What changes have occurred in society. Social progress

When completing tasks, you have to perform certain work, which is best organized as follows:

read the assignment carefully;
If you are answering a theoretical question or solving a situational problem, think about and formulate a specific answer (the answer should be brief and its content should be entered in the space provided; keep notes clearly and legibly).

For each correct answer you can receive a number of points determined by the jury, not higher than the specified maximum score.

The sum of points scored for all solved questions is the result of your work.

The maximum number of points is 100.

The tasks are considered completed if you submit them to the jury on time.

We wish you success !

Methodology for assessing the completion of olympiad tasks

Exercise 1

Choose the correct answer and enter its number in the table.

1.1. An increase in the gold content or exchange rate of the state currency is

devaluation
revaluation
denomination
deflation

1.2. According to the code of the public organization “A healthy mind in a healthy body,” its members must refrain from using tobacco and alcohol, observe the rules of politeness when communicating with each other, help elderly members of the organization, and take part in sports and recreational activities conducted by the organization. What social norms are reflected in these provisions of the code?

corporate and moral
moral and legal
legal and corporate
moral and political

1.3. A totalitarian political regime differs from an authoritarian one

restriction of rights and freedoms of citizens
lack of government responsibility to society
the use of repression against opponents of the regime
state control over all spheres of public life

Answer:

1.1	1.2	1.3
2	1	4

By1 point for each correct answer.

Maximum per task3 points.

Task 2

Choose several correct answers. Enter your answers in the table.

2.1. Select examples of upward vertical social mobility from the list below.

Deputy of the State Duma of the sixth convocation M. was re-elected to the State Duma of the seventh convocation.
Accountant V. retired.
The major was awarded the rank of lieutenant colonel.
The salesperson has been appointed store director.
Tomsk University student K. transferred from the Faculty of History to the Faculty of Philology.
Plumber V. won 42 million rubles in the lottery.

2.2. Who in the Russian Federation has the right of legislative initiative when adopting federal laws?

The State Duma
Council of the Federation
Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation
President of the Russian Federation
Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation
legislative bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation
local authorities

2.3. The areas of philosophy include

idealism
cubism
positivism
Marxism
abstractionism
classicism

2.4. A marriage is dissolved in court if

objections of one of the spouses to divorce
spouses have common minor children
declaring one of the spouses incompetent
minority of one of the spouses
conviction of one of the spouses to imprisonment for a term of more than 3 years

Answer:

2.1	2.2	2.3	2.4
346	246	134	12

By2 points for a completely correct answer, 1 point for an answer with one error(one of the correct answers is not indicated, or along with all the correct answers indicated, one incorrect answer is given).

Maximum per task8 points.

Task 3

What do the following concepts have in common? Give the most accurate answer possible.

3.1. Bill, share, bond, check.

Answer: Securities.

3.2. Custom, tradition, taboo, morality.

Answer: Types of social norms.

By2 point for each correct answer.

Maximum per task4 points.

Task 4

Give a brief rationale for the series (what unites the listed elements). Indicate which of the elements is redundant on this basis.

4.1. Region, territory, city of federal significance, federal district, autonomous district

Answer: type of subjects of the Russian Federation, the extra element is the federal district.

4.2. Labor, land, taxes, entrepreneurial skills, capital

Answer: factors of production, the extra element is taxes.

By3 points for the correct answer(2 points for correct justification, 1 point for pointing out too much).

Maximum per task6 points.

Task 5

"Yes or no"? If you agree with the statement, write “yes”; if you disagree, write “no”. Enter your answers into the table.

5.1. All world religions originated in the Ancient World.

5.2. The role of the state in economic processes is the subject of macroeconomics.

5.3. Most states in the world are unitary.

5.4. “On December 19, 2016, the Electoral Colleges of the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia officially elected Donald Trump President of the United States by a majority vote.” This message reflects the step-by-step nature of the elections for the post of President of the United States.

Oh! I feel: nothing can
In the midst of worldly sorrows, to calm;
Nothing, nothing... the only thing is conscience.
So, healthy, she will triumph
Over malice, over dark slander. –
But if there is only one spot in it,
One thing, it started up by accident,
Then - trouble! like a pestilence
The soul will burn, the heart will fill with poison,
Reproach hits your ears like a hammer,
And everything feels nauseous and my head is spinning.

(A.S. Pushkin)

This fragment reflects external social control.

Answer:

5.1	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.5
No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No

By1 point for each correct answer.

Maximum per task5 points.

Task 6

A student was preparing a presentation on social studies, but there was a glitch in the final version, resulting in the illustrations getting mixed up. Help me reconstruct the presentation using the existing illustrations. Fill out the diagram, indicating the category (generalizing concept) common to all images, as well as its constituent elements. Enter in the appropriate cells the letter designations of the illustrations that relate to the elements you named.

Answer:

1 point for general concept. By1 point for each correct element of the second level answer.

Maximum per task10 points.

Task 7

Read an excerpt from John Locke's Two Treatises of Government.

But although men, when they enter into a state, renounce the equality, liberty, and executive power which they possessed in the state of nature, and hand them over into the hands of the state, so that the legislative power may hereafter have it in so far as it shall demand the good of society, yet this is done by everyone only with the intention of preserving himself, his freedom and property as best as possible. The power of society or the legislature created by men can never extend further than is necessary for the common good; this power is obliged to protect the property of everyone... And whoever has the legislative or supreme power in any state, he is obliged to rule according to established permanent laws, proclaimed by the people and known to the people, and not by improvised decrees; to govern by impartial and just judges, who shall decide disputes by means of these laws, and shall use the force of the state at home only in the execution of such laws, and abroad to prevent injury or to obtain redress for it, and to protect the state from invasion and seizure. And all this should be carried out for no other purpose, but only in the interests of peace, security and the public good of the people.

7.1. To protect what of their natural rights do people, according to the author, establish government power? List three rights.

7.2. What theory of the origin of the state is reflected in this text? Support your answer with a quote from the text.

7.3. The author says that the ruler must “rule according to established permanent laws, and not through improvised decrees.” What consequences can there be if this rule is not followed? Give three possible consequences.

Answer:

7.1. The right to life, the right to freedom and personal integrity, the right to property.

By1 point for each right mentioned. Total3 points.

7.2. Social contract theory. “But although men, when they enter into a state, renounce the equality, liberty, and executive power which they possessed in the state of nature, and place them in the hands of the state, so that the legislative power may hereafter have it in so far as it will demand the good of society."

3 points for correctly named theory. 3 points for justification. Total6 points.

7.3. Arbitrariness of the ruler, establishment of tyranny, violation of the rights and freedoms of citizens (other consequences may be given).

Answers may be given in other, similar in meaning formulations.

2 points for each named consequence. Total6 points.

Maximum per task15 points.

Task 8

Solve the problem

15-year-old Anton came to a cellular communication salon and told the salesman that he would like to exchange his old cell phone for a new one with an additional payment as part of a promotion that the salon was running. The additional payment was supposed to be 3,500 rubles. When asked by the seller about the source of the funds, Anton replied that he earned these funds during the holidays, working as a courier. The seller made the exchange and gave Anton a cash receipt for the amount of the additional payment. The next day, Anton’s mother demanded the return of the phone Anton had handed over to the store and the money he had paid. Is the store obliged to fulfill the demands of Anton's mother? Justify your answer. What legal act regulates this situation?

Answer:

The seller is obliged to terminate the concluded contract and return the funds. Although Anton had the right to independently dispose of the money he earned, he could not dispose of the telephone that belonged to him without the consent of his legal representatives. This situation is regulated by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

1 point for answering the first question. 3 points for the justification given.

2 points for correct indication normatively— legal act.

Maximum per task6 points.

Task 9

Insert in place of the gaps the serial numbers of the corresponding words from the proposed list. Words are given in the list in the singular, adjectives are in the masculine form. Please note: the list of words also contains some that should not appear in the text! Enter your answer into the table.

If changes in society occur gradually, new things accumulate in the system quite slowly and sometimes unnoticed by the observer. The old, the previous is the basis on which the new is grown, organically combining traces of the previous. We call such gradual progressive changes ______(A) . This path assumes non-catastrophic development of society and costs much less for people. Its external manifestation, the main method of implementation is ______(B), an imperious action aimed at changing certain areas, aspects of social life, in order to give society greater stability and ______(C).

Not all societies and have not always been able to solve problems through organic gradual transformations. In conditions of an acute systemic ______(D) society, when accumulated ______(D) literally explode the existing order, ______(E) occurs. It involves ______(G) transformation of social structures, demolition of old orders, rapid rapid innovation. The significance of these forms of development is assessed differently by thinkers. So, for example, K. Marx, the founder of scientific ______(Z), defined them as ______(I) locomotives. At the same time, many emphasized their ______(K), destructive impact on society.

List of terms

A	B	IN	G	D	E	AND	Z	AND	TO
2	11	5	9	1	6	8	10	18	14

By1 point for each correct insertion.

Maximum per task10 points.

Task 10

Title the diagram. Combine the following concepts into a classification scheme. (Concepts are given in the masculine gender, singular.)

Territorial, federation, decentralized, national, centralized, unitary, national-territorial, confederation.

Answer:

By1 point for each correct element.

Maximum per task9 points.

Task 11

Read an excerpt from the Weiner brothers' novel The Age of Mercy and answer the questions.

Having dragged quite a few “tongues” across the front line over the four years of war, I knew exactly how much a person taken by surprise could tell. I had absolutely no doubt that he, this bandit I captured, would be able to “talk” to the MUR. And therefore, the whole idea, where the main role was assigned to this yellow-mouthed sucker Vekshin, seemed unreliable to me. Yes, and inappropriate. I swayed again in the chair (it squealed shrilly - a stupid chair, on the curved back of which hung a round tin tag that looked like a medal) and said, clearing my throat slightly:

- Or maybe it makes sense to capture this bandit and have a serious talk with him here?

Everyone looked back at me, for a moment there was bewildered silence in the office, which was then broken by deafening laughter...

Zheglov put his hand on my shoulder and said:

“We’re not at the front here, dear friend!” We don’t need “languages”...

And I was surprised how Zheglov accurately guessed my thought. Of course, it would be best to remain silent and give them the opportunity to forget about my proposal, which, judging by the reaction, seemed to them all blatant stupidity, or absurdity, or illiteracy. But I’m already wound up, and when I’m wound up, I don’t fall into feverish excitement, but become stubborn, like a tank. That’s why I asked, calmly and quietly:

– Why do you need “languages” without any need?

Zheglov turned the cigarette over in his hands, blew into it with a whistle, and shrugged his shoulders:

– Because at the front the law is simple: the “tongue” you dragged is the enemy, and the issue with him is clear to the end. And the bandit you subdue can only be called an enemy when you prove that he committed a crime. So we’ll take him, and he’ll send us away.

– How will it “send”? That’s why he has a “language” to tell what is asked. “And you can prove it later,” I said with conviction.

Zheglov lit a cigarette, blew out a stream of smoke, and asked without pressure:

– At the front, if the “language” is silent, what do they do with it?

- Like what? – I was surprised. – They deal with him, as they say, according to the laws of war.

“Exactly,” Zheglov agreed. - And why? Because he is a soldier or officer of the enemy army, he fights with you with weapons in his hands and his guilt does not require proof...

- A bandit without a weapon, or what? – I resisted.

– It’s quite possible to come to a meeting without a weapon.

- Otherwise. His passport does not say that he is a bandit. On the contrary, it is even written that he is a citizen. Registration at some Krivokolenny street, five. Take him for twenty rubles!

Questions

11.1. What branch of Russian law regulates the situation that has become the subject of a dispute between the main characters of the novel? What is the name of the section of international law that governs the treatment of prisoners of war, including “tongues”?

11.2. In accordance with what legal principle does Zheglov reject the narrator’s offer to take the language?

11.3. Explain three provisions of this principle enshrined in the current Constitution of the Russian Federation.

Response Elements	Points
11.1. Should be named: criminal procedure law, international humanitarian law	2 points for each correctly indicated position. Maximum 4 points
11.2. Presumption of innocence	3 points for a correctly named principle
11.3. The following provisions can be mentioned. · Everyone accused of committing a crime is considered innocent until his guilt is proven in the manner prescribed by federal law and established by a court verdict that has entered into legal force. · The accused is not required to prove his innocence. · Irremovable doubts about a person’s guilt are interpreted in favor of the accused.	3 points for each correct statement. Maximum 9 points
Maximum per task	16 points

Task 12

Read the statements of famous people. In each case, several statements are devoted to one social science concept (in quotes the concept itself is replaced by asterisks). In different statements, the form of the word denoting this concept, or the part of speech, may change. Define the concepts and write the answer directly in the table.

Statements	Concepts
A) Napoleon Bonaparte) N. Machiavelli)
B) R. Dahl) U. Churchill)
IN) Time is **. ( B. Franklin) ** are good servants, but bad masters. ( F. Bacon)
G) *** is theft. ( AND. Proudhon) The great and main purpose of uniting people into states and placing themselves under the authority of the government is to preserve their **. ( D. Locke*)

Answer

Statements	Concepts
A) A people who does not want to feed their own *** will feed someone else's. ( Napoleon Bonaparte) He who has a good *** will find good allies. ( N. Machiavelli)	army
B) Silent citizens are ideal subjects for an authoritarian ruler and a disaster for ***. ( R. Dahl) *** is the worst form of government, apart from all the others. (

Cognition can be defined as a process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his consciousness, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him. Scientists distinguish the following types of knowledge: everyday, scientific, philosophical, artistic, social. None of these types of cognitive activity is isolated from the others; they are all closely interrelated.

In the process of cognition there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In a narrow sense, the subject of knowledge usually means a cognizing person, endowed with will and consciousness; in a broad sense, the entire society. The object of cognition, accordingly, is either the cognizable object, or - in a broad sense - the entire surrounding world within the boundaries within which individual people and society as a whole interact with it.

There are two stages of cognitive activity. At the first stage, which is called sensual (sensitive) cognition (from German sensitw - perceived by the senses), a person receives information about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with the help of the senses. The three main forms of sensory cognition are:

a) sensation, which is a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects in the surrounding world that directly affect the senses;

b) perception, during which the subject of cognition forms a holistic image that reflects objects and their properties that directly affect the senses;

c) representation - a form of cognition in which a sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is retained in consciousness, which allows it to be reproduced mentally even if it is absent and does not affect the senses.

The second stage of cognitive activity is rational knowledge (from the Latin ratio - reason). At this stage, relying on data obtained as a result of direct interaction of a person with the surrounding world, with the help of thinking, their ordering is carried out and an attempt is made to comprehend the essence of cognizable objects and phenomena.

Rational cognition is carried out in the forms of concept, judgment and inference.

Concept is a form (type) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of cognizable objects or phenomena.

Judgment is a form of thought in which a connection is established between individual concepts and with the help of this connection something is affirmed or denied.

By inference is called obtaining new judgments based on existing ones through the use of the laws of logical thinking.

Rational cognition is closely related to the reflected reality, that is, with sensory cognition, which serves as its basis. However, in contrast to sensory cognition, which exists in the form of images, the results of rational cognition are fixed in the form of signs or in language. Thus, human thinking, relying on sensory experience, transforms a sensory image through comparison, likening, generalization, and abstraction, and records the results of the transformation in symbolic form.

The essence of the cognition process is to obtain the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the world around us. Different philosophical schools answered the question about the possibility of understanding the world and obtaining true knowledge in different ways. Agnostics believed that it was impossible to obtain reliable knowledge, empiricists believed that this could only be done with the help of sensations, and rationalists argued that the criterion of truth is only reason.

Ticket number 6

Multivariate social development.

If changes in society occur gradually, then new things accumulate in the system quite slowly and sometimes unnoticed by the observer. And the old, the previous, is the basis on which the new is grown, organically combining the traces of the previous. We do not feel conflict and denial of the old by the new. We call such gradual progressive changes evolution. The evolutionary path of development does not imply a sharp break or destruction of previous social relations.

The external manifestation of evolution, the main way of its implementation is reform. By reform we mean an action of power aimed at changing certain areas and aspects of social life in order to give society greater stability and stability.

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Abstract on the topic: “Multivariate social development”Page 2

State budgetary professional educational institution of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug

"November College of Professional and Information Technologies"

in the subject "Social Studies"

on the topic “Multivariate social development”

Students Denisova Yu. S.

Teacher: Kovach Yu. O.

Noyabrsk

Introduction

Revolutions and their types

Traditional society

Industrial society

Post-industrial society

List of used literature

Introduction

If you take a mental look at the course of world history, you will notice many similarities in the development of different countries and peoples. Primitive society was everywhere replaced by a state-governed society. Feudal fragmentation was replaced by centralized monarchies. Bourgeois revolutions took place in many countries. All colonial empires collapsed, and dozens of independent states arose in their place. You yourself could continue listing similar events and processes that took place in different countries, on different continents. This similarity reveals the unity of the historical process, a certain identity of successive orders, the common destinies of different countries and peoples.

However, historical events are always unique and unrepeatable. The specific paths of development of individual countries and peoples are diverse. There are no peoples, countries, states with the same history. The diversity of concrete historical processes is caused by differences in natural conditions, the specifics of the economy, the uniqueness of spiritual culture, the peculiarities of the way of life, and many other factors. Does this mean that each country is predetermined by its own development option and that it is the only possible one? Historical experience shows that under certain conditions, various options for solving pressing problems are possible; there is a choice of methods, forms, and paths for further development. Alternative options are often offered by certain groups of society and various political forces.

Reforms, their types and directions

Development impulses can come from society itself, its internal contradictions, and from the outside.

External impulses can, in particular, be generated by the natural environment, space. For example, serious problems facing modern society are posed by climate change on our planet, so-called “global” warming. And the response to this “challenge” was the adoption by a number of countries of the world of the Kyoto Protocol, which requires countries to reduce emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. In 2004, Russia also ratified this protocol, committing itself to environmental protection.

If changes in society occur gradually, new things accumulate in the system quite slowly and sometimes unnoticed by the observer. The old, the previous is the basis on which the new is grown, organically combining traces of the previous. We do not feel conflict and denial of the old by the new. And only after some long time has passed, we exclaim in surprise: “How everything has changed around us!” We call such gradual progressive changes evolution. The evolutionary path of development does not imply the breakdown or destruction of previous social relations.

The external manifestation of evolution, the main way of its implementation is reform. By reform we mean an action of power aimed at changing certain areas and aspects of social life, in order to give society greater stability and stability.

The evolutionary path of development is not the only one. Not all societies and have not always been able to solve problems through organic gradual transformations. In conditions of an acute crisis affecting all spheres of social life, when accumulated contradictions literally explode the existing order, revolutions occur. Any revolution taking place in society presupposes a qualitative transformation of social structures, the destruction of old orders, and rapid, rapid innovation. A revolution releases significant social energy, which cannot always be controlled by the forces that initiated the revolutionary changes. The ideologists and practitioners of the revolution seem to be releasing the “genie from the bottle” in the form of a national element. Subsequently, they try to put this genie back, but this, as a rule, does not work. The revolutionary element begins to develop according to its own laws, perplexing its creators.

Types of reforms:

1. Progressive - these changes entail improvement, improvement of any area of life or an entire system. For example, the abolition of serfdom led to a significant improvement in the lives of the broad masses of the population. Progressive reforms have a positive effect on economic development, living standards or social security, as well as other indicators depending on the scope of their implementation.

2. Regressive - transformations that entail deterioration in the functioning of systems and structures, a decrease in living standards or other negative consequences in society. For example, the introduction of a high tax rate can lead to a reduction in production, the transition of the economy to the so-called “shadow activity”, and a deterioration in the standard of living of the population. Regressive reforms can develop into popular unrest, riots, and strikes. But, despite all their negative consequences, such measures are sometimes forced and subsequently give a positive result. For example, an increase in fees or taxes in order to strengthen the social protection of the population will initially cause a lot of popular indignation, but when the system is fully operational and the people experience the positive aspects of the changes, the unrest will stop, and the updates will have a positive impact on the standard of living of citizens.

Directions of reforms:

1. Social - transformations, changes, reorganization of any aspects of social life that do not destroy the foundations of the social system (these reforms are directly related to people). For example:

Support for motherhood and childhood - providing women who have given birth (adopted) a second or subsequent child the right to additional measures of state support in the form of the possibility of providing maternal (family) capital in the amount established by law and indexed taking into account the level of inflation when the child reaches three years of age, obtaining medical services for mother and child, purchasing housing, obtaining education.

Pension reform - Pension reform is aimed at changing the existing distribution system for calculating pensions, supplementing it with a funded part and personalized accounting of the state's insurance obligations to each citizen. The main objective of the reform is to achieve long-term financial balance of the pension system, increase the level of pension provision for citizens and create a stable source of additional income to the social system. The essence of the reform is to radically change the relationship between employee and employer: to increase the responsibility of workers for ensuring their old age, as well as to increase the employer’s responsibility for paying insurance premiums for each employee. The previously existing pension system did not give the worker the opportunity to earn a normal pension; it only redistributed funds between groups with different income levels and from one region to another. Whereas the new pension model is much more insurance and takes into account the pension rights of citizens depending on the size of their salaries and pension contributions paid. According to the new pension model, contributions to the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation, which total 28%, are divided into three parts:

· 14% goes to the federal budget and is used to pay the basic state pension; at the same time, a guaranteed minimum basic pension has been established;

· 8-12% of wages are the insurance part of the labor pension and are transferred to the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation;

· from 2 to 6% are sent to the fund for the formation<накопительной составляющей трудовой пенсии>The funded component will be formed from part of the unified social tax (UST) paid by the employer, and its size is tied to wages and, accordingly, to the amount of funds accumulated in the citizen’s individual account.

The size of the pension in the new pension model is determined, first of all, not by the employee’s length of service, but by his real earnings and the amount of contributions to the Pension Fund made by the employer. This should encourage workers, and then employers, to give up various types of<серых>salary schemes and bring hidden parts of salaries out of the shadows, thereby increasing the flow of funds to pay pensions to today's pensioners. The size of the basic and insurance parts of the pension is supposed to be indexed annually taking into account the inflation rate. According to the law “On Compulsory Pension Insurance,” the state bears full responsibility for the payment of pensions to citizens, including subsidiary responsibility for the activities of the Russian Pension Fund and is responsible for its obligations to the insured persons.

Education reforms: - introduction of the Unified State Exam.

The division of higher education into 2 levels - bachelor's and master's degrees. 2. Political - changes in the political sphere of public life (changes in the Constitution, electoral system, expansion of civil rights, etc.). For example:

1860 - Abolition of serfdom in 1860 under Alexander III.

December 12, 1993 - Constitutional reform (adoption of a new Constitution of the Russian Federation, which gave the President significant powers, while the powers of the Parliament were significantly reduced).

2000 - Decree “On the Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in the Federal District”, according to which federal districts were created in Russia.

3. Economic - transformations of the economic mechanism: forms, methods, levers and organization of economic management of the country (privatization, bankruptcy law, antimonopoly laws, etc.). For example:

1993 - Monetary reforms of Russia.

1998 - Ruble denomination - early 1990s -

Privatization. A significant part of state property became private property.

2002 - Adoption of the Federal Law “On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)”. Allowed the establishment of a stable, reliable system of legal relations, rights and obligations of subjects in a situation of insolvency.

Reforms can take place in all spheres of public life.

The degree of reformist transformations can be very significant, up to changes in the social system or the type of economic system: the reforms of Peter I, reforms in Russia in the early 90s. XX century

Revolutions and their types

Revolution - (French - radical revolution): a sharp abrupt transition of society from one qualitative state to another. It can be carried out peacefully or violently, depending on the presence (or absence) of the opposing social groups understanding of the objective necessity of this transition, a vision of peaceful ways to implement it and, finally, the political will to accomplish it through humane means with the least possible casualties. Often in the history of mankind, revolutions alternated with periods of counter-revolution - temporary deviations from the general course of transformations of society, its progressive development.

Types of revolutions:

Long-term, for example:

Neolithic revolution - X -III millennium BC. e. represents the transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering and fishing) to a producing economy (farming and pastoralism), which led to the transformation of hunting-gathering societies into agrarian ones. The most important reason for the dramatic changes in the development of mankind in the period between the X and III millennia BC. e. , called the Neolithic (New Stone Age), marked the transition to a productive economy.

Industrial Revolution - XVII-XVIII centuries. (industrial revolution, Great Industrial Revolution) is the transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufactory to factory. The transition from a predominantly agricultural economy to industrial production, as a result of which the transformation of an agrarian society into an industrial one occurs. The industrial revolution did not occur in different countries at the same time, but in general it can be considered that the period when these changes took place began in the second half of the 18th century and continued throughout the 19th century. A characteristic feature of the industrial revolution was the rapid growth of productive forces based on large-scale machine industry and the establishment of capitalism as the dominant world economic system. The term “industrial revolution” was introduced into scientific circulation by the outstanding French economist Jerome Blanqui. The Industrial Revolution is associated not just with the beginning of the mass use of machines, but also with a change in the entire structure of society. It was accompanied by a sharp increase in labor productivity, rapid urbanization, the beginning of rapid economic growth (before this, economic growth, as a rule, was noticeable only on a scale of centuries), and a historically rapid increase in the living standards of the population. The Industrial Revolution allowed the transition from an agrarian society (where the majority of the population lived in subsistence farming) to an industrial one in just 3-5 generations.

Short term, for example:

For our country, the most significant is the October Socialist Revolution of 1917, which brought global changes and influenced the historical development of many countries, if not the whole world.

The French Revolution was important both for France and for the world because it showed the world how the lives of large numbers of people could be changed quickly and seriously.

Nowadays “Velvet Revolutions” are in progress without casualties and shocks.

More painful are “color revolutions” that occur through mass protests and riots, usually organized by the opposition.

evolution society revolution reform

Classifications (typologies) of societies

When distinguishing different types of societies, thinkers are based, on the one hand, on the chronological principle, noting changes that occur over time in the organization of social life. On the other hand, certain characteristics of societies are grouped. coexisting with each other at the same time. This allows us to create a kind of horizontal cross-section of civilizations. Thus, speaking about traditional society as the basis for the formation of modern civilization, one cannot help but note the preservation of many of its features and characteristics in our days.

The most established approach in modern social science is the approach based on the identification of three types of societies: traditional (pre-industrial), industrial, post-industrial (sometimes called technological or information). This approach is based largely on a vertical, chronological section - that is, it assumes the replacement of one society by another in the course of historical development. What this approach has in common with the theory of K. Marx is that it is based primarily on the distinction of technical and technological features.

What are the characteristic features and characteristics of each of these societies? First of all, let us turn to the characteristics of traditional society - the basis for the formation of our modern world. An ancient and medieval society is primarily called traditional, although many of its features have been preserved for a long time in later times. For example, the countries of the East - Asia, Africa bear the signs of traditional civilization even today. So, what are the main features and characteristics of a traditional type of society?

First of all, in the very understanding of traditional society, it is necessary to note the focus on reproducing in an unchanged form methods of human activity, interactions, forms of communication, organization of life, and cultural patterns. That is, in this society, established relationships between people, working practices, family values, and way of life are diligently observed.

A person in a traditional society is bound by a complex system of dependence on the community and the state. His behavior is strictly regulated by the norms accepted in the family, class, and society as a whole.

Traditional society

It is distinguished by the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy; the majority of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, working on the land, living from its fruits. Land is considered the main wealth and the basis for the reproduction of society is what is produced on it. Mostly hand tools (plow, plow) are used; updating of equipment and production technology occurs rather slowly.

The main element of the structure of traditional societies is the agricultural community, the collective that manages the land. The individual in such a group is poorly identified, its interests are not clearly identified. The community, on the one hand, will limit the person, on the other, provide him with protection and stability. The most severe punishment in such a society was often considered expulsion from the community, “deprivation of shelter and water.” Society has a hierarchical structure, often divided into classes according to political and legal principles.

A feature of traditional society is its closedness to innovation and the extremely slow nature of change. And these changes themselves are not considered as a value. More important is stability, sustainability, following the commandments of our ancestors. Any innovation is seen as a threat to the existing world order, and the attitude towards it is extremely wary. “The traditions of all dead generations loom like a nightmare over the minds of the living.”

Czech educator Janusz Korczak noted the dogmatic way of life inherent in traditional society. “Prudence to the point of complete passivity, to the point of ignoring all rights and rules that have not become traditional, not sanctified by authorities, not rooted in repetition from day to day... Everything can become a dogma - the land, the church, the fatherland, virtue, and sin; could be science, social and political activity, wealth, any confrontation..."

A traditional society will diligently protect its behavioral norms and the standards of its culture from outside influences from other societies and cultures. An example of such “closedness” is the centuries-old development of China and Japan, which were characterized by a closed, self-sufficient existence and any contacts with foreigners were practically excluded by the authorities. The state and religion play a significant role in the history of traditional societies.

Of course, as trade, economic, military, political, cultural and other contacts between different countries and peoples develop, such “closedness” will be broken, often in a very painful way for these countries. Traditional societies, under the influence of the development of technology, technology, exchange, and means of communication, will enter a period of modernization.

Of course, this is a generalized portrait of traditional society. It should be more precisely said that we can talk about traditional society as a certain cumulative phenomenon, including the features of the development of different peoples at a certain stage, and there are many different traditional societies: Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Western European, Russian and many others, bearing the imprint of their culture .

We understand perfectly well that the societies of ancient Greece and the Old Babylonian kingdom differ significantly in the dominant forms of ownership, the degree of influence of communal structures and the state. If in Greece and Rome private property and the beginnings of civil rights and freedoms are developing, then in societies of the eastern type there are strong traditions of despotic rule, the suppression of man by the agricultural community, and the collective nature of labor. And, nevertheless, both are different versions of traditional society.

The long-term preservation of the agricultural community - the world in Russian history, the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the peasantry in the population, the joint labor and collective land use of communal peasants, autocratic power, allow us to characterize Russian society over many centuries of its development as traditional.

The transition to a new type of society - industrial - will take place quite late - only in the second half of the 19th century.

It cannot be said that this traditional society is a bygone stage, that everything associated with traditional structures, norms, and consciousness has remained in the distant past. Moreover, by thinking this way, we make it impossible for ourselves to navigate and understand many of the problems and phenomena of our modern world. And today, a number of societies retain the features of traditionalism, primarily in culture, public consciousness, political system, and everyday life.

The transition from a traditional society devoid of dynamism to an industrial-type society is reflected in the concept of modernization.

Industrial society

It is born as a result of the industrial revolution, leading to the development of a large factory industry, new types of transport and communications, a reduction in the role of agriculture in the structure of the economy and the relocation of people to cities.

The “Modern Philosophical Dictionary”, published in London in 1998, contains the following definition of industrial society: “An industrial society is characterized by the orientation of people towards constantly increasing volumes of production, consumption, knowledge, etc. The ideas of growth and progress are the “core” of the industrial myth, or ideology. The concept of the machine plays a significant role in the social organization of industrial society. The consequence of the implementation of ideas about the machine is the extensive development of production, as well as the “mechanization” of social relations, human relations with nature... The boundaries of the development of industrial society are revealed as the limits of extensively oriented production are discovered.”

Earlier than others, the industrial revolution swept the countries of Western Europe. The first country to implement it was Great Britain. By the middle of the 19th century, the vast majority of its population was employed in industry. Industrial society is characterized by rapid dynamic changes, increased social mobility, and urbanization - the process of growth and development of cities. Contacts and connections between countries and peoples are expanding. These communications are carried out through telegraph messages and telephones. The structure of society is also changing; its basis is not estates, but social groups that differ in their place in the economic system - classes. Along with changes in the economy and social sphere, the political system of industrial society is also changing - parliamentarism, a multi-party system are developing, and the rights and freedoms of citizens are expanding. Many researchers believe that the formation of a civil society that is aware of its interests and acts as a full partner of the state is also associated with the formation of an industrial society. To a certain extent, this particular society was called capitalist. The early stages of its development were analyzed in the 19th century. English scientists J. Mill, A. Smith, German scientist K. Marx.

At the same time, the era of the industrial revolution leads to increased unevenness in the development of different regions of the world, which leads to colonial wars, conquests, and the enslavement of the weak by strong countries.

Russian society quite late, only by the 40s of the 19th century. enters the period of the industrial revolution, and it is possible to talk about the formation of the foundations of an industrial society in Russia only at the beginning of the 20th century. Many historians believe that our country at the beginning of the 20th century. was an agrarian-industrial country. Russia was unable to complete industrialization in the pre-revolutionary period. Although this is precisely what the reforms carried out on the initiative of S.Yu. were aimed at. Witte and P.A. Stolypin.

The authorities returned to the task of completing industrialization, that is, creating a powerful industry that would make the main contribution to the national wealth of the country, already in the Soviet period of history.

We know the concept of “Stalinist industrialization”, which occurred in the 1930s - 1940s. In the shortest possible time, due to the accelerated development of industry, using as a source primarily funds received from the robbery of the countryside, mass collectivization of peasant farms, by the end of the 1930s our country created the foundations of heavy and military industry, mechanical engineering, and acquired independence from the supply of equipment from abroad. But did this mean the end of the industrialization process? Historians argue. Several researchers believe that all the same, even at the end of the 1930s, the main share of national wealth was formed in the agricultural sector; agriculture produced more product than industry.

Therefore, experts believe that the completion of industrialization occurs in the Soviet Union only after the Great Patriotic War, in the mid-second half of the 1950s. By this time, industry had taken a leading position in the production of gross domestic product. Also, most of the country's population found itself employed in the industrial sector.

Post-industrial society

This is the modern stage of human development.

The second half of the 20th century was marked by the rapid development of fundamental science, engineering and technology. Science is turning into an immediate powerful economic force. The rapid changes that have engulfed a number of spheres of life in modern society have made it possible to talk about the world entering the post-industrial era. In the 1960s, this term was first proposed by the American sociologist D. Bell. He also formulated the main features of such a society: the creation of a vast service economy, an increase in the layer of qualified scientific and technical specialists, the central role of scientific knowledge as a source of innovation, ensuring technological growth, and the creation of a new generation of intellectual technology. Following Bell, the theory of post-industrial society was developed by American scientists J. Galbraith and O. Toffler.

The basis of post-industrial society was the structural restructuring of the economy carried out in Western countries at the turn of the 1960s-1970s. Instead of heavy industry, the leading positions in the economy were taken by knowledge-intensive industries, the “knowledge industry”. The symbol of this era, its basis is the microprocessor revolution, the mass distribution of personal computers, information technology, and electronic communications. The pace of economic development and the speed of transmission of information and financial flows over distances are increasing manifold. With the entry of the world into the post-industrial, information era, there is a decrease in employment in industry, transport, industrial sectors and, on the contrary, the number of people employed in the service sector and the information sector is increasing. It is no coincidence that a number of authors call post-industrial society information or technological.

Characterizing modern society, the modern American researcher P. Drucker notes: “Today knowledge is already being applied to the sphere of knowledge itself, and this can be called a revolution in the field of management. Knowledge is quickly becoming the determining factor of production, relegating both capital and labor to the background.”

Scientists who study the development of culture and spiritual life introduce another name in relation to the modern, post-industrial world - the era of postmodernism. (By the era of modernism, scientists understand industrial society). If the concept of post-industriality mainly emphasizes differences in the sphere of economics, production, and methods of communication, then postmodernism covers, first of all, the sphere of consciousness, culture, and patterns of behavior.

The new perception of the world, according to scientists, is based on three main features.

Firstly, the end of faith in the capabilities of the human mind, a skeptical questioning of everything that European culture considers rational. Secondly, the collapse of the idea of unity and universality of the world. The postmodern understanding of the world is built on multiplicity, pluralism, and the absence of common models and canons for the development of different cultures. Thirdly, the era of postmodernism views the individual differently, “the individual, as responsible for shaping the world, resigns, he is outdated, he is recognized as associated with the prejudices of rationalism and is discarded.” The sphere of communication between people, communications, and collective agreements comes to the fore.

As the leading features of a postmodern society, scientists note increasing pluralism, multivariance and variety of forms of social development, changes in values, motives and incentives of people.

The approach we have considered in a generalized form presents the main milestones in the development of mankind, focusing primarily on the history of Western European countries. Thus, it significantly narrows the possibility of studying the specific features and development features of individual countries. He pays attention, first of all, to universal processes. Much remains beyond the attention of scientists. In addition, willy-nilly, we take for granted the point of view that there are countries that have taken the lead, there are those who are successfully catching up with them, and there are those who are hopelessly behind, not having time to jump on the bandwagon of the last carriage of the modernization machine rushing forward. The ideologists of modernization theory are convinced that the values and development models of Western society are universal and represent a guideline for development and imitation for everyone.

Concept of social progress

When starting a new business, a person believes that it will be successfully completed. We believe in the best and hope for the best. Our grandfathers and fathers, enduring all the hardships of life, the hard times of war, working tirelessly, were convinced that we, their children, would have a happy life, easier than the one they lived. And it has always been like this.

During the 16th - 17th centuries, when Europeans expanded the expanses of the Oikumene (Promised Land) by discovering the New World, when new branches of science began to emerge, the word “progress” appeared.

This concept is based on the Latin word “progressus” - “moving forward”.

In the modern scientific dictionary, social progress has come to be understood as the totality of all progressive changes in society, its development from simple to complex, the transition from a lower level to a higher one.

However, even inveterate optimists, convinced that the future must inevitably be better than the present, realized that the process of renewal does not always proceed smoothly and progressively. Sometimes, forward movement is followed by a rollback - a backward movement, when society can slide into more primitive stages of development. This process was called “regression.” Regression is opposed to progress.

Also in the development of society, we can distinguish periods when there is no obvious improvement, forward dynamics, but there is no movement back. This state began to be called the word “stagnation” or “stagnation”. Stagnation is an extremely dangerous phenomenon. It means that “inhibition mechanisms” have turned on in society, that it is not able to perceive the new, advanced. A society in a state of stagnation rejects this new, striving at all costs to preserve old, outdated structures, and resists renewal. Even the ancient Romans emphasized: “If you don’t move forward, you move backward.”

Progress, regression and stagnation do not exist separately in human history. They are intricately intertwined, replacing each other, complementing the picture of social development. Often, when studying historical events, for example, reforms or revolutions, you have come across such concepts as “counter-reforms”, “reactionary turn”. For example, when considering the “great reforms” of Alexander II, which affected all spheres of Russian society, led to the overthrow of serfdom, the creation of classless local governments (zemstvos and city councils), an independent judiciary), we cannot help but note the reaction that followed them - “counter-reforms” of Alexander III. This usually happens when innovations are too significant and fast and the social system does not have time to successfully adapt to them. A correction of these changes, a kind of “shrinkage” and “dwindling”, is inevitable. The famous Russian publicist M.N. Katkov, a contemporary of the “great reforms,” wrote that Russia had moved too far along the path of liberal reforms, that it was time to stop, look back, and understand how these changes relate to Russian reality. And, of course, make amendments. As you know from history lessons, it was in the 1880s and early 1890s that the powers of jury courts were limited and stricter control over the activities of zemstvos was established by the state.

The reforms of Peter I, in the words of A.S. Pushkin, “raised Russia on its hind legs,” caused significant shocks for our country. And to a certain extent, as the modern Russian historian A. Yanov aptly defined, the “de-Petrovization” of the country was required after the death of Tsar Peter. However, the reaction should not be viewed only in a negative way. Although most often, in history lessons we talk about its negative side. A reactionary period is always a curtailment of reforms and an attack on the rights of citizens. “Arakcheevshchina”, “Nikolaev reaction”, “dark seven years” - these are examples of such an approach. But the reaction is different. It can be a response to both liberal reforms and conservative transformations.

So, we noted that social progress is a complex and ambiguous concept. In its development, society does not always follow the path of improvement. Progress can be complemented by regressive periods and stagnation. Let us consider another side of social progress, which convinces us of the contradictory nature of this phenomenon.

Progress in one area of social life, for example, in science and technology, does not necessarily have to be complemented by progress in other areas. Moreover, even what we consider progressive today can turn into a disaster tomorrow or in the foreseeable future. Let's give an example. Many great discoveries of scientists, for example, the discovery of X-rays or the phenomenon of nuclear fission of uranium, gave rise to new types of terrible weapons - weapons of mass destruction.

Further, progress in one country does not necessarily entail progressive changes in other countries and regions. History gives us many similar examples. The Central Asian commander Tamerlane contributed to the significant prosperity of his country, the cultural and economic rise of its cities, but at what expense? Due to the robbery and ruin of other lands. Colonization of Asia and Africa by Europeans contributed to the growth of wealth and living standards of the peoples of Europe, but in a number of cases preserved archaic forms of social life in the countries of the East. Let's touch on another problem that touches on the topic of social progress. When we talk about “better” or “worst,” “high” or “low,” “primitive” or “complex,” we always mean the subjective characteristics inherent in people. What is progressive for one person may not be progressive for another. It is difficult to talk about progress when we mean the phenomena of spiritual culture and creative activity of people.

Social development will be influenced by both objective factors independent of the will and desires of people (natural phenomena, disasters), and subjective factors determined by the activities of people, their interests, aspirations, and capabilities. It is the action of the subjective factor in history (man) that makes the concept of social progress so complex and contradictory.

Social progress and modernization

A general concept that reflects the process of renewal and development of society is the concept of “modernization”. This is the extremely broad meaning of this concept.

However, more often when we talk about “modernization” we mean something different, an understanding of this process within the framework of the so-called modernization theory. This is the narrow meaning of this concept, that is, consideration as a process of transition from the development of a traditional type of society devoid of dynamism to an industrial society. Below we use modernization in the narrow sense. In this case, historically, modernization coincides with the transition from a feudal society to a capitalist society and is organically connected with the industrial revolution and the processes that it brings to life.

Thinkers identify several facets (sides) of modernization. Thus, economic modernization refers to the industrial revolution, that is, the transition from the manufacturing stage of production to the factory stage, from manual labor to the widespread dissemination of machine production. - Social modernization is the displacement of classes (groups of people differing on political and legal grounds) by social classes (groups of people differing in their place in the division of labor, in relation to property, social wealth).

The political side of modernization includes the establishment of parliamentarism, a multi-party system, and democratic institutions for interaction between society and government.

Spiritual modernization involves the formation of a new picture of the world, a change in the role of science in society, and the formation of a new spiritual image of man.

This understanding of modernization suffers from a certain one-sidedness, paying attention mainly to economic processes - the industrial revolution, the birth of equipment and technology of a new generation. The remaining processes are considered as secondary, indirect.

Modern Russian philosophers A.S. Akhiezer and S.Ya. Matveeva offer their own interpretation of modernization that can overcome this economic determinism. They see modernization, first of all, as changes in values and guidelines for the development of society.

S. Ya. Matveeva understands modernization as “a process of non-catastrophic (that is, not involving the destruction, breakdown of previous structures and relationships) transformation of society, perception and adaptation by the host culture of innovations and values of the host culture.” The host culture is a traditional society. The values of an industrial society are accepted. Moreover, each culture, each people masters new (essentially Western European) norms and values in its own way. There is no one-size-fits-all borrowing model.

It is very important to understand modernization as a non-catastrophic process, that is, one that does not lead society to destruction, death, or the breakdown of its supporting foundations. In a certain sense, a catastrophe is also considered to be a break in the continuity of development, a loss of connection with one’s own past, and an interruption of historical continuity. This understanding of modernization is especially important in our country - Russia. Because throughout the 20th century we had to experience essentially two national-state catastrophes, which led to the collapse of the previous statehood. These are the revolution of 1917, which buried the Russian Empire, and the events of 1991-1992, which led to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the formation of post-Soviet states. The new Russian statehood is very young, it dates back only a decade and a half. By historical standards, this is an extremely short period of time. And an analysis of the lessons of the past, an understanding of how important it is to carry out transformations and reforms, without allowing the destruction of the entire system of social relations, the severing of connections between generations, the continuity of historical development - a necessary element in the formation of modern Russia.

Bibliography

1. Belokrylova O. S., Mikhalkina E. V., Bannikova A. V., Agapov E. P. Social science. Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2006.

2. Kasyanov V.V. Social science. Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007.

3. Kokhanovsky V.P., Matyash G.P., Yakovlev V.P., Zharov L.V. Philosophy for secondary and special educational institutions. Rostov n/d, 2008.

4. Kravchenko A.I. Social science. M.: Russian Word, 2006.

5. Kurbatov V.I. Social science. Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007.

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Multivariate social development. Typology of societies

The life of each person and society as a whole is constantly changing. Not a single day or hour we live is similar to the previous ones. When do we say that a change has occurred? Then, when it is clear to us that one state is not equal to another and something new has appeared that did not exist before. How do all the changes occur and where are they directed?

At any given moment in time, a person and his associations are influenced by many factors, sometimes inconsistent with each other and multidirectional. Therefore, it is difficult to talk about any clear, distinct arrow-shaped line of development characteristic of society. Processes of change occur in complex, uneven ways, and their logic is sometimes difficult to grasp. The paths of social change are varied and winding.

We often come across such a concept as “social development”. Let's think about how change will generally differ from development? Which of these concepts is broader, and which is more specific (it can be included in another, considered as a special case of another)? It is obvious that not every change is development. But only that which involves complication, improvement and is associated with the manifestation of social progress.

What drives the development of society? What could be hidden behind each new stage? We should look for answers to these questions, first of all, in the system of complex social relations itself, in internal contradictions, conflicts of different interests.

Development impulses can come from society itself, its internal contradictions, and from the outside.

External impulses can be generated, in particular, by the natural environment and space. For example, climate change on our planet, the so-called “global warming,” has become a serious problem for modern society. The response to this “challenge” was the adoption by a number of countries of the world of the Kyoto Protocol, which requires reducing emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. In 2004, Russia also ratified this protocol, committing itself to environmental protection.

If changes in society occur gradually, then new things accumulate in the system quite slowly and sometimes unnoticed by the observer. And the old, the previous, is the basis on which the new is grown, organically combining the traces of the previous. We do not feel conflict and denial of the old by the new. And only after some time has passed we exclaim in surprise: “How everything has changed around us!” We call such gradual progressive changes evolution. The evolutionary path of development does not imply a sharp break or destruction of previous social relations.

The external manifestation of evolution, the main way of its implementation is reform. Under reform we understand the action of power aimed at changing certain areas and aspects of social life in order to give society greater stability and stability.

The evolutionary path of development is not the only one. Not all societies could solve pressing problems through organic gradual transformations. In conditions of an acute crisis affecting all spheres of society, when accumulated contradictions literally explode the existing order, revolution. Any revolution taking place in society presupposes a qualitative transformation of social structures, the destruction of old orders and rapid innovation. A revolution releases significant social energy, which cannot always be controlled by the forces that initiated the revolutionary changes. It’s as if the ideologists and practitioners of the revolution are letting the “genie out of the bottle.” Subsequently, they try to drive this “genie” back, but this, as a rule, does not work. The revolutionary element begins to develop according to its own laws, often perplexing its creators.

That is why spontaneous, chaotic principles often prevail in the course of a social revolution. Sometimes revolutions bury those people who stood at their origins. Or the results and consequences of the revolutionary explosion differ so significantly from the original tasks that the creators of the revolution cannot help but admit their defeat. Revolutions give rise to a new quality, and it is important to be able to timely transfer further development processes into an evolutionary direction. In the 20th century, Russia experienced two revolutions. Particularly severe shocks befell our country in 1917–1920.

As history shows, many revolutions were replaced by reaction, a rollback to the past. We can talk about different types of revolutions in the development of society: social, technical, scientific, cultural.

The significance of revolutions is assessed differently by thinkers. For example, the German philosopher K. Marx, the founder of scientific communism, considered revolutions to be the “locomotives of history.” At the same time, many emphasized the destructive, destructive effect of revolutions on society. In particular, the Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev (1874–1948) wrote the following about the revolution: “All revolutions ended in reactions. This is inevitable. This is the law. And the more violent and violent the revolutions were, the stronger the reactions were. There is some kind of magic circle in the alternation of revolutions and reactions.”

Comparing the paths of transformation of society, the famous modern Russian historian P.V. Volobuev wrote: “The evolutionary form, firstly, made it possible to ensure the continuity of social development and thanks to this preserve all the accumulated wealth. Secondly, evolution, contrary to our primitive ideas, was accompanied by major qualitative changes in society, not only in productive forces and technology, but also in spiritual culture, in the way of life of people. Thirdly, to solve new social problems that arose in the course of evolution, it adopted such a method of social transformation as reforms, which, in their “costs,” turned out to be simply incomparable with the gigantic price of many revolutions. Ultimately, as historical experience has shown, evolution is capable of ensuring and maintaining social progress, also giving it a civilized form.”

Typology of societies

When distinguishing different types of societies, thinkers are based, on the one hand, on the chronological principle, noting changes that occur over time in the organization of social life. On the other hand, certain characteristics of societies coexisting with each other at the same time are grouped. This allows us to create a kind of horizontal cross-section of civilizations. Thus, speaking about traditional society as the basis for the formation of modern civilization, one cannot help but note the preservation of many of its features and characteristics in our days.

The most established approach in modern social science is the one based on identifying three types of societies: traditional (pre-industrial), industrial, post-industrial (sometimes called technological or information). This approach is based largely on a vertical, chronological section, i.e. it assumes the replacement of one society by another in the course of historical development. What this approach has in common with the theory of K. Marx is that it is based primarily on the distinction of technical and technological features.

What are the characteristic features and characteristics of each of these societies? Let's look at the characteristics traditional society- the foundations of the formation of the modern world. An ancient and medieval society is primarily called traditional, although many of its features are preserved in later times. For example, the countries of the East, Asia, and Africa retain signs of traditional civilization today.

So, what are the main features and characteristics of a traditional type of society?

In the very understanding of traditional society, it is necessary to note the focus on reproducing in an unchanged form methods of human activity, interactions, forms of communication, organization of life, and cultural patterns. That is, in this society, the relationships that have developed between people, working practices, family values, and way of life are diligently respected.

Traditional society distinguished by the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the majority of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, working on the land, living from its fruits. Land is considered the main wealth, and the basis for the reproduction of society is what is produced on it. Mainly hand tools (plow, plow) are used; the updating of equipment and production technology occurs quite slowly.

The main element of the structure of traditional societies is the agricultural community: a collective that manages the land. The individual in such a group is poorly identified, its interests are not clearly identified. The community, on the one hand, will limit the person, on the other, provide him with protection and stability. The most severe punishment in such a society was often considered expulsion from the community, “deprivation of shelter and water.” Society has a hierarchical structure, often divided into classes according to political and legal principles.

The Czech teacher J. Korczak noted the dogmatic way of life inherent in traditional society: “Prudence to the point of complete passivity, to the point of ignoring all rights and rules that have not become traditional, not sanctified by authorities, not rooted by repetition day after day... Everything can become dogma - including the earth , and the church, and the fatherland, and virtue, and sin; could be science, social and political activity, wealth, any confrontation..."

Of course, as trade, economic, military, political, cultural and other contacts between different countries and peoples develop, such “closedness” will be broken, often in a very painful way for these countries. Traditional societies, under the influence of the development of technology, technology, and means of communication, will enter a period of modernization.

Of course, this is a generalized picture of traditional society. More precisely, we can talk about traditional society as a certain cumulative phenomenon, including the features of the development of different peoples at a certain stage. There are many different traditional societies (Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Western European, Russian, etc.), bearing the imprint of their culture.

We understand perfectly well that the societies of ancient Greece and the Old Babylonian kingdom differ significantly in the dominant forms of ownership, the degree of influence of communal structures and the state. If in Greece and Rome private property and the beginnings of civil rights and freedoms are developing, then in societies of the eastern type there are strong traditions of despotic rule, the suppression of man by the agricultural community, and the collective nature of labor. Nevertheless, both are different versions of traditional society.

The long-term preservation of the agricultural community, the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the peasantry in the population, the joint labor and collective land use of communal peasants, and autocratic power allow us to characterize Russian society over many centuries of its development as traditional. Transition to a new type of society - industrial- will be implemented quite late - only in the second half of the 19th century.

It cannot be said that traditional society is a bygone stage, that everything associated with traditional structures, norms, and consciousness is a thing of the distant past. Moreover, by thinking this way, we make it difficult for ourselves to understand many problems and phenomena of our contemporary world. And today, a number of societies retain the features of traditionalism, primarily in culture, public consciousness, political system, and everyday life.

The transition from a traditional society, devoid of dynamism, to an industrial-type society reflects such a concept as modernization.

Industrial society born as a result of the industrial revolution, leading to the development of large-scale industry, new types of transport and communications, a decrease in the role of agriculture in the structure of the economy and the relocation of people to cities.

The Modern Dictionary of Philosophy, published in 1998 in London, contains the following definition of industrial society:

An industrial society is characterized by the orientation of people toward ever-increasing volumes of production, consumption, knowledge, etc. The ideas of growth and progress are the “core” of the industrial myth, or ideology. The concept of the machine plays a significant role in the social organization of industrial society. The consequence of the implementation of ideas about the machine is the extensive development of production, as well as the “mechanization” of social relations, human relations with nature... The boundaries of the development of industrial society are revealed as the limits of extensively oriented production are discovered.

Earlier than others, the industrial revolution swept the countries of Western Europe. The first country to implement it was Great Britain. By the middle of the 19th century, the vast majority of its population was employed in industry. Industrial society is characterized by rapid dynamic changes, increased social mobility, and urbanization - the process of growth and development of cities. Contacts and connections between countries and peoples are expanding. These communications are carried out through telegraphic messages and telephones. The structure of society is also changing: it is based not on estates, but on social groups that differ in their place in the economic system - classes. Along with changes in the economy and social sphere, the political system of industrial society is also changing - parliamentarism, a multi-party system are developing, and the rights and freedoms of citizens are expanding. Many researchers believe that the formation of a civil society that is aware of its interests and acts as a full partner of the state is also associated with the formation of an industrial society. To a certain extent, it is precisely this society that is called capitalist. The early stages of its development were analyzed in the 19th century by English scientists J. Mill, A. Smith, and the German philosopher K. Marx.

At the same time, during the era of the industrial revolution, there is an increase in unevenness in the development of different regions of the world, which leads to colonial wars, conquests, and the enslavement of weak countries by strong ones.

Russian society entered the period of the industrial revolution quite late, only in the 40s of the 19th century, and the formation of the foundations of an industrial society in Russia was noted only at the beginning of the 20th century. Many historians believe that at the beginning of the 20th century our country was an agrarian-industrial one. Russia was unable to complete industrialization in the pre-revolutionary period. Although this is exactly what the reforms carried out on the initiative of S. Yu. Witte and P. A. Stolypin were aimed at.

Towards the completion of industrialization, that is, to the creation of a powerful industry that would make the main contribution to the national wealth of the country, the authorities returned to the Soviet period of history.

We know the concept of “Stalinist industrialization,” which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s. In the shortest possible time, at an accelerated pace, using primarily the funds obtained from the robbery of the countryside and the mass collectivization of peasant farms, by the end of the 1930s our country created the foundations of heavy and military industry, mechanical engineering and ceased to depend on the supply of equipment from abroad. But did this mean the end of the industrialization process? Historians argue. Some researchers believe that even at the end of the 1930s, the main share of national wealth was still formed in the agricultural sector, that is, agriculture produced more product than industry.

Therefore, experts believe that industrialization in the Soviet Union ended only after the Great Patriotic War, in the mid- to second half of the 1950s. By this time, industry had taken a leading position in the production of gross domestic product. Also, most of the country's population found itself employed in the industrial sector.

The second half of the 20th century was marked by the rapid development of fundamental science, engineering and technology. Science is turning into an immediate powerful economic force.

The rapid changes that have engulfed a number of spheres of life in modern society have made it possible to talk about the world entering into post-industrial era. In the 1960s, this term was first proposed by the American sociologist D. Bell. He also formulated main features of post-industrial society: creation of a vast service economy, increasing the layer of qualified scientific and technical specialists, the central role of scientific knowledge as a source of innovation, ensuring technological growth, creating a new generation of intellectual technology. Following Bell, the theory of post-industrial society was developed by American scientists J. Gal Breit and O. Toffler.

basis post-industrial society was the structural restructuring of the economy carried out in Western countries at the turn of the 1960s - 1970s. Instead of heavy industry, leading positions in the economy were taken by knowledge-intensive industries, the “knowledge industry.” The symbol of this era, its basis is the microprocessor revolution, the mass distribution of personal computers, information technology, and electronic communications. The pace of economic development and the speed of transmission of information and financial flows over distances are increasing manifold. With the entry of the world into the post-industrial, information era, there is a decrease in the employment of people in industry, transport, and industrial sectors, and vice versa, the number of people employed in the service sector and in the information sector is increasing. It is no coincidence that a number of scientists call post-industrial society informational or technological.

Characterizing modern society, American researcher P. Drucker notes: “Today knowledge is already being applied to the sphere of knowledge itself, and this can be called a revolution in the field of management. Knowledge is quickly becoming the determining factor of production, relegating both capital and labor to the background.”

Scientists studying the development of culture and spiritual life, in relation to the post-industrial world, introduce another name - postmodern era. (By the era of modernism, scientists understand industrial society. - Author's note.) If the concept of post-industriality mainly emphasizes differences in the sphere of economics, production, and methods of communication, then postmodernism covers primarily the sphere of consciousness, culture, and patterns of behavior.

The new perception of the world, according to scientists, is based on three main features.

Firstly, at the end of faith in the capabilities of the human mind, a skeptical questioning of everything that European culture traditionally considers rational. Secondly, on the collapse of the idea of unity and universality of the world. The postmodern understanding of the world is built on multiplicity, pluralism, and the absence of common models and canons for the development of different cultures. Thirdly: the era of postmodernism views personality differently, “the individual, as responsible for shaping the world, resigns, he is outdated, he is recognized as associated with the prejudices of rationalism and is discarded.” The sphere of communication between people, communications, and collective agreements comes to the fore.

Scientists name increasing pluralism, multivariance and variety of forms of social development, changes in the system of values, motives and incentives of people as the main features of postmodern society.

The approach we have chosen summarizes the main milestones in human development, focusing primarily on the history of Western European countries. Thus, it significantly narrows the possibility of studying the specific features and development features of individual countries. He pays attention primarily to universal processes, and much remains outside the field of view of scientists. In addition, willy-nilly, we take for granted the point of view that there are countries that have jumped ahead, there are those that are successfully catching up with them, and those that are hopelessly behind, not having time to jump into the last carriage of the modernization machine rushing forward. Ideologists of modernization theory are convinced that the values and development models of Western society are universal and are a guideline for development and a role model for everyone.

Society structure

Social institutions:

organize human activity into a certain system of roles and statuses, establishing patterns of human behavior in various spheres of public life;
include a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical;
organize, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character;
provide standard behavior of people in socially typical situations.

Society as a complex, self-developing system is characterized by the following specific features:

It is distinguished by a wide variety of different social structures and subsystems.
Society is not only people, but also the social relations that arise between them, between spheres (subsystems) and their institutions. Social relations are diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them).
Society is capable of creating and reproducing the necessary conditions for its own existence.
Society is a dynamic system, characterized by the emergence and development of new phenomena, obsolescence and death of old elements, as well as incompleteness and alternative development. The choice of development options is made by a person.
Society is characterized by unpredictability and nonlinear development.
Functions of the society:
– human reproduction and socialization;
– production of material goods and services;
– distribution of labor products (activities);
– regulation and management of activities and behavior;
– spiritual production.

The structure of the socio-economic formation

Productive forces- these are means of production and people with production experience and labor skills.
Relations of production- relationships between people that develop during the production process.
Type add-ons mainly determined by character basis. It also represents the basis of the formation, determining the affiliation of a particular society.
The authors of the approach highlighted five socio-economic formations:

primitive communal;
slaveholding;
feudal;
capitalist;
communist.

Selection criterion socio-economic formations is production activities of people, the nature of labor and methods of inclusion in the production process(natural necessity, non-economic coercion, economic coercion, labor becomes a personal need).
Driving force for development society is the class struggle. The transition from one socio-economic formation to another is carried out as a result of social revolutions.

Strengths of this approach:

– it is universal: almost all peoples went through the indicated stages in their development (to one degree or another);
– it allows you to compare the levels of development of different peoples in different historical periods;
– it allows you to track social progress.

Weak sides:

– does not take into account the specific conditions and characteristics of individual peoples;
– pays more attention to the economic sphere of society, subordinating all others to it.

Stage-civilizational approach (W. Rostow, Toffler)
This approach is based on the understanding of civilization as a stage in the process of progressive development of humanity, in its ascent along the ladder leading upward to a single world civilization.
Proponents of this approach distinguish three types of civilizations: traditional, industrial, post-industrial (or information society).

Characteristics of the main types of civilizations

Criteria for comparison	Traditional (agrarian) society	Industrial (Western) society	Post-industrial (information) society
Features of the historical process	Long, slow evolutionary development, lack of obvious boundaries between eras	Sharp, spasmodic, revolutionary development, the boundaries between eras are obvious	Evolutionary development of society, revolutions only in the scientific and technical sphere, globalization of all spheres of public life
Relations between society and nature	Harmonious relationships without destructive effects, the desire to adapt to nature	The desire to dominate nature, active transformative activities, the emergence of a global environmental problem	Awareness of the essence of the global environmental problem, attempts to solve it, the desire to create the noosphere - the “sphere of the mind”
Features of economic development	The leading sector is the agricultural sector, the main means of production is land, it is in communal ownership or incomplete private ownership, since the supreme owner is the ruler	Industry predominates; the main means of production is capital, which is privately owned.	The service sector and information production predominate, global economic integration, the creation of transnational corporations
Social structure of society	Rigid closed caste or class system, low or no level of social mobility	Open class social structure, high level of social mobility	Open social structure, stratification of society by income level, education, professional characteristics, high level of social mobility
Features of the political system, regulation of social relations	The predominance of monarchical forms of government; the main regulators of social relations are customs, traditions, and religious norms	The predominance of republican forms of government, the creation of a rule of law, the main regulator of social relations is law
Position of the individual in society	The individual is absorbed by the community and the state, the dominance of collectivist values	Individualism, personal freedom

What changes have occurred in society. Social progress

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Strengths of this approach:

Weak sides:

Characteristics of the main types of civilizations