Adjectives and adverbs in many languages of the world have degrees of comparison. In English these are Positive Degree, Comparative Degree and Superlative degree, in Polish - rywny, wyższy, najwyższy, in French - le positif, le comparatif, le superlatif. The Russian language is no exception; it has positive, comparative and superlative adjectives. How are they different and what are their forms?
Degrees of comparison: types, table
Adjectives and adverbs derived from them have the ability to form degrees of comparison.
There are three of them:
- Positive.
- Comparative.
- Excellent.
Each of them expresses a different level of possession of an object or a specific specific quality.
For example: resourceful boy ( positive), however he can be more resourceful ( comparative), and in a certain life situation, even become the most resourceful ( excellent).
From which adjectives can we form degrees of comparison?
As you know, all adjectives in the Russian language are divided into several categories.
- Qualitative - means characteristics that an object or living creature can possess in different degrees: sweet, sweeter, sweetest.
- Relative - they call the signs of an object or living creature according to their relation to circumstances, actions or other persons, things: a telephone call, a wooden building.
- Possessive - indicate that something belongs to someone: Pushkin’s stanza, father’s parting words.
Only from the first category can the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives be formed (charming - more charming, the most charming), since it is impossible to say: “a more wooden building” or “the most Pushkin stanza.”
Adverbs that come from the qualitative category of adjectives can also form degrees of comparison: cheerful - cheerfully (more cheerfully).
Comparative degree of adjectives in Russian
Before moving on to consider the comparative degree, it is worth mentioning a little about the positive degree. This is the name given to the initial degree of comparison (boring). In fact, it is considered only formally as a degree of comparison. But the next one is the comparative degree of the adjective (more boring, more boring). It serves to show that a certain object or person has a given quality in greater/lesser quantity than someone/something else. For example: “This tea is stronger (stronger) than the one we drank yesterday.”
Information about comparative forms
In the above example, you can see that the comparative degree in Russian can be formed in the following ways: using suffixes or by adding an additional word (in this example it is “more”). It turns out that we can distinguish 2 forms of the comparative degree of adjectives in the Russian language: simple and compound, or as it is sometimes called - complex.
Methods for forming a simple shape
There are several ways to form it.
- Using the suffixes -ee, -ey, -e, -she, added to the base: cheerful - more cheerful. However, it is worth remembering that if suffixes of the comparative degree of adjectives -e, -she are used, then alternation of consonants in the root of the word may occur, and the suffixes -k, -ok, -ek may be eliminated altogether. For example: narrow - narrower, ringing - louder.
- Sometimes a simple form can be formed by adding the same -ee, -ey, -e, -she, as well as the prefix po-. For example: soon - quickly, quickly - quickly. Adjectives formed in this way are usually the province of colloquial speech.
- Sometimes the comparative degree of adjectives in Russian is formed using a different word stem: bad - worse.
It is worth remembering that not every qualitative adjective can form a simple form. It so happened historically that it is simply impossible to form it from some words. For example, from adjectives such as “grand” or “businesslike”. After all, you can’t say: “grower” or “more businesslike.”
Unlike the positive, the simple comparative degree has no ending and does not change. For example, the adjective “light” changes according to gender and number: “light”, “light”, “light”, etc. In addition, it is declined according to cases. But the comparative degree of the adjective - “lighter” - is unchanged.
In this form, words, as a rule, perform the syntactic role of a predicate: “Words of love are sweeter than honey,” and in some cases they serve as definitions: “Make sweeter jam.”
Complex shape
Unlike the simple one, it is formed not with the help of suffixes or prefixes, but by adding the words “more” or “less” to the adjective in the positive degree. For example: “Rembrandt was a more brilliant artist than most of his contemporaries, but he was truly appreciated years after his death.”
Adjectives in complex form are declined by case, change by number and, accordingly, by gender, while “more” and “less” remain unchanged. For example: more powerful (powerful, powerful, powerful).
Both in simple and compound form, comparative adjectives in a sentence serve as predicates or modifiers: “Their relationship was closer and more elevated than that of anyone around them.”
Having considered the information about the comparative degree, it is now worth moving on to studying the superlative degree. And it will help you not to forget how the comparative degree of adjectives is formed - the table.
It briefly outlines all the information about simple and complex forms and their formation.
Brief information about superlatives
It serves to demonstrate that a certain object or living being is absolutely superior to any other in a certain quality, which is represented in it to the highest degree.
For example: “The third little pig’s house was the strongest and the wolf could not destroy it.”
A little about superlatives
Knowledge of how simple and complex comparative degrees of adjectives are formed will help you understand this topic. In the case of the superlative degree, both of its forms have similar names: simple and compound (complex) and are formed according to the corresponding principle.
They are formed according to the same principle:
- The simple one is formed by adding the suffixes -eysh, -aysh to the stem: caring - caring. Similar to the comparative, the superlative may also lose the stem suffix -k: low, lowest. A word formed using a simple superlative form is declined according to cases and changes according to numbers and genders. While the comparative degree of an adjective in a simple form is devoid of this property. For example: “light”. As mentioned above, in comparative form it is invariably “lighter”. But in the superlative degree - “brightest”, it can change: “brightest”, “brightest”.
- The compound form is formed by adding the words "most", "least" or "most" ("most", "most", "most") to the adjective in the positive degree. For example: the brightest, the least entertaining, the funniest. In some cases, the comparative degree of the adjective plus the word “all” may also participate in the formation. For example: “This girl completed the task faster than anyone in the class.” As with the comparative form, the superlative adjective changes according to the same categories. And the additional words: “most” or “least” remain unchanged: “The wolf ran the shortest route to Grandma’s house and got ahead of Little Red Riding Hood.” However, “most” also changes: “The wolf ran the shortest route to Grandma’s house and got ahead of Little Red Riding Hood.”
As for the syntactic role, adjectives in this degree, as a rule, act as predicates: “A most amazing journey.” Less often - definitions: “It was a story about an amazing journey.” And in complex form, they most often serve as definitions: “He was smarter than everyone else at school.”
Superlative and comparative degrees of adjectives: exercises to consolidate knowledge
To better remember all the material presented, you should practice by doing a few fairly simple exercises.
The topic of comparative degrees of adjectives itself is quite easy. However, in order to avoid mistakes, it is worth remembering the basic rules, especially since in most European languages adjectives also have 3 degrees of comparison. Therefore, having figured out what they are in Russian, you can safely take on the study of the grammar of foreign languages.
The difficulty of using qualitative adjectives also lies in the ability to form them degrees of comparison.
- Positive degree it is the simplest for all adjectives, since it simply says that a given attribute is present in the subject: cheerful, bright etc.
- comparative indicates that some feature is manifested in an object to a greater or lesser extent. This degree is formed only from qualitative adjectives. It can be simple and complex. A simple one is formed with the help of parts of a word - morphemes, and a complex one - with the help of additional words. Moreover, words in the form of a simple comparative degree do not change, that is, they are not inflected.
Ways to form a simple comparative degree:
⇒Do not form a simple comparative form:
- adjectives that have become qualitative from possessive and relative: golden (guy), fox (character);
- adjectives that do not change in degrees, as they denote a constant attribute: blind, deaf, single;
- adjectives with suffixes - SK-, -ESK-, -OV-, -K-, -ONK-, -OVAT-, etc.: caustic, friendly, businesslike, small, whitish;<.li>
- adjectives denoting animal colors: black, gray, bay.
Moreover, words in the form of a complex comparative degree can easily be declined according to cases, genders and numbers.
Ways to form simple superlatives:
⇒Words that do not form the simple superlative form:
- those that do not form the form of the simple comparative degree (see above);
- individual adjectives with the suffixes -CHIV-, -LIV-, -K-: hot, trusting;
- adjectives with suffixes -IST-, -AST-: big-eyed, vocal.
Here
Adjectives can have degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative.
The comparative degree of an adjective indicates that a characteristic characteristic of an object is manifested in it to a greater or lesser extent than in another object or objects:
Your briefcase is heavier than mine.
Your briefcase is heavier than mine.
The superlative degree indicates that in some one way the subject is superior to all other subjects:
Yerevan is the most ancient city in the world.
The comparative degree of adjectives has two forms:
simple and compound.
Simple form of comparative adjective
is formed by adding the suffixes -ee (-ee), -e, -she to the base of the initial form of the adjective:
kind - kinder, young - younger, thin - thinner.
The suffix of adjectives -k- (-ok-, -ek-) can be dropped if a simple
the comparative form is formed using the suffixes -e, -she.
In this case, there is also an alternation of consonants in the root:
low - lower, high - higher, thin - thinner.
Some adjectives have a comparative form with a different stem:
good is better, bad is worse, small is smaller.
The forms of the comparative degree in -ee(s), -e, -she can be joined by the prefix po-, which enhances or softens the degree of manifestation of the characteristic in one of the objects:
kinder (s), softer, thinner.
These forms, as well as forms like bolder, are characteristic of colloquial speech:
By nightfall the wind became stronger. The nights have become warmer.
The simple form of the comparative degree is unchangeable,
has no endings, but acts as a predicate in a sentence
or (less commonly) definitions:
Kind words are better than soft pie. Put on a warm coat.
The simple form of the comparative degree cannot be formed from all adjectives (timid, tall, businesslike, etc.).
The compound form of the comparative degree is formed by adding the words more or less to the initial form of the adjective:
fast - faster, loud - less loud.
The second word in the compound form of the comparative degree changes according to gender, case and number:
deeper snow, deeper river, along deeper rivers.
Adjectives in the compound form of the comparative degree in a sentence can be predicates and modifiers:
Our arguments are more subtle and profound. No one could give more convincing arguments.
When forming a compound comparative form
Avoid mistakes like more beautiful.
The superlative degree of adjectives has two forms:
simple and compound.
The simple superlative form of adjectives is formed by adding the suffixes -eysh- (-aysh-) to the base of the initial form of the adjective:
modest - the most modest, great - the greatest.
Before -aysh- there is an alternation of consonants:
strict - the strictest, quiet - the quietest.
The suffix -k- may appear: close - closest.
The simple form of the superlative degree changes according to gender, number,
cases. In a sentence it is a predicate or (less often) a definition:
The journey is most interesting. This was a story about an interesting journey.
The simple superlative form is most often used in literary speech.
ONLY QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES HAVE DEGREES OF COMPARISON!
Qualitative adjectives differ in that they can denote a characteristic in varying degrees of its manifestation ( large – larger – largest). These forms are called degrees of comparison:
Comparative
Excellent
The paradigm of degrees of comparison also includes the adjective from which the forms of degrees of comparison are formed. The semantic basis of degrees of comparison is the quantitative assessment of the measure of the attribute. In the comparative degree paradigm, the original adjective is called the positive degree form.
Comparative degree (comparative) - denotes a quality that is found in one subject to a greater extent than in another, the name of which is put in the form of the gender or nominative case; the latter is preceded by a comparative conjunction How(truth is more valuable than gold).
Superlative (superlative) - denotes the highest degree of quality in a subject compared to another: most favorite writer; inflected like regular adjectives.
Comparative and superlative degrees can be expressed in simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical) forms.
comparative
The simple form of the comparative degree does not change by gender, number and case; and therefore you need to be able to distinguish it from the form of the comparative degree of the adverb. If a word of this type is syntactically related to a noun, then it will compare the degree of the adjective; if it is connected to a verb, then it will compare the degree of the adverb ( oak is stronger than birch– adj; he squeezed the handle tighter– adverb)
Comparative forms tend to be used in the position of a connective, i.e. in the role of a predicate, but can also be a definition.
Formed from the base of the original adjective using suffixes –ee(s) – bolder,whiter(productive way) or –e, -she – more expensive, richer(unproductive way).
From adjectives with a stem on k, g, x and some words based on d, t, st comparative degree is formed using the suffix -e(in this case, final consonant stems alternate with sibilants) ( loud - louder, quiet - quieter, steep - steeper). In adjectives on -OK And -To the producing stem is truncation, the remaining final consonant alternates with a sibilant or paired soft ( high - above, low - below).
Comparative forms with suffix –she single ( distant - further, early - earlier, long - longer).
From three adjectives the form is formed suppletive way ( small - less, good - better, bad - worse).
Comparative forms are not formed from adjectives that name characteristics that do not change according to degrees. Sometimes they are not formed in accordance with the usage and not the meaning ( dilapidated, alien, scanty).
The complex form of degrees of comparison is formed by adding the word more. Moreover, such combinations can also be formed with a short form ( faster, more red).
Superlative
The simple form of the superlative degree has features in its meaning: in addition to the above basic meaning of the superiority of quality in an object compared to other objects, this form can denote the highest, extreme degree of quality in any object without comparison with others. In other words, it can denote a relatively high degree of quality: worst enemy, kindest creature.
The simple form is formed by adding a suffix –eysh (-aysh). Moreover, it is not formed from all adjectives; usually it is not found in those lexemes from which the comparative form is not formed. It may also be absent in those forms that have the form of a comparative degree. These are qualitative adjectives with suffixes –ast-, -ist, as well as many words with suffixes - liv-, -chiv-, -k-(narrow - narrower, hairy - hairier, silent - more silent).
A complex form is formed by combining a qualitative adjective and the word most. It is not related to lexical restrictions: the reddest, the kindest, the narrowest.
For adjectives with suffixes –ovat-(-evat-) no superlative form is formed, because the value of the incompleteness of the attribute is incompatible with the value of the high degree of the attribute ( the most deaf, the most deaf).
The superlative form denotes the highest degree of quality. Unlike the comparative degree, the superlative forms cannot express a comparative assessment of the degree of a characteristic in the same subject and in two subjects.
Qualitative adjectives have an inconsistent morphological feature of degrees of comparison.
School grammar indicates (see, for example, complex 2) that there are two degrees of comparison - comparative and superlative. It is more correct to distinguish three degrees of comparison - positive, comparative and superlative. The positive degree of comparison is the initial form of the adjective, in relation to which we recognize other forms as expressing greater/lesser or greatest/smallest degrees of the attribute.
The comparative degree of the adjective indicates that the attribute is manifested to a greater / lesser extent in this object compared to another object (Petya is taller than Vasya; This river is deeper than the other) or the same object in other circumstances (Petya is taller than he was last year; The river is deeper in this place than in that one).
The comparative degree can be simple or compound.
The simple comparative degree denotes a greater degree of manifestation of a characteristic and is formed as follows:
basis of the positive degree + formative suffixes -ee(s), -e, -she/-zhe (fast-ee, higher-e, earlier-she, deeper).
If at the end of a stem of a positive degree there is an element k/ok, this segment is often truncated: deep-y - deep-zhe.
Some adjectives have suppletive forms, that is, formed from another base: bad - worse, good - better.
When forming a simple comparative degree, the prefix po- (newer) can be added. A simple comparative degree with a prefix is used if the adjective occupies the position of an inconsistent definition (Give me a newer newspaper) and does not require introducing into the sentence what this attribute is being compared with. If there is in a sentence both what is being compared and what is being compared with, the prefix po- introduces a conversational connotation (These boots are newer than those).
The morphological features of the simple comparative degree are uncharacteristic of an adjective. This
1) immutability,
2) the ability to control a noun,
3) use primarily as a predicate (He is taller than his father). The position of definition can only be occupied by a simple comparative degree in a separate position (Much taller than other students, he seemed almost an adult) or in a non-separated position with the prefix po- in the position after the noun (Buy me fresher newspapers).
The compound comparative degree denotes both a greater and lesser degree of manifestation of a characteristic and is formed as follows:
element more/less + positive degree (more/less high).
The difference between a compound comparative degree and a simple one is as follows:
1) the compound comparative degree is broader in meaning, since it denotes not only a greater, but also a lesser degree of manifestation of a characteristic;
2) the compound comparative degree changes in the same way as the positive degree of comparison (original form), i.e., according to gender, number and cases, and can also appear in a short form (more beautiful);
3) a compound comparative degree can be either a predicate or a non-isolated and isolated definition (A less interesting article was presented in this journal. This article is less interesting than the previous one.)
The superlative degree of comparison indicates the greatest/smallest degree of manifestation of the characteristic (the highest mountain) or a very large/small degree of manifestation of the characteristic (the kindest person).
The superlative degree of comparison, like the comparative, can be simple or compound.
The simple superlative degree of comparison of an adjective denotes the greatest degree of manifestation of a characteristic and is formed as follows:
basis of the positive degree + formative suffixes -eysh- / -aysh- (after k, g, x, causing alternation): good-eysh-y, high-aysh-y
When forming a simple superlative degree of comparison, the prefix nai-: the kindest can be used.
The morphological features of the simple superlative degree of comparison of adjectives are the same as those of the positive degree, i.e., variability by gender, number, case, use of the attribute and predicate in the syntactic function. Unlike the positive degree, the simple superlative degree of comparison of an adjective does not have a short form.
The compound superlative degree of comparison of adjectives denotes both the greatest and the least degree of manifestation of a characteristic and is formed in three ways:
1) element the most + positive degree (the smartest);
2) element most/least + positive degree (most/least smart);
3) simple comparative degree + element of everything / everyone (He was smarter than everyone else).
The forms of the compound superlative degree, formed by the first and second methods, have morphological features characteristic of the positive degree, i.e. they change according to gender, number and cases, can have a short form (the most convenient), act both as a definition and as a nominal part predicate. Forms of the compound superlative degree, formed in the third way, are unchangeable and act primarily as the nominal part of the predicate.
Not all qualitative adjectives have forms of degrees of comparison, and the absence of simple forms of degrees of comparison is observed more often than the absence of compound forms.
The absence of simple comparative and superlative degrees may be due to
1) with the formal structure of the adjective: if the adjective contains a suffix that coincides with the suffixes of relative adjectives, it may not have a simple comparative degree (emaciated - *more emaciated, *emaciated, advanced - *more advanced);
2) with the lexical meaning of the adjective: the meaning of the degree of manifestation of the attribute can already be expressed at the base of the adjective - in its root (barefoot - * barefoot) or in the suffix (thick - * fatter, angry - * feisty, white-ish - *whiter, blue-ish - *blue).
Compound forms of degrees of comparison are not formed only in words with a semantic limitation, i.e. in the second case. So, there are no forms *more feisty, *less whitish, but there are forms less emaciated, more advanced.
Completeness/brevity of adjectives
Qualitative adjectives have a full and a short form
The short form is formed by adding positive degree endings to the stem: Ø for the masculine, -a for the feminine, -о / -е for the neuter, -ы / - and for the plural (glubok-Ø, glubok-a, glubok-o, deep- And).
A short form is not formed from qualitative adjectives, which
1) have the suffixes characteristic of relative adjectives -sk-, -ov-/-ev-, -n-: brown, coffee, brotherly;
2) indicate the colors of animals: brown, black;
3) have suffixes of subjective assessment: tall, blue.
The short form has grammatical differences from the full form: it does not change by case, in a sentence it acts primarily as a nominal part of the predicate (cases like the red maiden, the white combustible stone are phraseologically archaic); the short form acts as a definition only in a separate syntactic position (Angry at the whole world, he almost stopped leaving the house).
In the position of the predicate, the meaning of the full and short forms usually coincides, but for some adjectives the following semantic differences are possible between them:
1) the short form denotes excessive manifestation of a characteristic with a negative assessment, cf.: short skirt - short skirt;
2) the short form denotes a temporary sign, the full form - permanent, cf.: the child is sick - the child is sick.
There are such qualitative adjectives that have only a short form: glad, much, must.
Transition of adjectives from category to category
It is possible for an adjective to have several meanings belonging to different categories. In school grammar this is called “the transition of an adjective from category to category.” Thus, a relative adjective can develop a meaning characteristic of qualitative ones (for example: iron part (relative) - iron will (quality) - metaphorical transfer). Possessives may have meanings characteristic of relative and qualitative ones (for example: fox hole (possessive) - fox hat (relative) - fox habits (qualitative). Qualitative adjectives, used terminologically, function as relative (voiceless consonants). When In this case, the adjective retains the type of its declension, but often changes morphological characteristics: qualitative ones lose degrees of comparison and a short form (for example, it is impossible to say * This consonant is deaf), and relative ones, on the contrary, can acquire these characteristics (With each word his voice became more and more honeyed , and his habits are becoming more and more fox-like.).