Grammar rules.
Over time, in the course of the constant development of the language, not only the pronunciation and lexical norms of the Russian language change, but also, although to a lesser extent, its grammatical norms. As you know, grammar has two subsystems: morphology and syntax. Morphology - it is a systematized set of word forms (declension, conjugation paradigms), as well as rules for their use, and at the same time it is a section of grammar that studies and describes these forms and rules. Us in this case. We are not interested in those historically changed norms for the formation and use of word forms, but in the currently available variants of norms that we ourselves encounter every day and which in one way or another cause difficulties in use. Thus, outside the scope of our consideration will be nouns that relatively recently had a different gender affiliation and currently do not cause difficulties in use. Wed. old banknote, dahlia, hall, rail and modern banknotes, dahlia, hall, rail. Or the infinitive forms used by Pushkin carry, translate, bring, plural forms used by Gogol such as houses, weeks and established in our time carry, translate, bring together; at home, weeks.
The use of which variants of morphological forms causes the greatest difficulties at the present time? Let us consider these forms according to their belonging to one or another part of speech.
In nouns. 1. Compound words made up of the first letters (CIS - esenge) or sounds (ITAR) of the words from which they are formed have the gender of the main word. CIS is Commonwealth Independent States, where is the stem word commonwealth belongs to the neuter gender; that's why they say The CIS arose. ITAR - This Information Telegraph Agency of Russia; that's why they say ITAR reported. However, if there are no associations of the abbreviation with generating words in people’s minds, it receives gender, like an ordinary word, according to the formal indicator and is classified as masculine in the case of a zero ending (Housing office- despite the fact that it is housing and maintenance office), to neuter - in case of ending = o (RONO- although this district department of public education).
2. Indeclinable nouns denoting a profession, position, title, traditionally associated with male labor (such as attache, referee), belong to the masculine gender. The gender of indeclinable geographical names is determined by the gender of the corresponding generic noun: Karachi refers to the masculine gender, like the corresponding generic word city, Wembley - also to the masculine gender (stadium), Missouri - to feminine (river), Ontario- to the neuter gender (lake).
3. Nouns with an abstract (abstract) meaning, naming any action or any sign that is not associated with specific objects (persons): restructuring, denomination, by-elections; federalism, farming - cannot carry a cardinal number and are usually used in the form of only one number, singular (beauty) or multiple (re-election). But when the direct lexical meaning changes, some of the abstract nouns can receive a plural form: In the mountains we encountered suchbeauty natures that, living in the city, could not even be imagined. Here beauty means "beautiful places".
4. Real nouns, i.e. nouns denoting substance, homogeneous mass (perfume, milk, iron), are used only in the form of one number: singular (clay, cement) or multiple (canned food, sawdust). However, when used in a special meaning, they can take the plural form: Based on their chemical composition, they distinguish between carbon and alloybecome, By purpose - structural and instrumentalbecome.
5. Some inanimate masculine nouns can have singular endings in the genitive case not only =a, =i, but also =y, =yu. TO such nouns include:
1) real, when indicating the quantity of something (centner of granulated sugar - sand, little snow - snow) or the absence of a certain amount (not a gram of sand - sand, not a drop of alcohol - alcohol); This especially applies to material nouns with diminutive suffixes (pour sand); 2) abstract, in the same cases (how much squealing - squealing; no screaming - screaming, no noise - noise);
3) words included in stable combinations (a week without a year, no laughing matter). Forms with endings =y, =yu are conversational in nature.
6. Some inanimate masculine nouns in the prepositional singular case with prepositions V And us stressed endings can always have spatial meaning =y, =yu (in the corner, on the closet). The most common of these nouns are: shore, board(ship), Crimea, forest, bridge, port, row, garden, corner, closet.
If there are ending options =е- =у (on vacation - on vacation, in the cold - in the cold, in the workshop - in the workshop) the first is neutral in nature, and the second is colloquial.
7. A number of masculine nouns in the nominative plural have stressed endings =(=): address - address, poplar - poplar. The most common nouns receiving this form are: side, shore, century, evening, eye, voice, director, house, doctor, building, cut, camp, master, number, order, island, passport, train, professor, volume, color. In case of hesitation in the choice of endings = s(=And) – =A(=I) the latter are more typical of everyday and professional speech: gdy-year, inspectors-inspector, spotlights-searchlight, sectors-sector, mechanics-locksmith, weaver-turner, tpolytopol, tractors-tractor, kori-anchor. At the same time, it should be kept in mind; that some variant forms differ in meaning: images(artistic and literary) and image(icons), taken into account(thought leaders) and teacher(teachers), color(plants) - color(coloring), etc.
8. Some groups of masculine nouns in the genitive plural have the nominative singular form (without ending). Such groups are: 1) individual names of persons by nationality (Buryats, Georgians, Lezgins, Turks, Gypsies, but cf. Arabs, Mongols), 2) individual names of persons associated with military service (hussar, partisan, soldier; but cf. captains, colonels), 3) individual names of paired items (boot, felt boots, shoulder straps, boots, stockings; but cf. socks);
4) separate names of units of measurement when indicating their quantity (ampere, watt, volt, hertz, ohm, x-ray),
In the case of vibrations of forms with zero ending and with =ov the former are characteristic of colloquial speech, and the latter – strictly literary language (sector - sectors, orange - oranges),
9. Nouns of the second declension in the instrumental case of the singular have variable endings = oh(=ee) And =oo (=her): head, page – head, page. The latter forms are found, as a rule, in poetry, being determined by the rules of rhyme.
10. General nouns are declined according to the feminine declension model, but are used most often in colloquial speech: crank, dude, bore,
11. Animate are masculine and feminine nouns that denote living beings (people, animals) and mythical (devil, brownie). However, animate nouns also include words such as doll, dead man, deceased, and some neuter nouns (child, animal, person - human, mammal, insect, monster, monster), For animate nouns of all genders in the plural and the masculine first declension in the singular, the endings of the accusative and genitive cases coincide: At the zoo, the children saw elephant (white bear, exoticanimals, others children). Inanimate nouns used figuratively are perceived as animate. Wed: In daylight it is impossible to see the stars and at the gala concert we saw real stars.
12. Among the nouns there are indeclinables, i.e. preserving the initial form in all cases. These include:
3) Russian surnames =ago, =yago, =ovo, = yh, = them: Zhivago, Durnovo, Teplykh, Dolgikh.
4) Compound words like RF(Russian Federation), vice president.
If indeclinable nouns name objects, they are neuter, except coffee (kimono, domino), if they are living beings, their gender depends on the sex of the latter: young – young kangaroo; Durnovo reported - a.
In the absence of gender indications, animal names are assigned to the masculine gender.
13. Personal nouns with suffixes = w=a And =their=a type engineer, janitor have a conversational character, even with a dismissive connotation.
In adjectives. 1. If it is possible to form from adjectives to =ed short forms on =en And = enen (immoral - immoral, immoral) it must be borne in mind that although both forms are literary, the latter is more characteristic of bookish speech.
2. Possessive adjectives on =ov, =in means belonging to one person: fathers (instructions), grandfather (household) and are characteristic of colloquial speech. In other styles, such adjectives are replaced by the genitive form of the noun with the meaning of belonging: father's instructions, grandfather's farming... If adjectives of this kind are included in stable phrases, they are also used in book speech: Archimedes' lever, Solomon's solution.
3. Of the two options for the simple comparative degree of qualitative adjectives, = her And =ey (more active - more active) the latter is characteristic of colloquial speech.
You cannot combine simple and complex forms of degrees of comparison in one qualitative adjective. Type combinations less or more active are erroneous.
The same should be said about the combination of a simple and complex superlative form in one qualitative adjective ( the most beautiful).
In numerals. Collective numbers are most often combined with masculine nouns with the meaning of person (two schoolchildren, three teachers), with names of the cubs (four cubs), with nouns that only have a plural form (two scissors) or denoting paired objects ( two socks), with common nouns ( five judges) and personal pronouns (there were six of them). WITH Other nouns do not combine collective numerals.
Collective numbers stand apart both(masculine and neuter) and both(feminine) which have gender forms. When declension of the numeral both, the stem ends in = about (both-them), numeral both- on == e(both).
2. In compound cardinal numbers, each word is declined. The word thousand in combination with the word one has the form in the instrumental case thousand, but not thousand: one thousand two hundred thirty three.
Declension of compound numerals in oral speech is often simplified: a) only their initial and final components can be declined (settlement with three thousand ninetyfive residents); b) only their last component can be declined (the laboratory was located twentythree offices). Such usage cannot be considered literary.
At pronouns. 1. Interrogative pronouns Who And What do not have morphological categories of gender and number. When using the pronoun who, the verb = predicate is used in the masculine gender (Who's late to class?) with a pronoun What - neuter (What happened?). In combination with a pronoun Who type definitions this, different, different take the form masculine or feminine depending on the actual gender of the person referred to by the pronoun (Who is this? Who is this?)
2. If the role of the subject is a noun or a 3rd person pronoun, then belonging to the actor can only be expressed by a pronoun mine:Somebody of passengers (passenger) forgotmine umbrella in a subway car.
If the subject is the personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons (me, you, we, you), then the belonging of someone or something to an actor can be expressed by a pronoun mine and pronouns my, yours, ours, yours, although in real speech the first is preferred: Outside the city I mettheir(mine) comrades.
3. It is necessary to differentiate in the use of pronouns myself and the most. The first means “on its own” and is used with personal pronouns and animate nouns: The rector himself (he With am) decided to hold a meeting. For inanimate nouns, a pronoun myself can be used to clarify, emphasize, or highlight something. Self the meeting went well. Pronoun most used to draw attention to some feature of an object: The meeting proceeded to considerationhimself essence of the problem. Pronoun herself in the accusative case it has two forms: most(which is bookish and also outdated) and herself(which is perceived as more modern).
4. Pronoun differences so and so are that , that the first is used most often as a definition and has a connotation of intensification. Such We were received for the first time. Pronoun that's how it is used as a predicate, in particular in stable revolutions like and it was like this:This is was his story. The cheese fell out, there was a cheat with itthat's how it is.
5. Pronouns everyone, everyone and adjective any are close in meaning, but not interchangeable. Wed: Athletes were preparing for competitionsevery day(i.e. all days without exception). That summer we passedall sorts of competitions(i.e. different). The athletes were ready to competeat any day(i.e. on one of the days, on any day, it doesn’t matter which).
6. Accusative case of the reflexive pronoun myself may refer to different persons mentioned in a sentence: Friends don't let me jokeabove oneself. Here above oneself may be meaningful To friends and co to me. Such ambiguity should be avoided. It is better to construct this proposal differently: Friends don't allow me to joke with them(if we are talking about a joke at the expense of friends) and Friends don't allow me to joke about myself(if we are talking about a joke at my address).
7. After prepositions, personal pronouns have a 3rd person n(their- in them, him - near him).
8. Pronouns You And your can be used as a form of polite address to one person and in this case are written in capital letters: Why You do you think that Yours The audience will like the performance.
In adverbs. Complex superlative forms of adverbs can be formed from the base of a complex superlative form of adjectives using the suffix =e, but in modern Russian they are almost never used (we humbly request).
For verbs. 1. When forming imperfective forms from verbs using the suffix = yva= (=willow=) there may be an alternation of sounds [o– A] at the base. If parallel forms are formed (condition – condition, empower – authorize), then the first of them correspond to strictly literary use, and the second are used in colloquial speech. If in doubt, consult a dictionary.
2. Some verbs with =nu form variant forms with and without the suffix =nu=); the latter are currently preferred: accustomed and accustomed, withered and withered.
Accentological norms
The features and functions of stress are studied by a branch of linguistics called accentology(from lat. accentus - emphasis). Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages in which stress is assigned to a specific syllable. For example, in English the first syllable is stressed, in Polish - the penultimate one, in Armenian, French - the last. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous. Stress in Russian can be movable or fixed. If in different forms of a word the stress falls on the same part, then such stress is stationary (take care, take care, take care, take care, take care, take care - the stress is assigned to the ending). An accent that changes its place in different forms of the same word is called movable (right, right, right; I can, you can, they can). Most words in the Russian language have a fixed stress.
Stress is of great importance in the Russian language and performs various functions:
The semantics of a word depends on stress ( cotton - cotton; carnations - carnations).
It indicates the grammatical form ( hands- nominative plural, and hands- genitive singular).
Stress helps differentiate the meaning of words and their forms: protein- genitive case of the word squirrel, and protein– the nominative case of a word that names a component of an egg or part of an eye. The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases because for some words there are variations in stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect, e.g. kitchen, tool, petition, wrong: kitchen, tool, petition.
Orthoepic norms
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special branch of linguistics - orthoepy (Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepy is also called a set of rules of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Spelling errors always interfere with the perception of the content of speech; the listener's attention is distracted by various incorrect pronunciations and the statement is not perceived in its entirety and with sufficient attention. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the communication process. Therefore, the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses. Let's consider basic rules of literary pronunciation that must be followed.
Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose clarity and clarity of sound; they are pronounced with weakened articulation. This is called the law of reduction. Reduction can be quantitative (when the sound changes only the length of the sound) and qualitative (when the sound changes its quality). The vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: ravine - [a]enemy, autonomy - [a]vt[a]nomiya, milk - m[a]l[ a]ko. The letters e and i in the pre-stressed syllable indicate the sound intermediate between [e] and [i]: nickle - p[i]tak, pero - p[i]ro. The vowel [and] after a hard consonant, a preposition, or when pronouncing a word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical institute - medical institute, from spark - from [s]skra.
Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are deafening and assimilation.
In Russian speech, there is a mandatory deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word. We pronounce hle[n] – bread, sa[t] – garden, lyubo[f’] – love, etc. This deafening is one of the characteristic features of Russian literary speech. It is necessary to take into account that the consonant [g] at the end of a word always turns into its paired unvoiced sound [k]: le[k] - lay down, poro[k] - threshold, etc. In this case, pronouncing the sound [x] is unacceptable as a dialect. The exception is the word god - bo[x]. [G] is pronounced like [x] in combinations gk and gch: le[hk']ii - easy, le[hk]o - easy. You should pay attention to the combination of chn, since errors are often made when pronouncing it. There is a fluctuation in the pronunciation of words with this combination, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination chn is usually pronounced [chn], especially for words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as for words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing). The pronunciation [shn] instead of the spelling chn is currently required in female patronymics in -ichna: Ilyini[sh]a, Lukini[sh]a, -Fomini[sh]a, and is also preserved in individual words: kone[sh]o, pe[sh]itsa, laundry[sh]aya, empty[sh]y, starling[sh]ik, eggs[sh]itsa, etc.
Some words with the combination chn are pronounced in two ways according to the norm: poryado [shn]o and poryado [chn]o. In some cases, different pronunciations of the chn combination serve to semantically differentiate words: heartbeat - heartfelt friend. Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern spelling norms and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features. For example, sometimes the pronunciation of the sound [o] is preserved in unstressed syllables (m[o]del, [o]asis, [o]tel) and hard consonants before the front vowel [e] (s[te)nd, ko[de] ks, cough [ne]). In most borrowed words, the consonants before [e] are softened: ka[t']et, pa[t']efon, faculty[t']et, mu[z']ey, [r']ektor, pio[n' ]er. The back consonants are always softened before [e]: pa[k’]et, [k’]egli, s[h’]ema, ba[g’]et. Pay attention to the table, which presents spelling errors, the list of which was not explained in the previous material:
EXAMPLES OF SPELLING ERRORS
1. Assimilation(similarity of sounds) Laboratory(instead of laboratory); Brunsboit(instead of hose); kolidor (corridor); biton (can); cardon (cardboard).
2. Epenthesis(unjustified insertion of sounds): b unprecedented ( norm: unprecedented); military commander (military leader); dermatin (dermatin); porcupine (porcupine); competent (competent); compromise (compromise); Competitive (competitive); ascertain (to state); summerCalculation (chronology); prospect (perspective); perEturbation (perturbation); slip (slip); presentation of light (the end of the world - the light disappears, i.e. dies); sTram (shame); Extraordinary (extraordinary), food (food).
3. Dierez(erroneous elimination of sounds): should be spoken KeychainOka(R.p., singular), not keychain; Azerbaijan(but not Azerbaijan); Time Pastime(but not pastime)
4. Metathesis(change of sounds), simplification: meticulous(norm: scrupulous); tram (trauma); tram (tram); colander (colander).
Lexical norms
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are the correctness of choosing a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, the use of a word in the meanings that it has in the language, the appropriateness of its use in a given situation. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for correct speech. The correct choice of a word and its use in the right meaning always allows you to accurately express the content and meaning of a statement.
Mastering the norms of word usage occurs throughout a person’s life, because the vocabulary of the language includes, according to, for example, the Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (Big Academic) 120,480 words. And this is far from the full volume of vocabulary, moreover, the vocabulary of only the literary language. The lexical system is constantly developing and is replenished with new words, including borrowed words. It lends itself poorly to formalization and unification. That is why it is impossible to give a list of difficult cases of implementing norms of word usage, or some kind of set of rules. Consulting explanatory dictionaries and thoughtful reading of fiction and other texts help expand your vocabulary and develop your linguistic sense.
1. Remember the need to accurately understand the meaning of a word; if you have any difficulties, refer to explanatory dictionaries or look for a replacement for the given word with an equivalent known to you. The applicant who wrote in the essay: “He vegetated in the evenings at the theater,” clearly did not know the exact meaning of the word “vegetate” - to lead a miserable, meaningless, aimless life.
2. It is necessary to take into account that incorrect word usage may be associated with a failure to distinguish between the shades of meaning of synonyms, that is, words that are close, but not identical in meaning. For example, the use of the word extensive in the context: “One can only be surprised by his extensive (instead of big) love” is incorrect, since the adjective “vast” is synonymous with the adjective “big” when denoting size, magnitude (large territory, vast territory), but not when indicating the strength of feeling.
It is useful to refer to special dictionaries of synonyms. So, in the “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” Z.E. Alexandrova, the word extensive is given as a synonym for the adjective big with the corresponding clarifications: extensive - large in volume.
3. We must not forget about such a phenomenon as the polysemy of a word. Many words in the language have this property, that is, the ability to be used in different meanings. Different meanings of words are given in explanatory dictionaries: the main one is indicated first (it is also called direct, primary, main), and then the derivatives from it (figurative, secondary). For example, the verb touch has a primary meaning of “to touch someone or something” and two figurative, secondary meanings – “to relate to someone or something” (This does not concern you); “touch on any issue in the presentation” (touch on a topic, problem, question). A word taken in isolation, out of context, is perceived in its basic meaning, while derivative meanings are revealed only in combination with other words.
4. Remember that a polysemantic word may have different lexical compatibility, that is, the ability to connect in meaning with other words. In a language, the ban on combining words with each other is imposed primarily by their inherent meanings, as well as by the tradition of use, the historically established norm. For example, the word round in its basic meaning - “having the shape of a circle” is connected with the words table, box, face, etc. But, speaking in the meaning “whole, whole, without interruption (about time)”, the word round is combined only with the nouns year, day, and in the meaning “full, perfect” - with such as ignoramus, excellent student, orphan. Violation of lexical compatibility often occurs in speech.
Examples from the essays of applicants: “to create a special interest on the reader” (instead of “to make an impression” or “to arouse interest”), “to use folk art in your works” (instead of “turn to folk art in your works”), “to wear a symbolic image ” (instead of “have a symbolic meaning”). In some cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the consolidation of words in stable expressions. Stable combinations (that’s why they are called that) have very definite connections that cannot be destroyed: pay attention or attach importance, and not “pay attention”; to play a role or have a meaning, rather than “play a meaning”; express a protest, not “make a protest.” This is why the following usages are erroneous: Moral issues are now given great importance. The novel played a great role in Pushkin's life. Going on a date, Katerina makes an open protest to the dark kingdom.
5. It is necessary to take into account the existence in the language of paronyms (from the Greek para next + onoma - name), that is, similar, consonant words of the same root with different meanings, and paronomases, that is, words of different roots, distant in meaning, but similar in sound. For example, dress and put on, economy and economy (paronyms); accustom and tame (paronomases). The presence of similarities in sound creates additional difficulties when choosing a word if you know its meaning only approximately. Hence such violations of the norms of word usage, such as a monogram instead of a monograph in the following statement: “This is a thought worthy in depth of an entire monogram” (a monogram is a “ligature of two or more letters”, a monograph is “a scientific study devoted to one issue, topic.
6. Be careful when using words that have recently entered our everyday life (neologisms), and especially vocabulary of foreign origin. You should not use borrowed words unless absolutely necessary, and even more so if the meaning of the word is not entirely clear to you. It can hardly be considered correct, for example, to use the word vernissage in the following context: “Every day, the vernissage of this artist’s paintings is visited by at least a hundred people.” Turning to the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, it is not difficult to find out that the vernissage is “the grand opening of an art exhibition,” which cannot be held every day. It would be quite appropriate to replace the word vernissage in our sentence with the word exhibition.
7. Avoid semantic redundancy in speech. When using words that are superfluous in meaning, so-called pleonasms arise (from the Greek pleonasmos excess) - speech excess, the inclusion in speech of words that are unnecessary from a purely semantic point of view, partial coincidence of the meanings of words forming the phrase: my autobiography (auto = my), the most best (best = the best), memorable souvenir (souvenir = keepsake), joint cooperation (cooperation - joint work), price list (price list - reference book, list of prices). Failure to comply with standards leads to errors and oddities.
Lexical norms also include rules for the use of phraseological units. A phraseological unit is an indivisible, integral in its meaning stable combination of words, reproduced in the form of a ready-made speech unit. It is also called an idiom, or a stable combination of words. If the author of a phraseological phrase is known, then the latter is called a catchword.
As a rule, you cannot insert a new word into a phraseological unit or remove any component; you cannot replace a word even with those that are close in meaning and structure. Therefore, this expression is wrong, how to take charge of your mind(necessary: come to your senses). For example, in the phrase: Distributing honors, the chairman began to measure everyone with the same brush(necessary: or cut with one comb, or measure by one arshin).
Morphological norms of the Russian language
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories. The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the options may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, sphere of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express a thought, diversify your speech, and testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.
The largest group consists of options, the use of which is limited to the functional style or genre of speech. Thus, in colloquial speech there are often forms of the genitive plural orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes; at to her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and spoken speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm. Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to denote varieties and varieties of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marbles. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use. There are many morphological variants in the Russian language that are considered identical , equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in the spring - in the spring, doors - doors. In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language : Right rail, but not rail, Right shoe, but not shoes and shoe. In the Russian language there are many masculine and feminine words to designate people by their position or profession. With nouns denoting a position, profession, rank, title, difficulties arising in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words.
The words professor, doktorsha have the meaning “professor’s wife”, “doctor’s wife” and a colloquial connotation, and as job titles they become colloquial. Generic parallels cashier, watchman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, watchwoman, usherette qualify as conversational, and doctor- like a colloquial one. Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language.
As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts and business correspondence, a syntactic indication of the gender of the named person is increasingly used, when with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable and do not violate the norms of the literary language. In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical Correctness of Russian Speech” regarding this use of definitions it is said: “In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the defined noun is accepted: the outstanding mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya; the new Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi." Thus, the most common grammatical errors associated with the use of nouns are:
1. Can be heard incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, large callus, registered parcel. But nouns rail, shampoo- masculine, and corn, parcel- feminine, so you should say : railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel post.
2. Foreign indeclinable words denoting inanimate objects are, as a rule, neuter: highway, cafe, coat.
3. In the genitive plural the following forms are used:
masculine words: a pair of boots, boots, stockings (socks, oranges, eggplants, hectares, tomatoes, tangerines), Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Turkmens (Kalmyks, Mongols, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Yakuts), ampere, watt, volt (grams, kilograms ); feminine words: barges, waffles, fables, shoes, weddings, sheets; neuter words: saucer, towels, blanket, mirror;
words that do not have a singular number: manger, everyday life, twilight.
4. Prepositional case of forms like on vacation, on vacation preferable to -e(in -u - colloquial forms).
5. In literary language, forms ending in -and I: director, inspector, doctor, professor, vacation, passport, etc.; with ending -and, -s: engineers, drivers, accountants, editors, contracts, cakes, workshops, etc..
6. Collective numbers two, three etc. are used in the following cases: with nouns naming male persons (two friends); with nouns children, people, guys, faces(meaning person); with nouns used only in the plural (three days).
There are many options in the verbal inflection system.
From options lift - raise the second has a colloquial tone: The gypsies... raised their (horses) legs and tails, shouted, cursed (T.). From options suffer - suffer (suffer, suffer, suffer etc.) the second is colloquial. Variant forms of prefixed verbs with the suffix - Well- and without it: dried up - dried up, disappeared - disappeared, got wet - got wet, arose - arose, subsided - subsided. The first ones fell out of use.
Many verbs cannot be formed into the 1st person form : to win, to convince, to find oneself, to wonder, to wonder, to blow, to please, etc.
Verbs with infinitive - whose: burn, flow, oven(16 word forms in total), form variant forms of the 3rd person singular: along with literary ones: burns, flows, bakes - vernacular: burns, flows, bakes.
Individual verbs do not have imperative forms: want, be able, see, hear, go, crave, rot etc. The Old Slavonic forms vizhd, used in the 19th century, became archaic; vernacular options you can't, go remain outside the literary norm, form go is conversational in nature. Literary form go, as well as forms formed from verbs listen, watch - listen(s), watch(s). The formation of comparative and superlative degrees causes difficulties: it is impossible to say - the closest.
Pronouns are often used incorrectly: Right - I think about you, I miss you, they miss us, I’m coming to you, their choice (not theirs).
A large number of errors are associated with the use of compound forms of numerals. 1. The rules for declension of this part of speech are simple - when declension of compound cardinal numerals, all the words included in it change, when declension of compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:
“The river current reaches 120 (one hundred and twenty) - 400 (four hundred) meters per minute”; “On the night of June 26 (twenty-sixth) it rained.”
2. During education phrases “numeral + noun that has only a plural form (day, sleigh, scissors, trousers, glasses)", collective (up to 5) or quantitative (from 5) numerals are used: “two (three, four) days” - “five (six, seven, etc.) days.” You cannot say “twenty-two (three, four) scissors,” but you can say “twenty scissors and another pair,” “twenty-two pieces of scissors.”
3. The declension of the numeral depends on the gender of the noun "one and a half". The masculine and neuter gender in the nominative and accusative cases take the form "one and a half" in other cases - "one and a half". Feminine gender in the nominative and accusative cases - "one and a half". In the rest - "one and a half". In this case, nouns change in accordance with the rules.
Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions
because of and thanks. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore, it is used to indicate the cause that causes the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to proper treatment. If there is a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks, with an indication of a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: Didn't come to work due to illness. In this case it is correct to say - because of illness.
The concept of morphological norms.
Morphological norms of nouns.
Morphological norms of adjectives.
Morphological norms of numerals.
Morphological norms of pronouns.
Morphological norms of verbs.
1. The concept of morphological norms
In previous lectures, we became acquainted with three types of norms: stress norms, pronunciation norms and lexical norms. The next type of norms of the Russian literary language are grammatical norms. Grammatical norms are usually divided into two types: morphological norms and syntactic norms. In today's lecture we will talk about morphological norms.
Morphological norms- these are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech. Morphological norms regulate morphology– a section of linguistics that includes the study of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the study of parts of speech and their characteristics.
2. Morphological norms of nouns
The main difficulty in studying morphological norms is the presence of variations that appear due to the constant interaction of old and new ways of forming grammatical forms.
In the morphological norms of nouns, we turn to the categories of gender and case.
Despite the fact that we quite easily determine the gender of many nouns, guided by the ending (“zero”/ь, а/я, о/е), there is a group of words for which determining the gender can be difficult. Most often, fluctuations are observed in the classification of nouns as masculine or feminine. As in the case of stress, these vibrations are distributed over different types, that is, they form variant forms of word gender :
Equal options: unt - unt, shutter - shutter, stack - stack.
Stylistic options (characterized by different stylistic affiliations): shoe(common) – shoes(colloquial) key(common) – keys(prof.).
Literary and obsolete versions: hall - hall, boot - boot, rail - rail.
Semantic variants (words in which the gender ending helps to distinguish the lexical meaning): district(division of state territory) – districts(surrounding area), career(1) a place of open mining or 2) an accelerated pace of a horse) – career(prominent position in society).
Vary forms of words denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank . Such nouns do not always have a full-fledged analogue to denote a female person. There are options:
Bigender nouns are masculine nouns, but can also be used to refer to female persons: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain.
Parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student.
Stylistic nouns in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced have a colloquial or colloquial character: doctor - doctor, conductor - conductor, director - headmistress.
Requires special attention assigning gender to indeclinable nouns , since in many of them we cannot be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian varies. For example: what kind of word sconce? If we try to translate it, there will be different options: lamp / night light - masculine, lamp - feminine. You cannot use a translation to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are rules:
Inanimate foreign nouns belong to the neuter gender: cafe, metro, taxi, interview, aloe. There are exceptions to this group: masculine gender: coffee, sirocco(dry winds), names of drinks (brandy) and languages ( Hindi, Dari). To the feminine gender: salami, kohlrabi, avenue. But gradually parallel forms begin to develop: whiskey, coffee, car, penalty(and m.r. and s.r.), tsunami, madrasah(M.R. and F.R.).
Animate foreign nouns can belong to both masculine and feminine gender: my/my counterpart, this/that attache. In the names of animals ( cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony) the masculine gender acts as the main gender, and the feminine gender as an additional gender and depends on the context.
In words - geographical names, the genus is determined by the genus of the reality they designate: deep Mississippi(river → f.r.), multi-million dollar / festive Tokyo(city → m.r., capital → zh.r.).
In abbreviations and compound words the norm is unstable. But in general, the gender is determined by the main word: ISUTU(university → m.r.), UN(organization → zh.r.). But there are exceptions here too: university(s.r. → m.r.), NATO– North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f.o.) → s.r.), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. began to be perceived as independent words and “changed” gender.
We can find various options in the case system of the Russian language.
Nominative
Variant endings may be observed Y/N And AND I in plural forms of masculine nouns : agreements – agreementA , mechanicAnd – locksmithI . The main one is the graduation rate Y/N , then as an option AND I most often acts as a colloquial one.
Genitive
1). For example, some masculine nouns in the genitive singular vary in the main ending AND I (tea, sugar) with additional options U/S (tea, sugar). Usually ending U/S can be used in the following cases:
for nouns with a real meaning when indicating their quantity - that is, to designate a part of the whole ( glass of teaYu , kilogram sugarat , piece of cheeseat ). However, if the noun is accompanied by a modifier, you need to choose the form with the ending AND I (a cup of hot teaI , a pack of dried tobaccoA );
for collective and abstract nouns with the meaning of quantity ( few peopleat , a lot of noiseat );
in phraseological units ( without a yearat week, from sightat to the eye, to the worldat along the thread);
in negative sentences ( pocoYu no, refusalat did not have).
2) In the Genitive plural, masculine nouns have four variants of case endings: OB/EV(a lot of tableov , museev ), TO HER(a lot of pencilto her ) And null ending(a lot of boot). The following groups of masculine nouns have rare zero endings:
names of paired items ( boot, boot, stocking /But sockov /, shoulder straps);
names of some nationalities, mainly in nouns with a letter stem - n And - R (English, Armenians, Bulgarians);
names of units of measurement ( ampere, watt, volt, But coulombs, grams, kilograms).
Prepositional
In the Prepositional case to the main option - ending E in some cases endings are added U: to the workshope - to the workshopat (in this case the option U – colloquial): grow into the forestat – know about the foreste (the ending distinguishes the shade in the meaning: circumstance and object), n and current accounte - be in good standingat (in phraseological expressions).
Usually, when choosing an ending, you should take into account the context, that is, pay attention to what meaning is implemented in the word.
3. Morphological norms of adjectives.
In the normative aspect of the morphology of adjectives, two complex issues are: the formation of forms of degrees of comparisons and the difference between full and short forms of adjectives.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives. There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. The simple comparative form is formed using suffixes - her And - to her(colloquial): faster - faster, some adjectives form comparative degrees using the suffix - e: more lively, louder, more dexterous, sweeter. The simple superlative form of adjectives is formed using suffixes –aysh(ii) (Supreme), –eysh(ii) (beautiful).
The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and excellent using the word most ( This house is tall, but the one next door is taller. This house is the tallest in the city).
Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are associated with: 1) confusion of simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison ( taller, most beautiful) and 2) the absence of a comparison object ( This room is brighter. Need + than that).
Full and short forms of the adjective
There are differences between the full and short forms of an adjective, so these forms cannot always replace each other.
1) Stylistic difference: short forms are characteristic of book speech, long forms are neutral in their stylistic coloring.
2) Semantic difference: short forms indicate a temporary attribute of an object, full forms indicate a permanent one.
3) Syntactic difference: short forms can have dependent words, full forms cannot.
4. Morphological norms of numerals.
There are rules for using numerals:
1) In complex and compound cardinal numbers all parts are declined (book with stA fiveYu tenYu sixYu pages).
2) When declension of complex and composite ordinal numbers, only the last word in the numeral changes (to be born in one thousand nine hundred ninety two year).
3) Cardinal numbers (except for the numeral alone) are not combined with words denoting paired objects, such as: sleigh, scissors, day, trousers, glasses etc. (it is forbidden: twenty-two days, thirty-three scissors) – you should use the expression edit: The twenty-second day / twenty-two days have passed. Thirty-three scissors were purchased.
4) Collective numbers are combined only with animate masculine nouns (two young men, three men) and are not combined with feminine nouns (you cannot say: three girls, only: three girls).
5) When combining a noun with a numeral denoting a fraction, the noun must be in the singular genitive case (you cannot: 12.6 kilometerov , only: 12.6 kilometerA ).
6) Numerals one and a half And one and a half hundred have only two case forms: in the Nominative and Accusative cases: one and a half – one and a half And one and a half hundred, in all other cases one and a half And one and a half hundred. These numerals are combined with nouns in the Genitive singular (Name and Vin. case): one and a half spoons, and in the plural (all other cases): about one and a half hundred pages.
5. Morphological norms of pronouns.
Their own morphological norms apply when using pronouns:
1) Pronoun They does not correlate with collective nouns (people, youth, merchants). It is forbidden: People went to the polls together because they understood how important it was. Should They → He or people → People.
2) Personal pronouns cannot be used as a second subject or object. It is forbidden: Plyushkin, he is the negative hero of the novel.
3) When there are two subjects, personal and possessive pronouns require additional clarification or rephrasing of the sentence as a whole so that there is no ambiguity. It is forbidden: The professor invited the graduate student to read his report(whose? Professor or graduate student?).
4) In indefinite pronouns with suffixes - this, -either, -something suffix -That forms the meaning of "unknown" suffix -or forms the meaning “any”, and the suffix –something – the meaning “unimportant” (You cannot: Anyone or someone knocks on the door. Only: Someone is knocking).
5) Determinative pronouns any, any And every cannot replace each other (Cannot: Every person is responsible for his own life. Only: Everyone…).
6. Morphological norms of verbs.
Let us briefly turn to the basic morphological norms governing the use of verbs:
1) The verb pairs differ stylistically: see - see, hear - hear, lift - lift, climb - climb and so on. The first option is bookish - literary, the second - colloquial.
2) Verbs with alternation O//A based on: conditionedO pour in – conditionedA pour in, concentrateO focus – concentrateA read and so on. also distinguished as bookish (O form) and colloquial (A form).
3) For so-called insufficient verbs ( to win, to convince, to find oneself, to dare, to feel) the form of the 1st person singular of the future tense has a compound character ( I can/can/must win).
4) The so-called abundant verbs have two forms of the present tense with a stylistic or semantic difference. For example: waves - waves(book and colloquial version), moves(moves) – drives(leads, encourages).
5) For verbs in the past tense, the main form is without a suffix -Well (get wet - get wet, get used to it - got used to it).
6) Unity of aspectual and tense forms of verbs - a rule according to which all verbs within one sentence must be used in the same grammatical form. It is forbidden: On vacation he rested and againwas studying favorite thing. Only: got busy!
7) In a special form of the verb - gerund - suffix -V– normative, suffix – lice- colloquial. It is forbidden: Readlice book. Only: ReadV book.
Thus, in this lecture we became acquainted with the concept of “morphological norm” and found out how to form the forms of words belonging to different parts of speech. In case of difficulty, it is recommended to consult grammar dictionaries.
Topic No. 5. Morphological norms of the Russian language 1. The concept of morphological norms In previous lectures, we became acquainted with three types of norms: stress norms, pronunciation norms and lexical norms. The next type of norms of the Russian literary language are grammatical norms. Grammatical norms are usually divided into two types: morphological norms and syntactic norms. In today's lecture we will talk about morphological norms. Morphological norms- these are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech. Morphological norms regulate morphology– a section of linguistics that includes the study of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the study of parts of speech and their characteristics. 2. Morphological norms of nouns The main difficulty in studying morphological norms is the presence of variations that appear due to the constant interaction of old and new ways of forming grammatical forms. In the morphological norms of nouns, we turn to the categories of gender and case. Noun gender category. Despite the fact that we quite easily determine the gender of many nouns, guided by the ending (“zero”/ь, а/я, о/е), there is a group of words for which determining the gender can be difficult. Most often, fluctuations are observed in the classification of nouns as masculine or feminine. As in the case of stress, these vibrations are distributed over different types, that is, they form variant forms of word gender :
Equal options: unt - unt, shutter - shutter, stack - stack.
Stylistic options (characterized by different stylistic affiliations): shoe(common) - shoes(colloquial) key(common) – keys(prof.).
Literary and obsolete versions: hall - hall, boot - boot, rail - rail.
Semantic variants (words in which the gender ending helps to distinguish the lexical meaning): district(division of state territory) – districts(surrounding area), career(1) a place of open mining or 2) an accelerated pace of a horse) – career(prominent position in society).
Vary forms of words denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank . Such nouns do not always have a full-fledged analogue to denote a female person. There are options:
Bigender nouns are masculine nouns, but can also be used to refer to female persons: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain.
Parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student.
Stylistic nouns in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced have a colloquial or colloquial character: doctor - doctor, conductor - conductor, director - headmistress.
Requires special attention assigning gender to indeclinable nouns , since in many of them we cannot be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian varies. For example: what kind of word sconce? If we try to translate it, there will be different options: lamp / night light - masculine, lamp - feminine. You cannot use a translation to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are rules:
Inanimate foreign nouns belong to the neuter gender: cafe, metro, taxi, interview, aloe. There are exceptions to this group: masculine gender: coffee, sirocco(dry winds), names of drinks (brandy) and languages ( Hindi, Dari). To the feminine gender: salami, kohlrabi, avenue. But gradually parallel forms begin to develop: whiskey, coffee, car, penalty(and m.r. and s.r.), tsunami, madrasah(M.R. and F.R.).
Animate foreign nouns can belong to both masculine and feminine gender: my/my counterpart, this/that attache. In the names of animals ( cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony) the masculine gender acts as the main gender, and the feminine gender as an additional gender and depends on the context.
In words - geographical names, the genus is determined by the genus of the reality they designate: deep Mississippi(river → f.r.), multi-million dollar / festive Tokyo(city → m.r., capital → zh.r.).
In abbreviations and compound words the norm is unstable. But in general, the gender is determined by the main word: ISUTU(university → m.r.), UN(organization → zh.r.). But there are exceptions here too: university(s.r. → m.r.), NATO– North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f.o.) → s.r.), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. began to be perceived as independent words and “changed” gender.
Noun case category. We can find various options in the case system of the Russian language. Nominative Variant endings may be observed Y/N And AND I in plural forms of masculine nouns : agreements – agreementA , mechanicAnd – locksmithI . The main one is the graduation rate Y/N , then as an option AND I most often acts as a colloquial one. Genitive 1). For example, some masculine nouns in the genitive singular vary in the main ending AND I (tea, sugar) with additional options U/S (tea, sugar). Usually ending U/S can be used in the following cases:
for nouns with a real meaning when indicating their quantity - that is, to designate a part of the whole ( glass of teaYu , kilogram sugarat , piece of cheeseat ). However, if the noun is accompanied by a modifier, you need to choose the form with the ending AND I (a cup of hot teaI , a pack of dried tobaccoA );
for collective and abstract nouns with the meaning of quantity ( few peopleat , a lot of noiseat );
in phraseological units ( without a yearat week, from sightat to the eye, to the worldat along the thread);
in negative sentences ( pocoYu no, refusalat did not have).
2) In the Genitive plural, masculine nouns have four variants of case endings: OB/EV(a lot of tableov , museev ), TO HER(a lot of pencilto her ) And null ending(a lot of boot). The following groups of masculine nouns have rare zero endings:
names of paired items ( boot, boot, stocking /But sockov /, shoulder straps);
names of some nationalities, mainly in nouns with a letter stem - n And - R (English, Armenians, Bulgarians);
names of units of measurement ( ampere, watt, volt, But coulombs, grams, kilograms).
Prepositional In the Prepositional case to the main option - ending E in some cases endings are added U: to the workshope - to the workshopat (in this case the option U – colloquial): grow into the forestat – know about the foreste (the ending distinguishes the shade in the meaning: circumstance and object), n and current accounte - be in good standingat (in phraseological expressions). Usually, when choosing an ending, you should take into account the context, that is, pay attention to what meaning is implemented in the word. 3. Morphological norms of adjectives. In the normative aspect of the morphology of adjectives, two complex issues are: the formation of forms of degrees of comparisons and the difference between full and short forms of adjectives. Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives. There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. The simple comparative form is formed using suffixes - her And - to her(colloquial): faster - faster, some adjectives form comparative degrees using the suffix - e: more lively, louder, more dexterous, sweeter. The simple superlative form of adjectives is formed using suffixes –aysh(ii) (Supreme), –eysh(ii) (beautiful). The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and excellent using the word most ( This house is tall, but the one next door is taller. This house is the tallest in the city). Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are associated with: 1) confusion of simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison ( taller, most beautiful) and 2) the absence of a comparison object ( This room is brighter. Need + than that). Full and short forms of the adjective There are differences between the full and short forms of an adjective, so these forms cannot always replace each other. 1) Stylistic difference: short forms are characteristic of book speech, long forms are neutral in their stylistic coloring. 2) Semantic difference: short forms indicate a temporary attribute of an object, full forms indicate a permanent one. 3) Syntactic difference: short forms can have dependent words, full forms cannot. 4. Morphological norms of numerals. There are rules for using numerals: 1) In complex and compound cardinal numerals, all parts are declined (book with stA fiveYu tenYu sixYu pages). 2) When declension of complex and composite ordinal numbers, only the last word in the numeral changes (to be born in one thousand nine hundred ninety two year). 3) Cardinal numbers (except for the numeral alone) are not combined with words denoting paired objects, such as: sleigh, scissors, day, trousers, glasses etc. (it is forbidden: twenty-two days, thirty-three scissors) – you should use the expression edit: The twenty-second day / twenty-two days have passed. Thirty-three scissors were purchased. 4) Collective numbers are combined only with animate masculine nouns (two young men, three men) and are not combined with feminine nouns (you cannot say: three girls, only: three girls). 5) When combining a noun with a numeral denoting a fraction, the noun must be in the singular genitive case (you cannot: 12.6 kilometerov , only: 12.6 kilometerA ). 6) Numerals one and a half And one and a half hundred have only two case forms: in the Nominative and Accusative cases: one and a half – one and a half And one and a half hundred, in all other cases one and a half And one and a half hundred. These numerals are combined with nouns in the Genitive singular (Name and Vin. case): one and a half spoons, and in the plural (all other cases): about one and a half hundred pages. 5. Morphological norms of pronouns. Their own morphological norms apply when using pronouns: 1) Pronoun They does not correlate with collective nouns (people, youth, merchants). It is forbidden: People went to the polls together because they understood how important it was. Should They → He or people → People. 2) Personal pronouns cannot be used as a second subject or object. It is forbidden: Plyushkin, he is the negative hero of the novel. 3) When there are two subjects, personal and possessive pronouns require additional clarification or rephrasing of the sentence as a whole so that there is no ambiguity. It is forbidden: The professor invited the graduate student to read his report(whose? Professor or graduate student?). 4) In indefinite pronouns with suffixes - this, -either, -something suffix -That forms the meaning of "unknown" suffix -or forms the meaning “any”, and
suffix –something – meaning “unimportant” (You can’t: Anyone or someone knocks on the door. Only: Someone is knocking). 5) Determinative pronouns any, any And every cannot replace each other (Cannot: Every person is responsible for his own life. Only: Everyone…). 6. Morphological norms of verbs. Let us briefly turn to the basic morphological norms governing the use of verbs: 1) Verb pairs differ stylistically: see - see, hear - hear, lift - lift, climb - climb and so on. The first option is bookish - literary, the second - colloquial. 2) Verbs with alternation O//A based on: conditionedO pour in – conditionedA pour in, concentrateO focus – concentrateA read and so on. also distinguished as book (O form)
and colloquial (A form). 3) For so-called insufficient verbs ( to win, to convince, to find oneself, to dare, to feel) the form of the 1st person singular of the future tense has a compound character ( I can/can/must win). 4) The so-called abundant verbs have two forms of the present tense with a stylistic or semantic difference. For example: waves - waves(book and colloquial version), moves(moves) – drives(leads, encourages). 5) For verbs in the past tense, the main form is without a suffix -Well (get wet - get wet, get used to it - got used to it). 6) Unity of aspectual and tense forms of verbs - a rule according to which all verbs within one sentence must be used in the same grammatical form. It is forbidden: On vacation he rested and again was studying favorite thing. Only: got busy! 7) In a special form of the verb - gerund - suffix -V– normative, suffix – lice- colloquial. It is forbidden: Readlice book. Only: ReadV book. Thus, in this lecture we became acquainted with the concept of “morphological norm” and found out how to form the forms of words belonging to different parts of speech. In case of difficulty, it is recommended to consult grammar dictionaries.
As in the area of pronunciation, in morphology and syntax there are strong and weak norms. Strong ones are observed by everyone who speaks Russian as a native language. Weak ones are easily influenced by outsiders, are poorly absorbed and are often distorted. Their presence is determined by many reasons, in particular, by the peculiarities of the development of the phonetic and grammatical systems of the Russian language.
For example, in the Old Russian language there were initially ten types and subtypes of declension, and the type of declension was determined by the final sound of the stem and the meaning of the word.
In modern Russian - three declensions(depending on the gender of the noun and the ending of the word). The first declension is mostly feminine nouns ending in -a; second - masculine with a zero ending and neuter with -о and -е, third declension - feminine nouns with zero ending. From the point of view of the distribution of nouns by declension depending on gender, the third declension turns out to be “superfluous”. That is why in speech quite often nouns of the third declension change gender and begin to be declined as nouns of the second declension ( I caught a mouse). On the other hand, masculine nouns with a soft consonant stem can change gender and decline in speech like third declension nouns ( I bought new shampoo).
Similar reasons are responsible for fluctuations in the nominative plural forms of masculine nouns of the second declension. In modern Russian, several endings are recorded, which go back to various Old Russian forms.
The original ending -i is preserved only in a few words with a solid foundation:
devil - devils, neighbor - neighbors.
The ending -a was originally the ending of the dual number. Now it is preserved in words denoting paired concepts, but is perceived as a plural ending:
sleeves, shores, eyes.
Shape type brothers, friends, leaves go back to the forms of feminine collective nouns.
Compare: the Old Church Slavonic version of one of these forms preserved in modern Russian: monastic brethren.
note to the fact that the forms in -ya retain a collective connotation of meaning (cf.: sheets - leaves; teeth - teeth).
Finally, the ending -e for nouns in -anin is original, since these nouns already in the Old Russian language belonged to the category of heterodeclinables and had special endings in the plural:
peasant - peasants, Christian - Christians.
Many similar examples can be given for other forms and other parts of speech.
Thus, in common speech, the absence of alternation of consonants in the forms of the present and simple future tense is very common ( the water is flowing instead of normative the water is flowing; she bakes bread instead of normative she bakes bread). This is due to the general tendency towards so-called base leveling. Already in the Old Russian period, the language sought to make the stem the same in all forms of one word.
This process went through this process quite consistently in nouns. And instead of the original forms - about pastus e, young pastus and- we now use the forms - about the shepherd, the young shepherd and. In a verb, this process is much slower. In some forms the alternation of consonants is lost (we say bake and bread instead of the original Old Russian - pz and bread), in others, the alternation of consonants has been preserved in the literary language ( I baked bread; she bakes bread), but may be lost in dialects and vernacular ( she bakes bread).
It is possible to identify other reasons that influence the appearance of a whole system of variants in morphology. The greatest difficulties are usually caused by the distribution of some nouns by gender, the formation of plural forms of nouns, and the formation of a number of forms of verbs. Let's look at some of them in more detail.