Altruism is a concept that is in many ways similar to selflessness, where a person shows unselfish concern for the well-being of other people. In fact, altruistic behavior is the direct opposite of egoism, and in psychology it is also considered as a synonym for prosocial behavior. But the concepts of altruism and egoism are not so inseparable, because they are both sides of the same coin.
In psychology, altruism is defined as a social phenomenon, and this term was first formed by Francois Xavier Comte, the founder of sociology. In his interpretation, altruism meant living for the sake of others; over time, the understanding of this concept has not undergone significant changes. However, such a principle of moral behavior does not always become an expression of selfless love for one’s neighbor. Psychologists note that often altruistic motives arise from the desire to be recognized in one area or another. The difference between altruism and love is that the object here is not a specific individual.
In the works of many philosophers one can see the justification of altruism by pity as a natural manifestation of human nature. In society, altruistic behavior can also bring certain benefits, expressed, for example, in increasing reputation.
Basic theories
Today there are three main theories of altruism. The first of them is associated with evolution and is based on the opinion that altruistic motives are initially programmed in living beings and contribute to the preservation of the genotype. The theory of social exchange considers manifestations of altruism as a form of deep-seated egoism, since, according to supporters of this theory, when doing something for others, a person still calculates his own benefit. The theory of social norms is built on the principles of reciprocity and social responsibility.
Of course, none of the put forward theories reliably and comprehensively explains the true nature of altruism, perhaps because such a phenomenon should be considered not on a scientific, but on a spiritual plane.
Forms
If we consider the works of philosophers and psychologists, altruism can be moral, meaningful, normative, but also pathological. In accordance with the theories described above, the following types of altruism can also be distinguished:
Manifestations in life
To get closer to understanding real altruism, we can consider examples from life. A soldier who shields a comrade with his body during combat operations, the wife of a drunken alcoholic who not only tolerates her husband, but also strives to help him, mothers of many children who do not find time for themselves - all these are examples of altruistic behavior.
In the everyday life of every person, manifestations of altruism also take place, expressed, for example, as follows:
- family relationships. Even in a normal family, manifestations of altruism are an integral part of strong relationships between spouses and their children;
- present. To some extent, this can also be called altruism, although sometimes gifts may be given for not entirely selfless purposes;
- participation in charity. A striking example of selfless concern for the well-being of people in need of help;
- mentoring. Altruism often manifests itself in the fact that more experienced people teach others, for example, their less experienced work colleagues, etc.
Several striking examples can also be found in the literature. Thus, examples of altruistic behavior were described by Maxim Gorky in his work “The Old Woman 
Izergil”, in the part where the hero Danko managed to lead the tribe out of the ruined forest, tearing out his own heart from his chest and illuminating the way for suffering people forced to make their way through the endless jungle. This is an example of selflessness, true altruism, when a hero gives his life without receiving anything in return. Interestingly, Gorky in his work showed not only the positive aspects of such altruistic behavior. Altruism always involves the renunciation of one's own interests, but in everyday life such feats are not always appropriate.
Quite often, people misunderstand the definition of altruism, confusing it with charity or philanthropy. Altruistic behavior usually has the following characteristics:
- sense of responsibility. An altruist is always ready to answer for the consequences of his actions;
- unselfishness. Altruists do not seek personal gain from their actions;
- sacrifice. A person is ready to incur certain material, time, intellectual and other costs;
- freedom of choice. Altruistic actions are always a personal choice;
- priority. An altruist puts the interests of others first, often forgetting about his own;
- feeling of satisfaction. By sacrificing their own resources, altruists do not feel deprived or disadvantaged in any way.
Altruism helps in many ways to reveal the potential of an individual, because a person can do much more for other people than for himself. In psychology, there is even a widespread opinion that altruistic natures feel much happier than egoists. However, this phenomenon practically never occurs in its pure form, so many individuals quite harmoniously combine both altruism and selfishness.
Interestingly, there are some differences between the manifestations of altruism in women and men. The former usually tend to show long-term behavior, for example, caring for loved ones. Men are more likely to commit isolated actions, often violating generally accepted social norms.
When it comes to pathology
Unfortunately, altruism is not always the norm. If a person shows compassion for others in a painful form, suffers from delusions of self-blame, tries to provide help, which in fact only brings harm, we are talking about so-called pathological altruism. This condition requires observation and treatment by a psychotherapist, since the pathology can have very serious manifestations and consequences, including altruistic suicide.
J. Macauley and I. Berkowitz define altruism How behavior performed for the benefit of another person without expectation of any external reward.
In some cases, doubts arise about the extent to which the person providing assistance is guided primarily by concern for the welfare of the object of his help, that is, to what extent he is driven by altruistic motives. In this regard, Bierhoff highlighted two conditions, which determine a prosocial reaction: 1) the intention to act for the benefit of another and 2) freedom of choice (that is, actions not due to professional duties). Thus, a altruistic behavior- actions, aimed at the benefit of another person, while the donor has a choice, commit them or not.
An example is the parable of the Good Samaritan, described in the Gospel, because... he helped with lack of social pressure; not in front of a viewer capable of appreciating it; to him strict moral standards were not prescribed(as a priest); because he took on the labor and costs, without hoping for reward.
Motives of altruism. Scientists who have studied this problem have not been able to find an influence of personality traits on the tendency to help. There is no such personality trait - altruism. There is at least t ri theories, which provide an explanation for altruistic behavior. They all complement each other. Each uses psychological, sociological or biological concepts to explain two types of altruism: 1) "altruism" based on reciprocal exchange in the spirit of "you - me, I - you" and 2) altruism, which does not involve any additional conditions.
According to social exchange theories, the provision of assistance is motivated by the desire to minimize costs and increase income as much as possible. Others in this school of thought believe that genuinely altruistic concern for others can also motivate people.
Social norms also order us to provide assistance. Norm of reciprocity encourages us to respond to help with help, and not to harm the one who gave it to us. Social responsibility norm compels us to help those in need, even if they are unable to reciprocate.
Evolutionary psychology recognizes two types of altruism: devotion to the clan and reciprocity. However, most evolutionary psychologists believe that the genes of selfish individuals are more likely to survive than the genes of self-sacrificing individuals, and therefore society should be taught altruism.
2. Determinants of altruistic behavior. Psychologists have revealed a number of factors, on which the manifestation of altruism depends (which favor or hinder the manifestation of altruism).
1. The manifestation of altruism is facilitated by various situational influences.
Number of eyewitnesses (Phenomenon of the indifferent observer): presence of other people to a large extent reduces possibility of intervention, because the more number of eyewitnesses emergency situation: 1) it seems that a minority of them notice what happened; 2) the less likely they are to view it as an emergency and 3) topics they are less likely to take responsibility for resolving it.
Thus, it influences perception, assessment and interpretation of the situation. This is where the so-called effects "multiple ignorance" and "diffusion of responsibility".
Multiple ignorance characterizes the stage of assessing the situation. Not being alone a person uses the reactions of others when assessing a situation. At the same time, each of those present restrains his reaction lest her excessive force or haste put him in awkward situation, no attention was drawn to it. But since everyone present initially falls into such confusion, leading to a delayed reaction, then emergency assistance is required. a situation of misfortune is mistakenly interpreted as less critical.
2. Influence of models: prosocial models do promote altruism. People are most likely to help when they see others stepping up to help.
3 Time shortage factor. In real life, people are in a hurry most of the time. Thus, being willing to sacrifice your time for someone in need can be seen as generosity. In a hurry they are fully don't realize the situation.
4. Personal influences, For example mood, also matter. Having committed any offense, people more often want to provide help, thereby hoping to alleviate feeling of guilt or to restore your self-image. Saddened people are also inclined to help. However, the principle “bad mood - good deeds” does not apply to children, which makes it possible to assume that intrinsic reward for providing assistance is a product of later socialization. People in a good mood are more likely to do good things: happy people are ready to help.
Personal characteristics are only relative allow us to predict the provision of assistance. However, recent evidence suggests that some people are consistently more likely to help than others; highly emotional, empathic and prone to independent decision making individuals are more capable of empathy and assistance.
People with a high degree of self-control, because they try to live up to what others expect from them, especially inclined to help,if they believe it will lead to social reward. Others' opinions matter less for internally driven individuals with a low degree of self-control.
According to psychological research, people who have achieved more high stage of development of moral judgment, respond more often to distress signals, intervene faster in the situation and provide assistance.
Gender differences interact with the situation: in a potentially dangerous situation, when strangers need help, men provide assistance more often. But in In safer situations, women are slightly more likely to to provide assistance. But in general, women are much more likely to help.
Religious people are more likely to help.
In order to strengthen the provision of assistance, we can
1. influence those factors that interfere with this. WITH helps to increase the desire to help -
everything, that personalizes strangers, - personal request, eye contact, mention of someone's name, anticipation of interaction;
circumstances that promote self-awareness - nicknames, observation and assessment from the outside, concentrated calm - also contribute to an increased desire to provide help.
2. teach altruistic norms and socialize people so that they perceive themselves as capable of helping.
3. first step in the direction of socialization of altruism is to teach moral inclusion (inclusion), in counteracting natural predispositions in favor of one's group, taking into account only the interests of its clan and tribe, by expanding the circle of people whose well-being we care about.
Second step- modeling of altruism.
2. Theories of altruism:
social exchange theory;
social norms theory;
evolutionary theory.
3. Empathy as a source of true altruism.
Practical work: implementation of the methodology "Diagnostics of the level of empathy"
V.V. Boyko.
4. Factors that motivate you to help others:
situational influences;
personal influences.
5. How to strengthen assistance:
eliminating barriers to assistance;
socialization of altruism.
"Altruism: a motive for helping someone that is not consciously associated with one’s own egoistic interests." (David Myers. Social Psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2002. - P. 571).
Altruism is selfishness in reverse. An altruist provides help even when nothing is offered in return and nothing can be expected. A classic illustration of this is Jesus' parable of the Good Samaritan:
A certain man was walking from Jerusalem to Jericho and was caught by robbers, who took off his clothes, wounded him and left, leaving him barely alive. By chance, a priest was walking past on the same road and, seeing him, passed by. Also, another person, being at that place, came up, looked and passed by. A Samaritan, passing by, found him and, seeing him, took pity and, approaching, bandaged his wounds, pouring oil and wine; and, setting him on his donkey, brought him to the inn and took care of him. And the next day, as he was leaving, he took out two denarii, gave them to the innkeeper and said to him: take care of him; and if you spend anything more, when I return, I will give it back to you (Luke 10:30-35).
The Samaritan exhibits pure altruism. Filled with a feeling of compassion, he gives time, energy, money to a complete stranger, without expecting any reward or gratitude.
So, altruism(Latin Alter - other) - a manifestation of a selfless attitude towards people, a willingness to empathize with them and act in their interests, sacrificing their own. Altruism is a value orientation of a person, defining his life position as humanistic.
The concept of altruism was introduced by the French philosopher O. Comte.
1) Social Exchange Theory: Human interaction is guided by "Social Economy". We exchange not only material goods and money, but also social goods - love, services, information, status. By doing this, we use a “minimax” strategy - we minimize costs and maximize rewards. Social exchange theory does not suggest that we consciously expect rewards; it simply suggests that such considerations shape our behavior.
Exercise. Take a notebook sheet and divide it in half with a vertical line. On the one hand, you will write down all the pros, and on the other, all the cons. Imagine that you are offered to participate in a blood donation campaign. Don't forget that the donor has the right to time off, free lunch and a small financial reward. What arguments will you give to yourself when making a decision? In a couple of minutes we will discuss the list of motives.
So, such an altruistic act as donating blood can be caused by various motives: both material and moral. Do you think participation in this action is an altruistic act?
The rewards that motivate helping can be extrinsic or intrinsic. Companies often, in order to improve their corporate image, sponsor various charitable events, and an individual, in order to gain recognition or achieve friendship, often unconsciously offers to use his services. So we give in order to receive. This benefit is external.
The benefits of helping may include internal self-rewards. If someone nearby is upset, we tend to respond with empathy. A woman’s scream outside the window disturbs us, thinking about what happened, we begin to feel anxious and distress arises. To reduce it, people most likely to help may try to intervene and clarify the situation. Altruistic actions also enhance a person’s self-esteem, make them think better about themselves, and give them a sense of self-satisfaction.
2) Social norms. Often we provide help to others not because we have consciously calculated that providing help is in our interests, but simply because it is so accepted, that is, we adhere to certain norms accepted in society. We use a knife and fork when we eat, we say hello when meeting friends, we return a book if our classmate forgot it, etc. norms are what society expects from us, and we from it.
Social psychologists have discovered that there is something called norm of reciprocity, the expectation that people are more likely to help rather than harm those who have helped them. This rule is especially well known to politicians: having provided a favor, they hope to receive a favor in return. The norm of reciprocity reminds us that in social relations there must be a balance between giving and receiving. However, this is not the only norm, otherwise the Samaritan would not be Good. The belief that people will provide help to those in need, regardless of possible future benefits, is the norm social responsibility. It is this norm that prompts a person to pick up a book that a person on crutches has dropped. The norm of social responsibility is especially strong in India and Japan, i.e. in those countries where a collectivist culture exists.
3) Evolutionary theory explains the reasons for helping others from the point of view of preserving the human race.
Protection of the family. Genes force us to act in ways that maximize their chance of survival. For example, evolutionary theory explains the fact that parents are willing to sacrifice themselves for their children. Those parents who put their children's interests above their own are more likely to pass on their genes to future generations than parents who ignore their children. Children are less interested in the survival of their parents' genes, which explains the greater devotion of parents to their children than of children to their parents.
Within the framework of this theory, the principle reciprocity. One organism helps another because it expects help in return. The giver hopes that later he himself will be able to receive help from his fellow tribesmen, and the one who refuses help will be punished: (the whole world despises apostates and traitors). Moreover, reciprocity is better manifested where a person often meets the people he is helping. Small schools, towns, and student dormitories foster a community spirit where people take care of each other. Residents of big cities are less likely to care about each other. The same pattern is observed in the animal kingdom: if a vampire bat remains without food for a day or two, and it can die of hunger within 60 hours, it turns to its well-fed neighbor, who regurgitates some of the swallowed food. The donor mouse does this voluntarily, but such support exists only between familiar mice, who themselves provide similar assistance.
So, three theories provide an explanation for altruistic behavior.
Table 1. Comparison of theories of altruism.
|
theory |
Level of explanation |
How is altruism explained? |
|
|
Mutual "altruism" |
Genuine altruism |
||
|
Social norms |
sociological |
Norm of reciprocity |
Social responsibility norm |
|
Social sharing |
Psychological |
External rewards for providing assistance |
Distress - internal rewards for helping |
|
evolutionary |
biological |
reciprocity |
Preservation of the family |
The source of true altruism is empathy. Empathy is a Greek word meaning "sympathy."
Empathy- this is the ability to respond to the experiences of another person, to comprehend the emotional state of another person, to penetrate into the inner world of another.
Emotions
Motive
Behavior
Distress selfish motivation: behavior
(disorder, reduce own ( help possible),
1. anxiety, distress. to decrease
anxiety) own distress
empathy altruistic behavior(help)
(sympathy and motivation: in order to reduce
to another) distress of another
Rice. 1. Selfish and altruistic ways of providing assistance.
6. Factors that motivate you to help others:
situational influences;
personal influences.
the smaller the proportion of them notice what happened;
the less they are inclined to regard it as an emergency;
the less likely they are to take responsibility for resolving it.
When are people most likely to help?
Situational influences:
When they see others rushing to help;
When they're not in a hurry.
“a good mood - good deeds, a bad mood - bad deeds”, happy people are ready to help;
Having committed an offense, people are more likely to want to provide help, hoping to reduce the internal feeling of guilt; sad people are also inclined to help;
Sincerely religious people tend to provide help more often.
After the sinking of the Titanic, the surviving passengers were 80% women and 20% men. The chances of survival for a 1st class passenger were 2.5 times higher than for a 3rd class passenger. But the chances of survival were higher for a female 3rd class passenger than for a male 1st class passenger. Women in general are always more likely to seek help, and they are also more likely to receive help.
We are also most likely to give help to those we believe need and deserve help and to those who are similar to us.
7. How to strengthen assistance:
eliminating barriers to assistance;
socialization of altruism.
To improve the delivery of care, we can influence the factors that interfere with it. Social psychologists have found that:
reducing uncertainty and increasing responsibility enhance assistance. This can be achieved in various ways. For example,
in one of the observations it was found that hitchhikers are more likely to take a car if, when addressing the driver, they look him straight in the eyes;
people who give their name, age, etc. are more likely to help you. Even such a simple question like “excuse me, are you by any chance Masha Petrova’s sister?” may later help you get help sooner;
the power of personal influence - network marketing. Personal calls to do something are much more effective than posters, media, etc., especially if these calls come from friends;
socialization of altruism.
Altruism can be learned to some extent. A study of television channels conducted in America showed that the media can teach positive behavior. Children who have examples of helping before their eyes tend to do the same. In the same way, social learning of aggressive behavior and other manifestations of behavior occurs.
So, research shows that we can improve care in two ways:
1. First, we can influence the factors that interfere with the provision of assistance.
2. Secondly, we can learn altruism.
Summing up, repeating new material.
Express survey:
What new did you learn in today's lesson? What do you remember most?
AGGRESSION
Around the world, $3 billion a day is spent on weapons and military maintenance, which could be spent on fighting hunger, education, environmental protection and other needs.
In the 20th century, more than 350 wars took place, in which about 100 million people died - an entire “empire of the dead”, the population of which exceeds the populations of France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden combined.
Where does this passionate desire to harm, to hurt other people come from? What circumstances provoke outbreaks of aggression? Can we control aggression? What is aggression?
Aggression is physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone. This does not include motor vehicle accidents, dental pain, or unintentional sidewalk collisions. This definition includes assault, direct insults, and even “teasing.”
People have psychologists There are two types of aggression: hostile and instrumental. The source of hostile aggression is anger. Its only purpose is to cause harm. In the case of instrumental aggression, causing harm is not an end in itself, but a means to achieve some goal. Hostile aggression can be called “hot”, and instrumental aggression can be called “cold”. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between hostile and instrumental aggression. What starts as cold calculation can ignite hostility. Most killers are hostile, impulsive, and have uncontrollable outbursts of emotion. But murders can also be committed out of cold calculation, for example, committed for the purpose of robbery or taking possession of an inheritance.
Theories of aggression.
Analyzing the causes of hostile and instrumental aggression, social psychologists have put forward three important theoretical concepts: 1) there are innate aggressive impulses, 2) aggression is a natural reaction to frustration, 3) aggressive behavior is the result of learning.
1. The theory of instinctive aggression likens human aggressiveness to animal aggressiveness and explains it purely biologically - as a means of surviving in the fight against other creatures, as a means of protecting and asserting oneself, one’s life through destruction or victory over an opponent. For our distant ancestors, aggression was one of the factors of adaptation. Aggressive behavior helped to more successfully obtain food, resist an attack, intimidate or kill rivals in the struggle for possession of a female. Viewing aggression as an adaptive factor helps explain why levels of male aggression have been so high throughout human history.
The sensitivity of our nervous system to agents of aggression is influenced by heredity. It has long been known that animals of many species are bred for their aggressiveness. Sometimes this is done for practical reasons (breeding fighting cocks). Scientific goals are also pursued. In Finland, scientists managed to breed incredibly ferocious individuals from ordinary white mice. Taking several ordinary mice, scientists divided them into groups based on aggressiveness/non-aggression. By repeating this procedure for 26 generations, they ended up with one litter of extremely calm mice and another litter of incredibly ferocious ones.
Blood chemistry is another factor that influences the sensitivity of the nervous system to stimulation of aggression. Both laboratory experiments and police data show that those who are intoxicated are much easier to provoke into aggressive behavior. Aggression is also influenced by the male hormone testosterone. After 25 years, the level of testosterone in a man’s blood decreases, and at the same time the number of crimes related to violence decreases. Prisoners who have been convicted of unprovoked violent acts tend to have higher testosterone levels than prisoners who have committed nonviolent crimes.
2. Stifling summer evening. You, tired and thirsty after a whole day of studying, take some money from a friend and hurriedly go to the machine that sells jars of cool lemonade. While the machine is swallowing change, you can almost feel the taste of cold, refreshing water. But the button is pressed and nothing happens. You press again. Then lightly click on the coin return button. Nothing again. Then you hit the buttons. Then you hit the machine gun and shake it. Disgusted, having slurped unsalted, you trudge back to your textbooks. Should your neighbor be wary of you? Does it make you more likely to say or do something mean to him?
The state you just imagined is called “frustration.” Frustration is the blocking of goal-directed behavior; it is everything that prevents the achievement of a goal, which leads to dissatisfaction of the need.
The energy of aggression is not necessarily discharged against its original cause. Gradually, we learn to suppress anger and take it out indirectly, especially when intemperance can lead to disapproval or even punishment from others, instead of a direct response, we transfer our hostile feelings to more harmless targets. It is this kind of transference that is discussed in the old joke about a husband who hurts his wife, who yells at her son, who kicks the dog who bites the postman; and all because my husband received a scolding from his boss at work.
Currently, aggression is considered as one of the possible ways out of a frustrating situation, but not as inevitable.
3. Social learning theory states that frustration and interpersonal conflict facilitate the manifestation of aggression, but are not sufficient for its occurrence. In order for aggressive behavior to arise in a situation of frustration, a person must have a predisposition to behave aggressively in such cases. This predisposition is formed and reinforced through social learning: observing the behavior of others, one’s own successful experience in using aggression. Thus, the primary role in the formation of aggressive personalities is given to the social environment.
A child who successfully intimidates other children with his aggressive actions becomes more aggressive. Aggressive hockey players - the ones who are most likely to end up in the penalty box due to rough play - score more goals for their team than non-aggressive players. “Kill one and kill tens of thousands,” says an ancient Chinese proverb. This is why terrorists, who do not actually have power, capture everyone's attention. If terrorism were deprived of the publicity that their attacks receive thanks to the means of modern communication, it would definitely decline. This is reminiscent of incidents that took place in the 70s. 20th century, when television screens in Western countries showed naked fans “prowling” the football field for several seconds. Once the broadcast networks decided to ignore such cases, the phenomenon ceased to exist.
Children whose parents use punishment often tend to use similar aggressive behaviors in their relationships with others. Parents, seeking obedience from them with the help of shouts, spanks and slaps, thus gave them lessons in aggression as a method to solve problems. Such children are four times more likely to abuse punishment against their own children than in general according to statistics. Domestic violence often leads to violence later in life.
The social environment outside the home presents a wide range of aggressive behavior patterns. In societies where the "macho" style (from the Spanish "real man") is admired, aggression is easily passed on to new generations. The violent subculture of teenage gangs exposes their youngest members to patterns of aggressive behavior.
Homework: Watch TV for at least 1 hour. Mark the start and end time of viewing, name the program and TV channel. Assignment: determine the audience for which this program is intended. Count how many scenes demonstrating manifestations of aggression (verbal, physical, sexual) were present on the television screen during your viewing. How many scenes did you notice that showed examples of prosocial behavior? Draw conclusions.
Prosocial behavior is positive, constructive, socially useful behavior.
What influences aggression?
Aggression is caused not only by frustration, but also by so-called aversive states: pain, unbearable heat, cramped conditions, disgusting odors, tobacco smoke and other similar factors.
For example, pain increases aggressiveness. This has been proven in experiments on animals, but you yourself can recall or imagine similar cases: an unexpected and severe bruise of a sore toe, a severe headache, accidentally touching a sore callus...
Aggression is triggered by aggressive stimuli, such as weapons. Half of all murders in the United States are committed with personal firearms. If weapons are stored in the house, then there is a high probability that household members will be killed rather than uninvited guests. “Guns not only enable crime, they can also encourage crime. The finger reaches for the trigger, but the trigger also reaches for the finger” (Berkowitz). When Washington passed laws restricting gun ownership, gun homicides and suicide rates plummeted by about 25%. In the experiment, angry men sent electrical shocks of greater force to their “tormentor” when a rifle or revolver (left “inadvertently” after a previous experiment) was in their field of vision than when the objects “accidentally” left behind were badminton rackets.
Jamaica implemented an anti-crime program in 1974 that included strict gun control and censorship of gun scenes on television. The following year, the number of thefts decreased by 25% and the number of shots fired by 37%.
In Sweden, the production of war toys is banned: “playing war teaches you to resolve disputes through violence.”
Independent work of students
Please provide explanations for the following questions:
1. What three theories explain altruism?
2. What factors encourage people to help?
3. What theories exist to explain aggression?
4. Suggest measures that can reduce manifestations of aggression in society (further discussion in the group is possible).
Answer the questions:
1. Can altruism be learned? Aggression?
2. I ask you, Mercutio, friend, let's leave:
the day is hot, Capulets are wandering everywhere;
If we meet, we will not avoid a quarrel.
In the heat, the blood always rages more strongly.
(William Shakespeare. Romeo and Juliet).
Name several other aversive factors. How do they influence aggression?
3. The motive for helping someone, not consciously connected with one’s own selfish interests, is _____________________________.
4. Physical or verbal behavior aimed at causing harm to someone is _____________________________.
5. The ability to respond to the experiences of another person, comprehension of the emotional state of another person, penetration into the inner world of another - _____________________________.
6. The source of _______________________ aggression is anger. Its only purpose is to cause harm. In the case of _________________________________ aggression, causing harm is not an end in itself, but a means to achieve some goal.
7. _______________________ behavior – positive, constructive, socially useful behavior.
8. ___________________________ is a blocking of goal-directed behavior, this is everything that prevents the achievement of a goal, which leads to dissatisfaction of the need.
9. Below are some cases and incidents. Select from them those that can be called aggressive:
b) the hunter shot the prey
c) traffic accident
d) random collision of passers-by on the street
d) suicide attempt
f) the child was put “in a corner” for disobedience
g) tooth extraction by a dentist
10. On a hill in Jerusalem, 800 trees planted in one line form the Road of the Righteous. Under each tree lies a plaque bearing the name of a European Christian who saved the life of one or more Jews during the Nazi Holocaust. These “righteous infidels” knew that if the fugitives were discovered, they would, according to Nazi policy, be exposed to the same danger as the people they were sheltering. Nevertheless, many took this step.
What quality did people show when they saved Jews from the Nazis? How can assistance be strengthened in an emergency? Is it possible to cultivate this quality among the population?
Bibliography
Baichenko A. A., Sablina T. A. Mental and social health of the individual. - M., 2004. -184 p.
Myers D. Social psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2002. - 752 p.
Stepanov S.S. Popular psychological encyclopedia.-M., 2003.-640p.
Workshop on differential psychodiagnostics of professional suitability. / Ed. V.A. Bodrova – M., 2003. -768 p.
Altruism is the desire to help other people without thinking about one's own benefit, sometimes to the detriment of one's own interests. This term can be used to describe the desire to take care of others without expecting reciprocal gratitude.
An altruist can be called a person who first of all thinks about others and is always ready to help.
Altruism can be imaginary and true. Behind imaginary altruism is the desire for gratitude or to increase one’s own status, when a person helps another in order to be known as kind and sympathetic, and to rise in the eyes of others.
A true altruist is ready to help not only family and friends, but also strangers. And most importantly, such a person does not seek gratitude or praise in return. He does not set himself the goal of making another person dependent on himself with his help. An altruist does not manipulate others, providing them with services, showing the appearance of caring.
Theories of altruism
The nature of altruism and the motives of behavior of altruists are actively studied by both sociologists and psychologists.
In sociology
In sociology, there are three main theories of the nature of altruism:
- social exchange theory,
- theory of social norms,
- evolutionary theory.
These are complementary theories and none of them gives a complete answer to the question of why people are willing to selflessly help others.
The theory of social exchange is based on the concept of deep (latent) egoism. Its supporters believe that subconsciously a person always calculates his own benefit when committing a selfless act.
Social norms theory views altruism as a social responsibility. That is, such behavior is part of natural behavior within the framework of social norms accepted in society.
Evolutionary theory defines altruism as part of development, as an attempt to preserve the gene pool. Within this theory, altruism can be seen as the driving force of evolution.
Of course, it is difficult to define the concept of altruism based only on social research; to fully understand its nature, it is necessary to remember the so-called “spiritual” qualities of the individual.
In psychology
From a psychological point of view, altruistic behavior may be based on a reluctance (impossibility) to see the suffering of other people. This may be a subconscious feeling.
According to another theory, altruism can be a consequence of feelings of guilt; helping those in need feels like “atonement for sins.”
Types of altruism
In psychology, the following types of altruism are distinguished:
- moral,
- parental,
- social,
- demonstrative,
- sympathetic,
- rational.
Moral
The basis of moral altruism is moral principles, conscience, and spiritual needs of a person. Actions and actions are consistent with personal beliefs and ideas of justice. By realizing spiritual needs through helping others, a person experiences satisfaction and finds harmony with himself and the world. He feels no remorse because he remains honest with himself. An example is normative altruism, as a type of moral. It is based on the desire for justice, the desire to defend the truth.
Parental
Parental altruism is understood as a sacrificial attitude towards a child, when adults, without thinking about benefits and not considering their actions as a contribution to the future, are ready to give their best. It is important that such parents act taking into account the personal interests of the child, and do not realize their unfulfilled dreams or ambitions. Parental altruism is selfless; a mother will never tell her child that she spent her best years raising him and did not receive gratitude in return.
Social
Social altruism is free assistance to relatives, friends, good acquaintances, colleagues, that is, those people who can be called your inner circle. In part, this type of altruism is a social mechanism, thanks to which more comfortable relationships are established in the group. But assistance provided for the purpose of subsequent manipulation is not altruism as such.
Demonstrative
The basis of such a concept as demonstrative altruism is social norms. A person does a “good” deed, but on a subconscious level he is guided by “rules of decency.” For example, giving up your seat to an elderly person or a small child on public transport.
Sympathetic
At the heart of compassionate altruism is empathy. A person puts himself in the place of another and, having “felt” his problem, helps to solve it. These are always actions aimed at a specific result. Most often it manifests itself in relation to close people and this type can be called a form of social altruism.
Rational
Rational altruism is understood as the performance of noble deeds without detriment to oneself, when a person considers the consequences of his actions. In this case, a balance is maintained between the needs of the individual himself and the needs of others.
The basis of rational altruism is defending one’s own boundaries and a share of healthy egoism, when a person does not allow those around him to “get on his neck,” manipulate or use him. Often kind and sympathetic people are unable to say no and, instead of solving their problems, help others.
Reasonable altruism is the key to healthy relationships between people, in which there is no place for exploitation.
Distinctive characteristics of an altruist
According to psychologists, actions that are characterized by the following features can be called altruistic:
- Gratuitous. When performing this or that act, a person does not seek personal gain or gratitude;
- Responsibility. An altruist fully understands the consequences of his actions and is ready to bear responsibility for them;
- Priority. Own interests fade into the background, the needs of others come first;
- Freedom of choice. An altruist is ready to help others of his own free will, this is his personal choice;
- Sacrifice. A person is ready to spend personal time, moral and physical strength or material resources to support another;
- Satisfaction. By giving up some of his personal needs in order to help others, an altruist feels satisfied and does not consider himself deprived.
Altruistic actions often make it easier to realize your personal potential. By helping those in need, a person can do more than for himself, feel more confident, and believe in his own strength.
Based on research results, psychologists have determined that by performing altruistic acts a person feels happier.
What personal qualities are characteristic of altruists?
Psychologists identify the following character traits of altruists:
- kindness,
- generosity,
- mercy,
- unselfishness,
- respect and love for other people,
- sacrifice,
- nobility.
What these personality traits have in common is that they are self-directed. People who are more willing to give than to take.
Altruism and egoism
At first glance, altruism and egoism seem to be polar manifestations of personal qualities. It is generally accepted to consider altruism a virtue and selfishness an unworthy behavior. Self-sacrifice and selfless help to others evoke admiration, while the desire to achieve personal gain and disregard for the interests of other people evoke condemnation and censure.
But if we consider not the extreme manifestations of egoism, but the so-called rational egoism, then we can see that it is based, just like altruism, on the principles of morality and morality. Taking care of yourself and the desire to achieve a goal, without causing harm to others or betraying others, cannot be called unworthy.
Also, rational altruism, which was mentioned above, is a manifestation of not only kindness, but also healthy selfishness.
There is a negative attitude towards extreme manifestations of both selfishness and altruism in society. Egoists are considered soulless and calculating, fixated on themselves, but altruists who have forgotten about their own needs and abandoned their own lives for the sake of others are considered insane and treated with distrust.
Each person combines both selfish traits and altruism. It is important to develop the latter, without completely abandoning your own interests and needs.
How to develop this quality in yourself
You can become kinder and more responsive by helping, without thinking about gratitude, without trying to improve your social status, or to be known as a “good” person.
Volunteering is ideal for developing altruistic traits in yourself. Caring for seriously ill people in hospices or abandoned elderly people, or visiting residents of orphanages, or helping in animal shelters, you can show your best qualities - kindness, mercy, and generosity. You can participate in the work of human rights organizations, helping people who find themselves in difficult life situations and faced with injustice.
Harmony with the world and yourself will help you show altruistic qualities. At the same time, selfless caring for those in need can help you find peace of mind.
Advantages and disadvantages
It is important not to forget about yourself with everything, allowing others to use you. The ability to sacrifice one's own interests in order to help someone in trouble or a difficult situation undoubtedly deserves respect.
Lecture on social psychology.
Topic: Congruent interaction.
question - Concept and theories of altruistic interaction.
The concept of altruism in social psychology is interpreted, firstly, as a motive for providing someone with help, which is not consciously associated with one’s own selfish interests, and secondly, as actions aimed at the benefit of another person, despite the fact that there is a choice to carry them out or not; thirdly, as help to another, which does not require remuneration, without witnesses, at the cost of possible own losses.
Auguste Comte. According to Comte, the principle of altruism states: “Live for others.”
Altruistic interaction refers to actions to provide help to someone, the motive of which is not consciously connected with one’s own selfish interests.
From the point of view of awareness of these interests, the following are distinguished:
a) True (internal, pure) altruism. There is no conscious egoistic interest. In the great humanistic teachings, in classical world literature, it was precisely this kind of altruism that was described and glorified as the highest value of humanity, as the best role model.
b) false (external) altruism. Conscious interest is present, but true intentions are hidden. There are many examples where altruistic behavior is manifested in public and where the altruistic act is not necessarily devoid of personal gain. In particular, many pop stars have certain benefits when they sacrifice time and money for those in need, because their altruistic actions contribute to the popularity of their own records. The same can be said about the selflessness of altruistic behavior: in some cases it is explicitly or hidden, but is rewarded.
Altruistic actions can be considered at different levels:
Psychological. At this level, altruistic actions are explained within the framework of the theory of psychological exchange, according to which a person interacts, expends effort in the hope of receiving something significant for him in exchange, and this significant can be both material and social rewards (love, respect, sympathy).
The point is that during interaction a person exchanges not only goods, money, and other benefits, but also love, status, information, etc. At the same time, expenses decrease and rewards increase. But this does not mean at all that a person consciously expects reward. Simply, as representatives of the theory of social exchange claim, it is the analysis of costs and rewards (either the feeling of guilt will decrease, or respect will increase) and the desire to achieve the most positive result for ourselves that determine our altruistic actions.
Sociological level. At this level, altruistic actions are explained by the theory of social moral norms of helping others.
Norms are social expectations. They prescribe rules of behavior and stipulate what we are obliged to do. We must help the new neighbor settle in his new place. We must turn off the lights in a parked car. We must return the wallet we found. We must protect our friends on the battlefield.
Researchers studying helping have identified two social norms that motivate altruism: The norm of reciprocity.
Sociologist Alvin Gouldner argued that the norm of reciprocity is the only universal code of honor: those who help us, we should help, not harm. Mark Whatley and his colleagues found that their subjects, university students, were more willing to provide favors to someone who had previously treated them to candy.
If people do not have the ability to reciprocate the favor, they may feel uncomfortable accepting help and may be afraid to do so.
social responsibility norm
In relation to those who are clearly dependent and unable to reciprocate - children, the infirm, the disabled, and everyone who is perceived by us as unable to participate in an equal exchange - there is a different norm that stimulates our help. This is a norm of social responsibility, according to which those in need should be helped without regard to any compensation in the future. For example, the activities of volunteers who help, for example, frail old people or disabled people. It is this norm that encourages people to pick up a book that a man on crutches has dropped.
3. Biological level.
The third approach to the interpretation of altruism is based on evolutionary theory. From the point of view of this theory, true altruism has a chance of becoming entrenched in genes only if altruism contributes to the preservation and development of the biological species. Protection of the species
Our genes dispose us to care for those who, like us, are their carriers. Therefore, one form of self-sacrifice that can increase the chances of survival of genes is attachment to one's own children. Parents who put their children's interests above their own are more likely to pass on their genes to their offspring than those who neglect their responsibilities. As evolutionary psychologist David Barash wrote, “genes help themselves by loving each other even if they are in different bodies” (Barash, 1979, p. 153). Although evolution encourages altruism towards one's own children, the latter are less dependent on the survival of the parent's genes. That is why parents, as a rule, are more devoted to their children than children are to their parents.
For example, a father donates his own kidney to his own daughter in order to save her life.
Situational factors
Typicality, fixedness of the situation in social norms.
For example, a stranger on the street becomes ill, and you help him, take him to the hospital, spend money on some medicine.
Number of eyewitnesses. The less, the more likely altruistic behavior is.
Using the previous example, if there are few people nearby, you are more likely to help a person on the street than if the street is filled with people.
Type of interpretation of the situation (attribution of behavior of participants). Situational attribution increases the likelihood of altruistic actions.
Personal factors
Awareness of feelings of guilt (we feel guilty if we don’t give it to someone asking on the street)
Experiencing stress (people who feel bad are more likely to help others)
Personality traits (increased emotionality, empathy, responsibility)
Religiosity (It is customary for Orthodox Christians to give to those who ask, to help the poor in need of help)