepreneur quickly saw the efficiency of his manager- in these sentences Slavicisms are archaic. The word welcome is not even included in S.I.’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language.” Ozhegov, in “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. D.N. Ushakov it is given with the mark (obsolete, poetic); the word to tell Ozhegov marked (obsolete), and Ushakov - (obsolete, rhetorician); see has a mark (old). A context in which there is no attitude towards a humorous coloring of speech does not allow the use of outdated words; they should be replaced by synonyms ( greeted, told, saw[noted]).
Sometimes authors, using an outdated word, distort its meaning. For example: As a result of a stormy meeting of household members, renovation of the house began- the word household, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary, is explained as “people who live in a family as its members,” and in the text it is used in the meaning of “tenants.” Another example from a newspaper article: At the meeting, even the most unpleasant shortcomings in work were revealed. The word impartial means “impartial”, moreover, it has limited lexical compatibility possibilities (only criticism can be impartial). The incorrect use of archaisms is very often complicated by a violation of lexical compatibility: Andreev was certified as a person who had worked in this path for a very long time(they choose the path, they follow the path, but they don’t work on it).
Sometimes the meaning of an outdated grammatical form of a word is distorted. For example: He refuses to testify, but that's not the point. The essence is the third person plural form of the verb to be, and the subject is singular, the connective must be consistent with it.
Outdated words can give the text a clerical feel. ( Similar buildings that are not needed on one construction site are needed on another; Classes must be conducted in an appropriate room). In business papers, where many archaisms have become established as terms, the use of such special vocabulary should be appropriate. It is impossible, for example, to consider it stylistically justified to resort to outdated figures of speech at your discretion, I enclose herewith, the above-mentioned violator, upon receipt of such and so on.
Stylists note that recently obsolete words that are outside the boundaries of the literary language have become widespread; and often they are given a new meaning. For example, the word vtune, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary and is explained by synonyms, is used incorrectly fruitlessly, in vain [Intentions to find a reasonable compromise remained in vain; The issues of creating crop rotations and using complex fertilizers remain in vain(better: It was not possible to find a reasonable compromise; ...Crop rotation has not been introduced and fertilizer complexes have not been applied)]:
With frequent repetition, outdated words sometimes lose the archaic connotation that previously distinguished them. This can be observed in the example of the word now. In Ozhegov this adverb is given with the stylistic marks (obsolete) and (high) [cf.: ... now there, along the renovated banks, slender masses of palaces and towers crowd together...(P.)]. Modern authors often use this word as stylistically neutral. For example: Many MIMO graduates have now become diplomats; Nowadays there are not many students at the faculty who would be content with a scholarship- in the first sentence the word now should have been omitted, and in the second it should have been replaced with the synonym now. Thus, neglecting the stylistic coloring of outdated words inevitably leads to speech errors.
Composition of obsolete words.
Among the archaic vocabulary there are historicisms And archaisms.
TO historicisms include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts (chain mail, hussars, food tax, NEP, October - a child of primary school age preparing to join the pioneers; NKVD officer - employee of the NKVD - People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs, commissar, etc.) . Historicisms can be associated both with very distant eras and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history (Soviet power, party activists, general secretary, Politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.
Archaisms are names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary. Wed: every day - always, comedian - actor, gold - gold, know - know. Obsolete words are of heterogeneous origin. Among them there are originally Russian(full, full), Old Slavonic(smooth, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages(abshid - “retirement”, voyage - “travel”).
Of particular interest stylistically are words of Old Church Slavonic origin, or Slavisms. A significant part of Slavicisms were assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary (sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also Old Church Slavonic words that in modern language are perceived as an echo of high style and retain their characteristic solemn, rhetorical coloring.
Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech.
Obsolete words in modern literary language can perform various stylistic functions.
Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, which have replenished the passive composition of the vocabulary, give the speech a sublime, solemn sound: Arise, prophet, and see, and listen, be fulfilled by my will, and, going around the seas and lands, burn the hearts of people with the verb! (P.).
Old Church Slavonic vocabulary was used in this function even in ancient Russian literature. In the poetry of classicism, acting as the main component of the odic vocabulary, Old Slavonicisms determined the solemn style of “high poetry.” In poetic speech of the 19th century. With the archaizing Old Church Slavonic vocabulary, the outdated vocabulary of other sources, and, above all, Old Russianisms, was stylistically equalized: Alas! Wherever I look, there are whips everywhere, glands everywhere, disastrous shame of laws, feeble tears of captivity (P.). Archaisms were the source of the national-patriotic sound of Pushkin’s freedom-loving lyrics and the poetry of the Decembrists. The tradition of writers turning to outdated high vocabulary in works of civil and patriotic themes is maintained in the Russian literary language in our time.
Archaisms and historicisms are used in works of art about the historical past of our country to recreate the flavor of the era; compare: How the prophetic Oleg is now preparing to take revenge on the unreasonable Khazars, he doomed their villages and fields for the violent raid to swords and fires; with his retinue, in Constantinople armor, the prince rides across the field on a faithful horse (P.). In the same stylistic function, outdated words are used in A. S. Pushkin’s tragedy “Boris Godunov”, in the novels of A. N. Tolstoy “Peter I”, A.P. Chapygin “Razin Stepan”, V. Ya. Shishkov “Emelyan Pugachev”, etc.
Obsolete words can be a means of speech characterization of characters, for example, clergy, monarchs. Wed. Pushkin’s stylization of the Tsar’s speech:
I [Boris Godunov] reached the highest power;
I have been reigning peacefully for six years now.
But there is no happiness for my soul. Is not it
We fall in love and hunger from a young age
The joys of love, but only to quench
Heartfelt pleasure of instant possession,
Are we already bored and languishing, having cooled down?
Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, are used to recreate the ancient oriental flavor, which is explained by the closeness of Old Slavonic speech culture to biblical imagery. Examples are also easy to find in the poetry of Pushkin ("Imitations of the Koran", "Gabriiliad") and other writers ("Shulamith" by A.I. Kuprin).
Highly outdated vocabulary can be subject to ironic rethinking and act as a means of humor and satire. The comical sound of outdated words is noted in everyday stories and satire of the 17th century, and later in epigrams, jokes, and parodies written by participants in linguistic polemics of the early 19th century. (members of the Arzamas society), who opposed the archaization of the Russian literary language.
In modern humorous and satirical poetry, outdated words are also often used as a means of creating an ironic coloring of speech: A worm, skillfully planted on a hook, enthusiastically uttered: - How favorable providence is to me, I am finally completely independent (N. Mizin).
Errors caused by the use of outdated words.
The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive coloring becomes the cause of gross stylistic errors. For example: Sponsors were greeted with joy at the boarding school; The laboratory assistant came to the boss and told him about what had happened. The young entrepreneur quickly saw the efficiency of his manager - in these proposals the Slavicisms are archaic. The word welcome is not even included in S.I.’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language.” Ozhegov, in “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. D.N. Ushakov it is given with the mark (obsolete, poetic); the word to tell Ozhegov marked (obsolete), and Ushakov - (obsolete, rhetorician); see has a mark (old). A context in which there is no attitude towards a humorous coloring of speech does not allow the use of outdated words; they should be replaced with synonyms (greeted, told, saw [noticed]).
Sometimes authors, using an outdated word, distort its meaning. For example: As a result of a stormy meeting of household members, house renovation was begun - the word household, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary, is explained as “people who live in a family as its members,” and in the text it is used in the meaning of “tenants” . Another example from a newspaper article: At the meeting, even the most unpleasant shortcomings in work were revealed. The word impartial means “impartial”, moreover, it has limited lexical compatibility possibilities (only criticism can be impartial). The incorrect use of archaisms is very often complicated by a violation of lexical compatibility: Andreev was certified as a person who had worked on this path for a very long time (the path is chosen, the path is followed, but they do not work on it).
Sometimes the meaning of an outdated grammatical form of a word is distorted. For example: He refuses to testify, but this is not the point. The essence is the third person plural form of the verb to be, and the subject is singular, the connective must be consistent with it.
Outdated words can give the text a clerical feel. (Similar buildings that are not needed at one construction site are needed at another; Classes must be conducted in the proper premises). In business papers, where many archaisms have become established as terms, the use of such special vocabulary should be appropriate. It is impossible, for example, to consider it stylistically justified to resort to outdated figures of speech: at your discretion, I enclose herewith, the above-mentioned violator, upon receipt of such, etc.
Stylists note that recently obsolete words that are outside the boundaries of the literary language have become widespread; and often they are given a new meaning. For example, the word is incorrectly used in vain, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary and is explained by synonyms fruitlessly, in vain: intentions to find a reasonable compromise remained in vain; The issues of creating crop rotations and using complex fertilizers remain in vain. Better: a reasonable compromise could not be found; ...crop rotation has not been introduced and a complex of fertilizers has not been applied.
With frequent repetition, outdated words sometimes lose the archaic connotation that previously distinguished them. This can be observed in the example of the word now. In Ozhegov this adverb is given with the stylistic marks (obsolete) and (high). Wed: ...now there, along the renovated banks, slender communities are crowded with palaces and towers... (P.). Modern authors often use this word as stylistically neutral. For example: Many MIMO graduates have now become diplomats; Nowadays there are not many students at the faculty who would be content with a scholarship - in the first sentence the word now should have been omitted, and in the second it should have been replaced with the synonym now. Thus, neglecting the stylistic coloring of outdated words inevitably leads to speech errors.
In each historical period of language development, there is vocabulary that is constantly used in the language - active, and vocabulary of the passive vocabulary, which consists of words that have fallen out of use and have received an archaic connotation. There is also vocabulary - new words that are just entering the language and therefore have a connotation of unusualness. The transition of vocabulary from active to passive is a long process. At the beginning, some words cease to be used in speech, but are still familiar to all speakers. Then they are used for some time by writers and poets, historians when describing a historical era; over time, they disappear from the language completely, remaining only in texts - monuments of the era in which they functioned, for example, the Old Russian words " komon - horse", cherevye - type of shoe, in Ukrainian – cherevichki, “usnye – skin”. "Hangnail" formed from sleep.
But there are times when words that have not been used for some time return to the active dictionary. For example, soldier, officer, ensign or the recently lost connotation of archaic word “ parasite».
There are two groups of obsolete words: archaisms And historicisms.
TO historicisms include words that are outdated along with subjects about objects, events, phenomena, etc. With the historical change in the state structure, the previous names of administrative-elected assemblies, bodies, etc., as well as their members, disappeared: community, community member; veche, eternal; zemstvo, zemsky; Duma, vowel(member of the city council), Duma member(Member of the State Duma). The following words have left the active dictionary: as king, sovereign, monarch, royal; hussar, chain mail, tax in kind and others. Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary.
Archaisms are names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary. For example, these are the words: every day- Always, comedian- actor, gold- gold, guest– trader, merchant and many others.
Some of the words of this type are already beyond even the passive vocabulary of the modern literary language. These are words like thief- thief, robber; Stryi- paternal uncle; stryinya- wife of paternal uncle; wow- maternal uncle; stirrup- "down", sling- roof, vault of heaven; vezha- tent, tent, tower; here– fat, lard, etc. However, we can find them in phraseological units that have been preserved in the language: goof(rope spinning machine), you can't see anything – zga (stga)– road, path, stitch; hit with one's forehead, freak out with fat– fat (wealth); treasure it like the apple of your eye.
Stylistic function. Writers and poets often turn to outdated words as an expressive means of artistic speech.
Slavicisms, which have variants in the Russian language, were shorter than Russian words by a whole syllable, and poets of the 18th – 19th centuries used this difference to create rhyme. These were a kind of political liberties. For example, in Batyushkov’s “ I will sigh, and my voice will be languid,
will die quietly in the air»
Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the flavor of distant times. A.N. used them in this function. Tolstoy: " The land of Ottich and Dedich are those banks of deep rivers and forest glades, Kura, our ancestor came to live forever...» .
Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech a sublime, solemn sound. Old Church Slavonic vocabulary performed this function even in ancient Russian literature. Modern authors also use the high, solemn sound of outdated words. In newspaper editorials, expressions such as “like a great unity”, “man’s labors”, etc. are used. For example, from I. Ehrenburg: “ Our people have shown their military virtues, and now all nations know that the Soviet Union and its army bring peace to the tormented world»
Outdated vocabulary can take on an ironic connotation. In a parody-ironic function, outdated words often appear in feuilletons and pamphlets. For example, from I. Ehrenburg: “ In vain some young women, who, smelling a rose, pricked themselves with a thorn».
There is an opinion that outdated vocabulary is common in official business style. These are the words: act, capable, done, punishment, retribution etc. are legal terms, although they are marked as archaic in dictionaries. Or used in documents: this year, herewith attached, the above-mentioned etc. - these are all special official business words within their functional style and do not have an expressive coloring, they do not carry any stylistic load.
The use of outdated words in speech without taking into account their expressive coloring becomes the cause of gross stylistic errors. For example, " The new residents welcomed the builders as their dearest guests."(must be welcomed); " The laboratory assistant went into the office of the chairman of the local committee, Nikolai Goman, and told him about what had happened."(told); " The chairman of the collective farm saw the efficiency of the young field farmer" All these words are listed in dictionaries as “outdated.” or "old."
Sometimes the use of outdated words leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement " As a result of a stormy meeting of household members, the housing office began repairing the house on time" - Here household(members of the same family) is used to mean residents of the house. Thus, you need to be careful when using outdated words in your speech.
Neologisms.
Each era enriches the language with new words. The emergence of neologisms is facilitated by fundamental social changes in the life of society, such as the October Revolution, the development of scientific and technological progress, the flourishing of culture and art. All this causes the emergence of new concepts, and with them new words. The acquisition of new vocabulary by a language occurs in different ways. Some words are quickly acquired by native speakers and become widespread, becoming part of the active vocabulary ( collective farm, salary, TV, astronaut, satellite– spacecraft, etc. Others take a long time to master the language and retain a touch of unusualness.
The classification of neologisms is based on various criteria for their identification and evaluation. Depending on the methods of formation, neologisms are lexical, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words.
As part of lexical neologisms, we can distinguish words formed with the help of suffixes ( earthlings, martians, aliens), prefixes ( pro-Western), suffix – prefix ( unpack, lunar landing); names created by compounding words ( lunar rover, lunodrome, hydroweightlessness); compound words or abbreviations, for example, supermarket, abbreviated words: deputy, manager, assistant.
As semantic neologisms, words such as “ bush" - association of enterprises, " signal"- a message about something unwanted.
Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into two groups: words, words whose occurrence is not associated with the name of their creator - they can be called anonymous, and their overwhelming majority; words whose origin is associated with the name of the creator, they are called individual author’s neologisms. Now no one can say who coined the words: collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plan, Sunday. But the words: party spirit, subbotnik, economism, drummer etc. first used by V.I. Lenin; pro-meeting- Mayakovsky. Such words quickly become part of the language and replenish the active vocabulary. The words created by Lomonosov have long entered the active vocabulary: constellation, full moon, mine, drawing, attraction; created by Karamzin: industry, future, falling in love, absent-mindedness, touching and others; Dostoevsky: fade away. Neologisms of this type are called general linguistic, but those specially invented by the author for a stylistic purpose are called contextual-speech (i.e., occasional). For example, Mayakovsky " Evpatorians», sickle, hammerhead, chamberlain and so on. Often this kind of neologism is created according to models already existing in the language: eyes were starry(glowing, Fedin); Moidodyr And Aibolit(Chukovsky); at Yevtushenko's the kid in me has risen"and similar: teasing, annoying, clever, unresponsive. ottdarok, blue(compare with the existing model words: laughter, sloppiness, gift, blackness) and many others. Occasional neologisms are words that are used in context only once and do not become part of the language. These include children's word formations: foot supports(footprints), the rain has started to rain, caterpillar with babies(about the goose) put this key in the closet etc. They are created involuntarily at the moment of speech. In book literary language, occasionalisms are used much less frequently. However, within occasionalisms, individual authorial neologisms occupy a special place. They are created by the author with a specific artistic purpose. For example, Blok " snow-covered columns», « will wake up"; Yesenin's leaflet", from Paustovsky " every evening».
Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the flavor of distant times. They were used in this function, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy: “The land of Ottich and Dedich are those banks of deep rivers and forest glades where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced off his home with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries. And he imagined many things - difficult and difficult times: the red shields of Igor in the Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on Kalka, and the peasant spears mounted under the banners of Dmitry on The Kulikovo field, and the blood-drenched ice of Lake Peipsi, and the Terrible Tsar, who expanded the united, henceforth indestructible, boundaries of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea...”
Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech a sublime, solemn sound. Old Church Slavonic vocabulary performed this function even in ancient Russian literature. In poetic speech of the 19th century. Old Russianisms, which also began to be used to create the pathos of artistic speech, became stylistically equal to the high Old Slavonic vocabulary. The high, solemn sound of outdated words is also appreciated by writers of the 20th century. During the Great Patriotic War, I.G. Ehrenburg wrote: “By repelling the blows of predatory Germany, it (the Red Army) saved not only the freedom of our Motherland, it saved the freedom of the world. This is the guarantee of the triumph of the ideas of brotherhood and humanity, and I see in the distance a world enlightened by grief, in which goodness will shine. Our people showed their military virtues..."
Outdated vocabulary can take on an ironic connotation. For example: Which parent does not dream of an understanding, balanced child who grasps everything literally on the fly. But attempts to turn your child into a “miracle” tragically often end in failure (from the gas). The ironic rethinking of outdated words is often facilitated by the parodic use of elements of high style. In a parody-ironic function, outdated words often appear in feuilletons, pamphlets, and humorous notes. Let us cite an example from a newspaper publication during the preparation for the day the president took office (August 1996): The new head of the working group for preparing the celebration, Anatoly Chubais, got down to business with enthusiasm. He believes that the script of the ceremony should be developed “for centuries”, and therefore there is no place in it for “temporary”, mortal delights. The latter included an ode already written for the holiday, which could conditionally be called “On the day of President Yeltsin’s accession to the Kremlin.” The work suffered a bitter fate: Chubais did not approve it, and on August 9 we will not sing:
Our proud state is great and majestic.
The whole country is full of strength, she made the choice!
(“Inauguration is not a game”) There is an opinion that outdated vocabulary is common in formal business style. Indeed, in business papers certain words and figures of speech are used, which in other conditions we have the right to consider as archaisms [for example, the legal terms act, capable, deed, punishment, retribution in dictionaries are accompanied by the mark (arch.)]. In some documents they write: this year, attached to this, the undersigned, the above, etc. These special official business words do not have an expressive connotation within “their” functional style. Such outdated vocabulary in an official business style does not carry any stylistic load.
Analysis of the stylistic functions of archaisms in a particular work requires knowledge of general linguistic norms in force in the era being described. For example, in the works of writers of the 19th century. There are words that were archaized at a later time. So, in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin’s “Boris Godunov”, along with archaisms and historicisms, there are words that became part of the passive vocabulary only in Soviet times (tsar, reign, etc.); Naturally, they should not be classified as outdated vocabulary that carries a certain stylistic load in the work.
No. 20Slavicisms - words borrowed from Old Church Slavonic or (later) from Church Slavonic languages. In general, these are words that have a Russian synonym in the literary language.
Lomonosov singled out Slavicisms as “unintelligible” ( clear, I love it) and generally accepted ( horse, eyes). The stylistic effect of Slavicisms also depends on the degree of assimilation.
Already Lomonosov's theory of styles was based on the relationship between two funds of the Russian literary language - the fund of so-called “Slovenian” words (Old Slavonic or Church Slavonic) and the fund of purely Russian words.
Slavicisms and archaisms should not be confused. Old Church Slavonic is not an ancient form of the Russian language. They coexisted together, and the Old Church Slavonic language was a source of constant borrowing. Words clothes, sky, head(in the book) do not give the impression of being outdated. Archaisms are words that are dying out, going out of use, but this cannot be said about Slavicisms in general. Slavicisms cannot be classified as barbarisms either, since the Old Church Slavonic language in the part in which it was adopted by the Russian language was not a foreign language.
Phonetic features of Slavicisms
1. Disagreement
Oro/ra (enemy/enemy), ere/re (shore/shore), olo/le, la (full/captivity, volost/power).
It must be remembered that we can talk about full agreement/non-agreement only when there are pairs of words.
Words can change their meaning: gunpowder/dust. Only one word from a pair can be preserved (full or partial): peas/grah, time/ time. For literature, the most interesting case is when both words of a pair are preserved. Then Slavicisms are perceived as lofty words. Poet is a high or low word depending on the style. It also happens the other way around: Slavicism remains in the language, but the disappeared Russian word is perceived as high (helm/shelom).
2.Consonant alternations
Slav. Russian
Zhd (alien, clothes) w (alien, clothes)
Ш (night, oven) h (night, oven)
3.Use of participles in –ush, -yush, -ashch, -yash.
4. There is no transition e o with softening of the subsequent consonant under stress. For example, sky/palate.
Morphological characteristics of Slavicisms
1.Form of the nominative case of masculine adjectives: oh (Russian phrase good)/й (vs. good).
2. Truncation of adjectives (sleepless, supportive).
3. Form of the genitive case of feminine nouns: ыя (slav.f. wise)/oi (wise).
Declension of nouns according to the paradigms of the Old Church Slavonic language. For example, ochesa (plural from “eyes”), miracles (plural from “miracle”), sons (instead of “sons”).
Lexical features of Slavicisms
1. Slavicisms include a large number of function words.
How long / how long - until when, until - not yet, if - how long, for sure - after all.
Stylistic functions of Slavicisms
1.Slavicisms are used to stylize the speech of past times.
2.Use of Slavicisms when translating ancient texts.
3. The comic function of Slavicisms (a low subject is spoken of in a high style).
4.Slavicisms are the professional language of the clergy. A means of characterizing a hero if a priest or a pious person is portrayed. The function of depicting professional language can be combined with an ironic function.