What causes environmental problems. Problems of nature - common problems of man and the Earth

We live in a time when various crimes are constantly happening. Some of them are committed thoughtlessly, in a fit of anger and passion, and there are also those who are criminals long time are planning. Even criminal liability does not stop immoral elements of society from committing crimes. Let's consider what criminal acts against property are, the concept, forms and types of theft.

Theft concept

If you study the legislation, then theft refers to any criminal acts directed against property, whether public or private. There is an addition to Article 158 of the Criminal Code in paragraph 1, which provides a definition of theft. This action is understood as the illegal, gratuitous seizure of someone else’s property for personal gain.

All types of theft differ in the mechanism of the crime, which is always associated with a violation of property rights.

Signs of someone else's property

To understand where property rights will be violated, you need to know the distinctive features of someone else’s property, and they are as follows:

1. A real sign. Means that any property is an object material world.
2. Economic sign. Personal or government objects retrieved from natural reserves, have some value. For example, securities And cash can also be classified as objects of theft.
3. Legal sign. The perpetrator of the crime is not the owner of the property he is trying to or has already stolen.

Objective signs of theft

Considering the concept and types of theft, we can identify the characteristics of these crimes. There are: objective and subjective. Objective ones include:

• Illegality. The culprit has no right to own this property and such actions are prohibited by law.
• Gratuitous. The criminal takes someone else's property and does not compensate for its value.
• Seizure. The property is excluded from the property of the injured person and passes into the possession of another person.
• Appeal. The thief begins to use someone else's property as if it were his own.

There are some differences in the number of signs for different crimes. For example, if a theft, robbery or fraud is committed, then property is confiscated in favor of the criminal. Embezzlement and appropriation are characterized only by the circulation of someone else's property in his favor.

Other people's property is things that belong to the material world, so even ideas and information can become the object of theft. Human labor is invested in them, which means they have some value.

The theft is considered completed if the criminal has seized the property and has the opportunity to use it.

Subjective signs of theft

Such crimes also have subjective characteristics, these include:

• The direct intent of the criminal.
• Selfish motive. The criminal element of society is trying to turn property that is not theirs to their advantage.

Item of theft

This is someone else's property, which is not the property of the perpetrator. Things of the material world that have value because human labor is invested in them.

Items of theft, regardless of the type of theft, include common items:

• Movable property.
• Money.
• Securities, but registered ones, do not fall into this category.

There is also a category of items prohibited for circulation:

• Weapons, any explosive devices.
• Narcotic and psychogenic substances.
• Stamps, seals, documents.
• Radioactive materials.
• State awards.

It is possible to steal not only property, but also the right to it, even if there is no external sign.

Forms and types of theft

Depending on the method and characteristics of the crime, the Criminal Code distinguishes forms of theft:

1. Theft. (Article 158 of the Criminal Code)
2. Fraud (Article 159).
3. Misappropriation (Article 160).
4. Embezzlement (Article 160).
5. Robbery (Article 161).
6. Robbery (Article 162).

Each type of crime has its own characteristics and distinctive characteristics.

Theft

In Russia, thefts occur quite often. They make up about 80% of the number of crimes against private property. Theft refers to the taking of someone else's property without committing violence. Objectively it consists of two elements: seizure of property and its circulation in favor of other persons.

Theft differs from other types of theft by its secrecy. But it can be both objective and subjective.

1. Objectively secret. Such theft is committed in the presence of the owner of the property, but by virtue of his physiological state he cannot resist the actions of the criminal. For example, a person is sleeping, is in a strong drunkenness. The second option is when property is confiscated in front of witnesses who do not even suspect that a criminal act is being committed.
2. Subjective secrecy. The criminal believes that he is taking someone else's property secretly, even if it is not.

Theft is always committed with direct intent. The culprit understands well that he is trying to seize someone else’s property illegally and without compensation, causing material damage to the owner.

Fraud

This is another type of property theft. A criminal takes possession of someone else's valuables by deception or as a result of abuse of the owner's trust. In conditions market economy this type Theft is quite common.

Types of theft:

• An example of petty fraud is the substitution of money or goods, when one thing is advertised, but in fact the buyer receives something completely different.
• More complex crimes involve real estate and securities.
• Currently, this type of theft can be encountered at every step, not only in real life, but also on the Internet. Shell companies are constantly being created that fraudulently attract funds from citizens, and then disappear in an unknown direction.
• Illegal receipt social payments using forged documents.

The specificity of fraud is that the subject of the crime can be both someone else’s property and the right to it.

Deception is a method of theft and can be:

• Active. A criminal person deliberately misleads the property owner by presenting false documents.
• Passive deception. The perpetrator of the crime is simply silent about some important legal points that he should have communicated. The owner is simply mistaken about the legal grounds for transferring his property to another person.

Any fraud has a material component. From the objective side, the main sign is causing property damage to the owner of the property.

Misappropriation and embezzlement

These are two separate forms of theft. Appropriation is the conversion of someone else's property in favor of the perpetrator without compensation. The embezzled property is at the disposal of the criminal.

Embezzlement is the gratuitous use of entrusted property of others or, without the knowledge of the owner, sale, donation, or transfer to pay off a debt.

Appropriation is the retention of property, and embezzlement is its expenditure.

Robbery

This type of theft, unlike theft, is committed openly. To be recognized as such, it is necessary that the owner or another person witnesses the unlawful act and the perpetrator of the crime understands that he is deliberately ignoring this circumstance.

Robbery can be committed by force. In this case, the criminal person not only claims someone else’s property, but also violates the integrity of the person. Such acts fall into the category of serious crimes.

Robbery

Another type of theft of other people's property is robbery. When committing this crime, an attack is carried out using violent actions with the aim of taking possession of someone else's property.

Robbery is a serious crime, since it involves not only the confiscation of someone else's property, but also an attack on the life and health of the owner. That is, the objects of robbery are, on the one hand, some property, and on the other, the health of the person who was attacked.

Criminals can commit it openly or in disguise, using toxic and intoxicating agents, and striking from cover or in the back.

Based on the nature of violent actions, they are classified as robbery and robbery. Violence that is not life-threatening is a sign of robbery, and acts that endanger human life already fall under the “Robbery” article of the Criminal Code.

During an attack, criminals may use weapons.

Classification of thefts by amount of damage

We looked at the types and signs of theft depending on the nature of the crime, but the classification also takes into account the amount of damage. Depending on this, the Criminal Code distinguishes the following types:

• Petty theft. The amount of the stolen goods does not exceed 1000 rubles.
• Theft causing minor harm. The value of the stolen property should not exceed 2,500 rubles.
• Significant damage is estimated at up to 250,000 rubles.
• Grand theft. The amount of damage reaches 1,000,000 rubles.
• Particularly large thefts involve damages of more than a million rubles.

The greater the damage caused, the more serious the punishment.

Responsibility for committing theft

Previously, we examined the concept, signs and types of theft, and now we need to dwell on the issue of punishment for a criminal act. Responsibility for them is divided into:

1. Administrative. Implied for petty thefts that are committed by theft or embezzlement. The amount of damage in such cases should not exceed a month's salary.
2. Criminal. Such liability begins with a damage amount of 5 thousand rubles.

It is necessary to clarify that if petty theft is committed more than once, then if the crime is repeated, the culprit will face criminal liability.

In our country, the law implies the protection of all forms of property, as well as the rights of citizens. The Criminal Code provides for criminal or other types of liability for committing a crime against private property.

Effective protection of the property of citizens and the state is possible only with regular improvement legislative framework and law enforcement practice.

Theft in the articles of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation refers to the illegal gratuitous seizure and (or) circulation of someone else's property in favor of the perpetrator or other persons committed for personal gain and causing damage to the owner or other holder of this property.

All crimes, including theft, described in Chapter. 21 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, encroach on the same generic - public relations property. - the most important of the economic material relations, the totality of which forms the economic basis Russian society, the basis of it economic system. The immediate object is specific form property, which is determined by the ownership of the property: state, private, municipal or property public associations. All forms of ownership from their point of view legal protection are equivalent and subject to equal protection by criminal law.

The subject of theft can only be commodity-material assets in any condition and form (with the exception of fraud), which have the economic property of value, as well as money as a universal equivalent of value, as a special commodity expressing the price of any other types of property. Property is in all cases alien to the offender, who has no rights to it. The subject of fraud can also be the right to someone else's property.

The subject of theft in the form of fraud and misappropriation can be both movable and immovable property (enterprises, etc.).

Theft is characterized by actions expressed in the illegal gratuitous seizure and (or) circulation of someone else's property in favor of the perpetrator or other persons and in causing property damage to the owner or other holder of this property.

Seizure of someone else's property means the transfer of this property from the possession of the owner or other owner into the actual possession of the perpetrator.

A mandatory sign of theft is the illegal nature of the seizure of someone else's property, i.e. its transfer into the actual possession of the perpetrator without any legal grounds and without the consent of the owner or other possessor.

A mandatory objective sign of theft is the gratuitous seizure (disposal) of someone else’s property for one’s own benefit or for the benefit of other persons. Seizure is considered gratuitous if it is made without appropriate compensation, i.e. free of charge or with nominal or inadequate compensation. Thus, it is theft to take possession of property by replacing it with something that is obviously less valuable.

The gratuitousness of the confiscation of someone else's property is inextricably linked with the onset of social damage as a result of this crime. dangerous consequences in the form of causing property damage to the owner or other holder, which means direct losses measured by the value of the stolen property. It is with the onset of such consequences that the moment of the end of the theft is associated. Therefore, the theft of someone else’s property should be recognized as a completed crime from the moment of its actual seizure, regardless of whether the perpetrator managed to dispose of the stolen property as his own: consume or use in another way, sell, donate, lend or pay off a debt, etc. However, to recognize the theft as completed, it is necessary that, as a result of the illegal seizure of someone else’s property, the perpetrator received real opportunity dispose of the stolen property at its own discretion (clause 6 of the Resolution of the Plenum Supreme Court RF dated December 27, 2002 N 29 “On judicial practice in cases of theft, robbery and robbery”).

By general rule, as follows from the legislative definition, theft consists of two elements:

1. seizure of property from the owner or other owner;
2. turning it in favor of the perpetrator or other persons.

However, in such forms of theft as embezzlement and embezzlement, the theft of property occurs without its confiscation, since the subject of the crime was already in the possession of the perpetrator and was entrusted to him for various reasons (for storage, management, transportation, etc.). In such a situation, theft consists of one element - the conversion of someone else's property in favor of the culprit or other persons.

A mandatory sign of theft is between the unlawful actions of the perpetrator and the infliction of real property damage to the owner or other holder.

Theft is characterized by direct intent and selfish purpose.

In its structure, the intent of an actively acting subject of theft fits into the legislative definition of direct intent (Part 2 of Article 25 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation), according to which a person: is aware of the social danger of his actions, foresees the inevitability of socially dangerous consequences (the intellectual moment of intent) and desires the occurrence of these consequences (the volitional moment of intent), but these three elements of intent are filled with specific content in accordance with the objective properties of theft. The legislator includes selfish purpose in the theft as a mandatory subjective feature. The selfish goal in theft is determined by the desire of the subject not to any illegal extraction of property benefits, but to obtain these benefits through the conversion into ownership of property taken free of charge from the funds or from the possession of the legal owners and other owners.

The goal of theft is the desire to obtain the actual opportunity to own, use and dispose of someone else's property as one's own. It can be formulated as the purpose of illegally extracting property benefits, or even better, completely exclude it from the legislative definition of theft.

When satisfying the personal material needs of the kidnapper himself, the presence of selfish motives does not raise any doubts. But they also exist in cases where the stolen property is transferred to other persons in whose enrichment the offender is interested various reasons(when transferring stolen property to relatives or friends of the perpetrator or persons with whom he has property relations, for example, transfer to pay off a debt, or with whom, after the transfer of the stolen property, property relations arise, for example, leasing).

Illegal seizure of someone else's property without a mercenary motive does not constitute theft. This is the path followed by judicial practice. Due to the absence of a selfish motive, so-called temporary borrowing cannot be classified as theft when, for example, a cashier takes money from the cash register for personal use with the intention of returning it later.

Theft, robbery and robbery - a person who has reached the age of 14, and fraud, embezzlement and embezzlement - a person who has reached the age of 16. Misappropriation and embezzlement can only be committed by a special subject - a person to whom someone else's property was entrusted to exercise the stipulated powers.

Forms of theft.

Theft (Article 158 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation). Theft is defined in law as the secret theft of someone else's property.

Fraud (Article 159 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation). Fraud, that is, the theft of someone else’s property or the acquisition of rights to someone else’s property through deception or abuse of trust.

Robbery (Article 161 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) is defined as the open theft of someone else's property.

The objective side of robbery is characterized by actions consisting of open, non-violent seizure of someone else's property.

Robbery (Article 162 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) is the most dangerous form of theft. It is defined in law as an attack for the purpose of stealing someone else's property, committed with the use of violence dangerous to life or health, or with the threat of such violence.

Misappropriation or embezzlement (Article 160 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) is the theft of someone else’s property entrusted to the culprit.

Theft. Forms of theft: Video

Demographic problem

Society's impact on environment is directly proportional to the number of humanity, its standard of living, and weakens with an increase in the level of environmental consciousness of the population. All three factors are equivalent. Discussions about how many people can or cannot survive on Earth are meaningless if we do not take into account the lifestyle and level of human consciousness. Population problems are studied by demography - the science of the patterns of population reproduction in the socio-historical conditionality of this process. Demography is a science of population that studies population changes, fertility and mortality, migration, age and sex structure, national composition, geographic distribution and their dependence on historical, socio-economic and other factors.

When considering the natural scientific aspects of the population problem, it is especially important to imagine the breadth of demographic problems. Demography studies the peculiarities of the interaction between the biological and the social in the reproduction of the population, the cultural and ethical determination of demographic processes, and the dependence of demographic characteristics on the level of economic development. A special place is occupied by identifying the impact on demographic processes health development, urbanization and migration.

The indicated general biological patterns can be applied when considering the history of mankind only for the period up to the 19th century. Since ancient times historical eras Until the beginning of the last century, the world population fluctuated around several hundred million people, either slowly increasing or decreasing. By the beginning of the Neolithic (New Stone Age), the world's population reached 10 million people, by the end of the Neolithic (3,000 BC) - 50 million, and by the beginning of our era - 230 million people. In 1600, there were about 480 million in the world, of which 96 million were in Europe, i.e. 1/5 of the total population of the Earth. In the middle of the 19th century. - 1 billion, in 1930 - 3 billion people.

Today there are about 7 billion people living on the globe, and by 2060 there will be 10 billion people. Such population growth will naturally lead to an even greater impact of humanity on the environment and, apparently, will further exacerbate the problems that exist today. However, according to the resource model of the world system, the Earth's population should not exceed 7-7.5 billion people.

The demographic explosion was caused by a decrease in the mortality rate of children who had not reached puberty. This was a consequence of the development of the effectiveness of prevention and treatment measures after the discovery of the microbiological nature of infectious diseases. What matters is whether a person died before having children (reproductive death) or after (post-reproductive death). Post-reproductive mortality cannot be a factor limiting population growth, although it certainly has social and economic consequences. Likewise, accidents and natural disasters, contrary to what is sometimes suggested, do not control the population. These factors do not have a direct impact on overreproductive mortality and, despite the socio-economic significance of the losses associated with them, have a relatively weak effect on the growth of the population as a whole. For example, in the USA, annual losses from car accidents (approximately 50 thousand) are reimbursed within 10 days. Even wars since World War II do not affect population numbers for long. Approximately 45 thousand Americans died in the Vietnam War. Natural population growth in the United States - 150 thousand people per month - will compensate for these losses in three weeks, if you count only men. Even the regular death of 3 million people in the world per year from hunger and malnutrition is insignificant from a demographic point of view when compared with global population growth of approximately 90 million people during this period.

Around 1930, 100 years after reaching the billion level, the population exceeded 2 billion, 30 years later (1960) reached 3 billion and just 15 years later (1975) - 4 billion, then another 12 years ago (1987), the Earth's population exceeded 5 billion, and this growth continues, amounting to approximately 90 million - births minus deaths - people per year.

A peculiarity of posing environmental and demographic problems in modern science is its awareness in terms of uniqueness and individuality, the irreproducibility of both national, historical cultures, and the biosphere, and many resources. Even in the past there was no such global awareness, although the account of losses was opened much earlier. Some ecosystems have disappeared forever, and future generations will not see many of the earth's landscapes and landscapes. There is a catastrophic narrowing of diversity, a colossal standardization of production as a moment of man’s indirect relationship with the environment, and mass culture is flourishing, in which man is lost. In a society where the individual’s right to individuality has not been recognized, one can hardly count on a broad movement for the preservation of a unique image of nature. In general, uniqueness as a problem is realized only in the face of death. And the severity of the demographic and environmental problem forces us to take a fresh look at the “nature-society” relationship.

Energy problem

Energy consumption is a prerequisite for human existence. Availability of energy available for consumption has always been necessary to meet human needs. The history of civilization is the history of the invention of more and more new methods of energy conversion, the development of new sources of energy, and ultimately an increase in energy consumption.

The first leap in the growth of energy consumption occurred when people learned to make fire and use it for cooking and heating their homes. The sources of energy during this period were firewood and human muscle power. Next important stage associated with the invention of the wheel, the creation of various tools, and the development of blacksmithing. By the 15th century, medieval man, using draft animals, water and wind power, firewood and a small amount of coal, already consumed approximately 10 times more than primitive man. A particularly noticeable increase in global energy consumption has occurred over the past two hundred years since the beginning of the industrial era - it increased 30 times and reached 13.7 gigatons of fuel equivalent per year in 1998. A person in an industrial society consumes 100 times more energy than a primitive person.

In the modern world, energy is the basis for the development of basic industries that determine the progress of social production. In all industrial developed countries The pace of energy development outstripped the pace of development of other industries.

At the same time, energy is a source of adverse impacts on the environment and humans. It affects:

Atmosphere (oxygen consumption, emissions of gases, moisture and particulate matter);

Hydrosphere (water consumption, creation of artificial reservoirs, discharges of polluted and heated waters, liquid waste);

On the lithosphere (consumption of fossil fuels, landscape changes, emissions of toxic substances).

Despite the noted factors of the negative impact of energy on the environment, the increase in energy consumption did not cause much concern among the general public. This continued until the mid-70s, when specialists came into possession of numerous data indicating strong anthropogenic pressure on the climate system, which poses the threat of a global catastrophe with an uncontrolled increase in energy consumption. Since then no other scientific problem does not attract as much attention as the problem of current, and especially future climate change. Energy is believed to be one of the main reasons for this change. Energy is understood as any area of ​​human activity related to the production and consumption of energy. A significant part of the energy sector is provided by the consumption of energy released by the combustion of organic fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas), which, in turn, leads to the release of huge amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere.

The environmental problem of energy as a source of many adverse effects on the planet requires an urgent solution.

The problem of urbanization

One of the most pressing problems modernity - the process of urbanization. There are quite good reasons for this.

Urbanization (from Latin urbanus - urban) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers changes in the distribution of productive forces, and above all in the settlement of the population, its demographic and socio-professional structure, lifestyle and culture.

Cities existed in ancient times: Thebes on the territory of modern Egypt was the most big city world back in 1300 BC. e., Babylon - in 200 BC. e.; Rome - in 100 BC e. However, the process of urbanization as a planetary phenomenon dates back twenty centuries: it became a product of industrialization and capitalism. Back in 1800, only about 3% of the world's population lived in cities, while today it is about half.

The main thing is that urbanization creates a complex knot of contradictions, the totality of which serves as a compelling argument for considering it from the perspective of global studies. We can distinguish economic, environmental, social and territorial aspects (the latter is highlighted rather arbitrarily, since it combines all the previous ones).

Modern urbanization is accompanied by deterioration of the urban environment, especially in developing countries Oh. In them, it became a threat to the health of the population and became an obstacle to overcoming economic backwardness. Cities in developing countries are witnessing the interweaving of a series of crises that are having a detrimental impact on all aspects of their lives. These crises include the ongoing population explosion in developing countries, famine and malnutrition of large parts of their population, causing a deterioration in the quality of human resources. The state of the environment is especially unfavorable in cities in the largest centers with a population of over 250 thousand inhabitants. It is these cities that are growing especially quickly, increasing their population by about 10% per year. There is a devastating disruption of the ecological balance in the largest and largest centers of all regions and third world countries.

The relationship between urbanization and the state of the natural environment is determined by a number of factors in complex system socio-economic development and interaction between society and nature. Understanding the general and specific features of the state of the natural environment in cities in developing countries is important for developing a long-term strategy for international cooperation in the field of global population and environmental problems. Large and largest centers have become the focus of most of humanity's global problems. They have the most widespread impact on the state of the environment over vast areas.

Among the factors determining the state and quality of the natural environment in cities of developing countries, the most important are:

Disorganized and uncontrolled urbanization in conditions of economic underdevelopment;

Urban explosion, expressed primarily in the rapid growth rates of the largest and largest centers;

Lack of necessary financial and technical resources;

Insufficient level of general education of the majority of the population;

Lack of development of urban development policy;

Limited environmental legislation.

Such circumstances as the chaotic nature of urban development, the huge overcrowding of the population in both central and peripheral parts of cities, and the limitations of comprehensive urban planning and legislative regulation (which is typical for most developing countries) also have an unfavorable effect. There are very frequent cases of close proximity to built-up and densely populated residential areas and industrial enterprises with outdated technology and without treatment facilities. This further degrades the environment in cities. The state of the natural environment in cities in developing countries poses a challenge to their sustainable development.

The spatial aspect of urbanization is connected with all the previous ones. The “spreading” of agglomerations means the spread of the urban way of life over ever larger territories, and this, in turn, leads to worsening environmental problems, growing traffic flows (“agglomeration and encirclement”), and pushing agricultural and reactionary zones to the far periphery.

Greenhouse effect

The term “greenhouse effect” came into scientific use at the end of the 19th century, and today has become widely known as dangerous phenomenon threatening the entire planet. School fact: due to the absorption of heat coming from the heated surface of the Earth by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, ozone and others), the air temperature above the Earth increases. The more of these gases in the atmosphere, the higher the greenhouse effect.

This could lead to this. According to some forecasts, by 2100 the climate will warm by 2.5-5 C, which will cause an increase in the level of the World Ocean due to the melting of the Earth's polar caps, including the Greenland glaciers. This is a clear threat to densely populated areas along continental coasts. There may be other consequences that are disastrous for nature: expansion of desert areas, disappearance permafrost, increased soil erosion, etc. .

Increased concentrations are almost always cited as the reason for the strengthening of the greenhouse effect. greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This concentration is growing due to the burning of huge quantities of organic fuel (oil, natural gas, coal, firewood, peat, etc.) by industry, transport, agriculture and households. But this is not the only reason for the increase greenhouse effect.

The fact is that the system of living organisms (biota) successfully copes with the task of regulating the concentration of greenhouse gases. For example, if for some reason the content of carbon dioxide CO2 in the atmosphere increases, then the gas exchange in plants is activated: they absorb more CO2, release more oxygen and thereby contribute to the return of the CO2 concentration to the equilibrium value; on the contrary, when the concentration of this gas decreases, it is absorbed by plants with less intensity, which ensures an increase in its concentration.

In other words, the biota maintains the concentration of greenhouse gases at a certain level, more precisely, within very narrow limits, precisely corresponding to the magnitude of the greenhouse effect that ensures an optimal climate on Earth for the biota. (This applies only to gases of natural origin and does not apply, for example, to chlorofluorocarbons, which were not found in nature until the mid-20th century, when they were discovered and began to be produced, and biota does not know how to cope with them.)

Man has not only significantly increased the flow of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, but has also systematically destroyed those natural ecosystems that regulate the concentration of these gases, primarily by clearing forests. It is not known exactly how many natural forests have been cleared over the last millennium, but it seems that no less than 35-40% of what was there. In addition, almost all steppes have been plowed and natural meadows have been almost destroyed.

Global warming due to anthropogenic causes is no longer a scientific hypothesis, not a forecast, but a reliably established fact. The “ground” has also been prepared for further warming: the concentration of greenhouse gases not only exceeds the value that has been the norm for many millions of years, but continues to increase, since the restructuring of the economy of modern civilization, moreover, the entire life of mankind, is far from a quick matter.

Ozone layer depletion

The Earth's atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%). Together with water and sunlight, oxygen is one of the most important factors in life. A small portion of oxygen is found in the atmosphere in the form of ozone, oxygen molecules made up of three oxygen atoms.

Ozone is concentrated mainly in the atmosphere at an altitude of 15-20 kilometers above the earth's surface. This ozone-rich layer of the stratosphere is sometimes called the ozonosphere. Despite the small amount, the role of ozone in the Earth's biosphere is extremely large and important. The ozonosphere absorbs a significant portion of the sun's hard ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms. She is the shield of life, but a shield regulated by nature. The ozonosphere transmits the longer wavelength part of ultraviolet radiation. This penetrating part of ultraviolet radiation is necessary for life: it destroys pathogenic bacteria and promotes the production of vitamin D in the human body. The state of the ozone layer is extremely important, because even a slight change in the intensity of ultraviolet radiation earth's surface may affect living organisms.

The main reasons for the thinning of the ozone layer:

1) During startup space rockets Holes are literally “burned out” in the ozone layer. And contrary to the old belief that they close immediately, these holes exist for quite a long time.

2) Airplanes flying at altitudes of 12-16 km. also cause harm to the ozone layer, while those flying below 12 km. on the contrary, they contribute to the formation of ozone.

3) Release of freons into the atmosphere.

The main cause of ozone layer destruction is chlorine and its hydrogen compounds. A huge amount of chlorine enters the atmosphere, primarily from the decomposition of freons. Freons are gases that do not enter into any form at the surface of the planet. chemical reactions. Freons boil and quickly increase their volume when room temperature, and therefore are good sprayers. Because of this feature, freons have been used for a long time in the manufacture of aerosols. And since freons cool as they expand, they are still very widely used in the refrigeration industry. When freons rise to the upper layers of the atmosphere, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, a chlorine atom is split off from them, which begins to convert ozone molecules one after another into oxygen. Chlorine can remain in the atmosphere for up to 120 years, and during this time it can destroy up to 100 thousand ozone molecules.

In the 80s global community began to take measures to reduce the production of freons. In September 1987, 23 leading countries of the world signed a convention, according to which countries were to halve freon consumption by 1999. An almost equivalent substitute for freons in aerosols has already been found - propane - butane mixture. It is almost as good as freon in terms of parameters; its only drawback is that it is flammable. Such aerosols are already quite widely used. For refrigeration units, things are somewhat worse. The best substitute for freons now is ammonia, but it is very toxic and still significantly worse in terms of parameters. Now good results have been achieved in the search for new substitutes, but the problem has not yet been completely resolved.

Thanks to the joint efforts of the world community, over the past decades, the production of freons has been reduced by more than half, but their use still continues and, according to scientists, at least another 50 years must pass before the ozone layer is stabilized.

Acid precipitation

The term “acid rain” was first introduced in 1882 by the English scientist Robert Smith in his book Air and Rain: The Beginning of Chemical Climatology. The Victorian smog in Manchester caught his attention. And although scientists of that time rejected the theory of the existence acid rain, today no one doubts that acid rain is one of the causes of the death of forests, crops and vegetation. In addition, acid rain destroys buildings and cultural monuments, pipelines, renders cars unusable, reduces soil fertility and can lead to toxic metals seeping into aquifers.

During the operation of automobile engines, thermal power plants, and other plants and factories, nitrogen and sulfur oxides are released into the air in large quantities. These gases undergo various chemical reactions and eventually form droplets of acids, which fall as acid rain or are carried in the form of fog.

Acid precipitation can fall not only in the form of rain, but also in the form of hail or snow. Such precipitation causes 5-6 times more harm, since it contains a higher concentration of acids.

Acid precipitation at the present stage of the biosphere is a fairly pressing problem and has a fairly negative impact on the biosphere. Moreover Negative influence Acid rain is observed in the ecosystems of many countries. Scandinavia has felt particularly negative impacts from acid rain.

In the 70s, fish began to disappear in the rivers and lakes of the Scandinavian countries, the snow in the mountains turned grey colour, leaves from the trees covered the ground ahead of time. Very soon the same phenomena were noticed in the USA, Canada, and Western Europe. In Germany, 30% and in some places 50% of forests were damaged. And all this happens far from cities and industrial centers. It turned out that the cause of all these troubles is acid rain.

The pH value varies in different bodies of water, but in undisturbed natural environment the range of these changes is strictly limited. Natural waters and soils have buffering capabilities; they are able to neutralize a certain part of the acid and preserve the environment. However, it is obvious that nature’s buffering abilities are not unlimited.

The land and plants, of course, also suffer from acid rain: soil productivity decreases, the supply of nutrients decreases, and the composition of soil microorganisms changes.

Acid rain causes enormous damage to forests. Forests are drying out, dry tops are developing on large areas. Acid increases the mobility of aluminum in soils, which is toxic to small roots, and this leads to oppression of foliage and needles, and brittleness of branches. Coniferous trees are especially affected because needles are replaced less frequently than leaves, and therefore accumulate more harmful substances over the same period.

Acid rain not only kills wildlife, but also destroys architectural monuments. Durable, hard marble, a mixture of calcium oxides (CaO and CO2), reacts with a solution of sulfuric acid and turns into gypsum (CaSO4). Temperature changes, rain and wind destroy this soft material. Historical monuments of Greece and Rome, having stood for millennia, have been destroyed right before our eyes in recent years. The same fate threatens the Taj Mahal, a masterpiece of Indian architecture of the Mughal period, and in London the Tower and Westminster Abbey. At St. Paul's Cathedral in Rome, a layer of Portland limestone has been eroded by an inch. In Holland, the statues at St. John's Cathedral are melting like candy. The royal palace on Dam Square in Amsterdam is corroded by black deposits. More than 100 thousand valuable stained glass windows decorating the cathedrals in Tabernacle, Conterbury, Cologne, Erfurt, Prague, Bern, and other European cities may be completely lost in the next 15-20 years.

People who are forced to consume also suffer from acid rain. drinking water, contaminated with toxic metals - mercury, lead, cadmium.

It is necessary to save nature from acidification. To do this, it will be necessary to sharply reduce emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, but primarily sulfur dioxide, since it is sulfuric acid and its salts account for 70-80% of the acidity of rain that falls at great distances from the site industrial emissions.

Deforestation

Deforestation is the process of converting forested land into land without tree cover, such as grasslands, cities, wastelands and others. The most common cause of deforestation is the clearing of forests without sufficient replanting of new trees. In addition, forests can be destroyed due to natural causes such as fire, hurricane or flooding, as well as man-made factors such as acid rain.

The process of deforestation is a pressing problem in many parts of the world, as it affects their environmental, climatic and socio-economic characteristics and reduces the quality of life. Deforestation leads to a decrease in biodiversity, wood reserves, including for industrial use, as well as an increase in the greenhouse effect due to a decrease in photosynthesis.

Man began cutting down forests with the advent of agriculture - in the late Stone Age. For several millennia, deforestation was local in nature. But in the late Middle Ages, following population growth and the passion for shipbuilding, almost all forests disappeared Western Europe. The same fate befell the lands of China and India. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, the rate of forest loss increased dramatically. This is especially true for tropical forests, which until recently remained untouched. Since 1947, more than half of the 16 million square meters have been destroyed. km of tropical forest. Up to 90% of the coastal forests of West Africa, 90-95% of the Atlantic forests of Brazil have been destroyed, Madagascar has lost 90% of its forests. This list includes almost all tropical countries. Almost all that remains of the modern tropical forest is 4 million square meters. km of the Amazon. And they die quickly. An analysis of recent satellite imagery shows that the Amazon's forests are disappearing at twice the rate previously thought.

Forests make up about 85% of the world's phytomass. They are playing vital role in the formation of the global water cycle, as well as the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and oxygen. The world's forests regulate climate processes and the world's water regime. Equatorial forests are the most important reservoir of biological diversity, preserving 50% of the world's animal and plant species on 6% of the land area.

The contribution of forests to the world's resources is not only significant quantitatively, but also unique, since forests are a source of wood, paper, medicines, paints, rubber, fruits, etc. Forests with closed tree crowns occupy 28 million square meters in the world. km with approximately the same area in the temperate and tropical zones. total area continuous and open forests, according to the International Organization for Food and Agriculture (FAO), in 1995. covered 26.6% of ice-free land, or approximately 35 million square meters. km.

As a result of his activities, man destroyed at least 10 million square meters. km of forests containing 36% of the land's phytomass. The main reason for the destruction of forests is the increase in the area of ​​arable land and pastures due to population growth.

Deforestation leads to a direct decrease in organic matter, loss of carbon dioxide absorption channels for vegetation and the manifestation wide range changes in energy, water and nutrient cycles. The destruction of forest vegetation affects the global biogeochemical cycles of the main nutrients and, therefore, affects the chemical composition of the atmosphere.

About 25% of the carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere comes from deforestation. Deforestation leads to noticeable changes climatic conditions at local, regional and global levels. These climate changes occur as a result of impacts on components of the radiation and water balances.

The impact of deforestation on the parameters of the sedimentation cycle (increase in surface runoff, erosion, transportation, accumulation of sedimentary material) is especially great when a bare surface is formed, not protected by vegetation; in such a situation, soil loss on the most heavily eroded lands, which constitute 1% of the total area of ​​arable agricultural land, reaches from 100 to 200 thousand hectares per year. Although, if deforestation is accompanied by its immediate replacement by other vegetation, the amount of soil erosion is significantly reduced.

The effects of deforestation on nutrient cycles depend on soil type, how forests are cleared, the use of fire, and the type of subsequent land use. There is growing concern about the impact of deforestation on the decline in Earth's biodiversity.

A number of countries have state programs for the economic development of forest areas. But forest management often fails to take into account that the benefits of using forests in their sustainable state can generate more income than the benefits of clearing forests and using timber. In addition, it should be remembered that the ecosystem function of forests is irreplaceable and they play a critical role in stabilizing geographical environment. Forest management strategies must be based on the recognition of forests as the common heritage of humanity. It is necessary to develop and adopt an international convention on forests, which would define the basic principles and mechanisms of international cooperation in this area in order to maintain the sustainable state of forests and improve it.

Land degradation and desertification

Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi-arid (semiarid) and arid (subhumid) regions of the globe, caused by both human activity (anthropogenic causes) and natural factors and processes. The term "climate desertification" was coined in the 1940s by the French explorer Auberwil. The concept of “land” in this case means a bioproductive system consisting of soil, water, vegetation, other biomass, as well as environmental and hydrological processes within the system.

Land degradation is the reduction or loss of biological and economic productivity of arable land or pastures as a result of land use. It is characterized by drying out of the land, withering of vegetation, and a decrease in soil cohesion, as a result of which rapid wind erosion and the formation of dust storms become possible. Desertification is one of the hard-to-compensate consequences of climate change, since it takes about a century to restore one conventional centimeter of fertile soil cover. arid zone on average from 70 to 150 years.

Land degradation is caused by numerous factors, including extreme weather events, especially droughts, and human activities that contaminate or degrade soil quality and land suitability, which negatively impacts production food products, livelihoods, production and provision of other ecosystem products and services.

Land degradation accelerated in the 20th century due to increasing general pressures from crop and livestock production (over-cultivation, overgrazing, forest conversion), urbanization, deforestation, and extreme weather events such as droughts and coastal salinization. flooded by waves. Desertification is a form of land degradation in which fertile lands are converted into deserts.

These social and environmental processes are depleting the arable land and pastures needed to produce food, water and quality air. Land degradation and desertification affect human health. As land degrades and deserts expand in some areas, food production decreases, water sources dry up, and people are forced to move to better areas. This is one of the most significant global problems of humanity.

One of the main reasons for the destruction of the fertile layer is soil erosion. It occurs mainly due to the so-called “agro-industrial” farming: soils are plowed over large areas, and then the fertile layer is blown away by the wind or washed away by water. As a result, to date there has been a partial loss of soil fertility on an area of ​​152 million hectares, or 2/3 of the total area of ​​arable land. It has been established that a 20-centimeter layer of soil on gentle slopes is destroyed by erosion under a cotton crop in 21 years, under a corn crop in 50 years, under meadow grasses in 25 thousand years, under a forest canopy in 170 thousand years.

Soil erosion has become widespread today. In the United States, for example, about 44% of cultivated land is susceptible to erosion. In Russia, unique rich chernozems with a humus content of 14-16%, which were called “the citadel of Russian agriculture,” have disappeared, and the area of ​​the most fertile lands with a humus content of 10-13% has decreased by almost 5 times.

Dry regions occupy 41 percent of the earth's landmass. More than 2 billion people live in this territory (information from 2000). 90 percent of the population are from developing countries with low development indicators. Infant mortality in dryland countries is higher and gross national product (GNP) per capita is lower than in the rest of the world. Due to difficult access to water, the market for agricultural products, and a small number of natural resources, poverty is widespread in arid regions.

Soil erosion is especially high in the largest and densely populated countries. The Yellow River in China annually carries about 2 billion tons of soil into the World Ocean. Soil erosion not only reduces fertility and reduces crop yields. As a result of erosion, artificially constructed water reservoirs become silted much faster than usually envisaged in projects, reducing the possibility of irrigation and obtaining electricity from hydroelectric power plants.

The consequences of desertification in environmental and economic terms are very significant and almost always negative. Agricultural productivity decreases, the diversity of species and the number of animals are reduced, which, especially in poor countries, leads to even greater dependence on natural resources.

Desertification limits the availability of basic ecosystem services and threatens human safety. It is an important obstacle to development, which is why the United Nations established the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought in 1995, then declared 2006 the International Year of Deserts and Desertification, and subsequently designated the period from January 2010 to December 2020 as the UN Decade , dedicated to deserts and the fight against desertification.

Ocean pollution and shortages fresh water

Water pollution - the entry of various pollutants into the waters of rivers, lakes, groundwater, seas, oceans. Occurs when contaminants enter water directly or indirectly in the absence of adequate treatment and removal measures.

In most cases, water pollution remains invisible because the pollutants are dissolved in the water. But there are exceptions: foaming detergents, as well as oil products and untreated waste floating on the surface. There are several natural pollutants. Aluminum compounds found in the ground enter the fresh water system as a result of chemical reactions. Floods wash out magnesium compounds from the soil of meadows, which cause enormous damage to fish stocks.

However, the amount of natural pollutants is negligible compared to those produced by humans. Every year, thousands of chemical substances with unpredictable effects, many of which are new chemical compounds. Increased concentrations of toxic substances may be found in water heavy metals(such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium), pesticides, nitrates and phosphates, petroleum products, surfactants, medications. As is known, up to 12 million tons of oil enter the seas and oceans every year.

Acid rain also makes a certain contribution to the increase in the concentration of heavy metals in water. They are able to dissolve minerals in the soil, which leads to an increase in the content of heavy metal ions in the water. WITH nuclear power plants Radioactive waste enters the natural water cycle.

Discharge of untreated wastewater into water sources leads to microbiological contamination of water. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of diseases in the world are caused by poor quality and unsanitary water. IN rural areas The problem of water quality is particularly acute - about 90% of all rural residents people around the world constantly use contaminated water for drinking and bathing.

Land and ocean are connected by rivers that flow into the seas and carry various pollutants. Chemicals that do not break down upon contact with soil, such as petroleum products, petroleum, fertilizers (especially nitrates and phosphates), insecticides and herbicides, leaching into rivers and then into the ocean. As a result, the ocean turns into a place where this “cocktail” of nutrients and poisons.

Oil and petroleum products are the main pollutants of the oceans, but the harm they cause significantly worsens wastewater, household waste and air pollution. Plastics and oil washed up on beaches remain along the high tide mark, indicating that the seas are polluted and that much waste is not biodegradable.

Fresh water supplies are under threat due to increasing demand. The population is growing and needs it more and more, and due to climate change, it is likely to become less and less.

Currently, every sixth person on the planet, i.e. More than a billion people lack potable fresh water. According to UN research, by 2025, more than half of the world's countries will either experience serious water shortages (when more water is needed than is available) or experience water shortages. And by the middle of the century, three quarters of the world's population will not have enough fresh water. Scientists expect its deficiency to become widespread, mainly due to the increase in the world's population. The situation is aggravated by the fact that people are becoming richer (which increases the demand for water) and global climate change, which is leading to desertification and a decrease in water availability.

The natural geosystems of the ocean are experiencing ever-increasing anthropogenic pressure. For their optimal functioning, dynamics and progressive development, special measures are required to protect marine environment. They should include limiting and completely prohibiting ocean pollution; regulation of the use of its natural resources, creation of protected water areas, geo-ecological monitoring, etc. It is also necessary to formulate and implement specific plans for the implementation of political, economic and technological measures to provide the population with water in the present and future

Scarcity of natural resources

The shortage of natural resources, a problem that worried people back in ancient times, sharply worsened in the 20th century, due to the powerful growth in consumption of almost everyone. natural resources– minerals, land for agriculture, forests, water, air.

First of all, it was this problem that forced us to raise the issue of sustainable development - farming without destroying the basis of life support for future generations.

At the moment, humanity is unable to do this, if only because the world economy is built mainly on the use of non-renewable resources - mineral raw materials.

Suffice it to say that with the given volumes of consumption (even though they are growing), the proven reserves of hydrocarbon fuel will be enough for humanity for several decades, i.e. for another 1-2 generations of earthlings. At the same time, renewable natural resources are also under threat of depletion. First of all, these are biological resources. The most obvious examples are deforestation and desertification.

Global energy demand is growing rapidly (about 3% per year). If this pace is maintained by the middle of the 21st century. The global energy balance may increase 2.5 times, and by the end of the century – 4 times. The increase in energy needs is due to the growth of the world population and improvement in the quality of life, the development of global industry, and the industrialization of developing countries. A multiple increase in the global energy balance inevitably leads to a significant depletion of natural resources. To reduce these negative consequences, energy conservation is of great importance, which allows products and useful work to be produced with much less energy consumption than in the last century. In the 20th century About 20% of primary energy was effectively used, while the latest technologies make it possible to increase the efficiency of power plants by 1.5–2 times. According to expert estimates, the implementation of energy saving programs will reduce energy consumption by 30–40%, which will contribute to the safe and sustainable development of global energy.

45% of the world's reserves are concentrated in Russia natural gas, 13% - oil, 23% - coal, 14% - uranium. However, their actual use is caused by significant difficulties and dangers, does not meet the energy needs of many regions, is associated with irretrievable losses of fuel and energy resources (up to 50%), and threatens an environmental disaster in the areas of extraction and production of fuel and energy resources.

We now consume oil, gas and coal at a rate that is approximately a million times higher than the rate at which they are naturally produced in earth's crust. It is obvious that sooner or later they will be exhausted and humanity will be faced with the question: what to replace them with? If we compare the fossil energy resources remaining at the disposal of humanity and possible scenarios for the development of the world economy, demography and technology, then this time, depending on the accepted scenario, ranges from several tens to a couple of hundred years. This is the essence of what humanity faces energy problem. In addition, the increasingly active extraction and use of exhaustible raw materials is harmful to the environment, in particular, leading to changes in the earth’s climate. Excessive emissions of greenhouse gases change the Earth's climate and lead to natural disasters.

An analysis of the potential of the Earth's natural resources indicates that humanity is provided with energy for the long term. Oil and gas have a fairly powerful resource, but this “golden fund” of the planet must not only be rationally used in the 21st century, but also preserved for future generations.

Radioactive waste

Radioactive waste is liquid, solid and gaseous waste containing radioactive isotopes (RI) in concentrations exceeding the standards approved on a national scale.

Any sector that uses radioactive isotopes or processes naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) may produce radioactive materials that are no longer useful and therefore must be treated as radioactive waste. The nuclear industry, the medical sector, a number of other industrial sectors, and various research sectors all generate radioactive waste as a result of their activities.

Some chemical elements are radioactive: the process of their spontaneous decay into elements with different atomic numbers is accompanied by radiation. As a radioactive substance decays, its mass decreases over time. Theoretically, the entire mass of a radioactive element disappears indefinitely. big time. The half-life is the time after which the mass is halved. Varying widely, the half-life is, for different radioactive substances, from several hours to billions of years.

Fight with radioactive contamination the environment can only be of a preventive nature, since there are no methods of biological decomposition and other mechanisms to neutralize this type of contamination of the natural environment. The greatest danger is posed by radioactive substances with a half-life from several weeks to several years: this time is sufficient for such substances to penetrate into the body of plants and animals. Spreading throughout the food chain(from plants to animals), radioactive substances enter the body along with food and can accumulate in quantities that can harm human health. Radiation from radioactive substances has a detrimental effect on the body due to weakened immunity and reduced resistance to infections. The result is a decrease in life expectancy, a reduction in natural population growth rates due to temporary or complete sterilization. Gene damage has been noted, and the consequences appear only in subsequent - second or third - generations.

The greatest contamination due to radioactive decay was caused by explosions of atomic and hydrogen bombs, the testing of which was carried out especially widely in 1954-1962.

The second source of radioactive impurities is the nuclear industry. Impurities enter the environment during the extraction and enrichment of fossil raw materials, their use in reactors, and the processing of nuclear fuel in installations.

The most serious environmental pollution is associated with the work of plants for the enrichment and processing of nuclear raw materials. For decontamination radioactive waste Before they are completely safe, a time of approximately 20 half-lives is required (this is about 640 years for 137Cs and 490 thousand years for 239Ru). It is hardly possible to vouch for the tightness of containers in which waste is stored for such a long time.

Thus, the storage of nuclear energy waste is the most pressing problem of protecting the environment from radioactive contamination. Theoretically, however, it is possible to create nuclear power plants with virtually zero release of radioactive impurities. But in this case, energy production at a nuclear power plant turns out to be significantly more expensive than at a thermal power station.

Declining biodiversity

Biological diversity (BD) is the totality of all life forms inhabiting our planet. This is what makes Earth different from other planets solar system. BR is the richness and diversity of life and its processes, including the diversity of living organisms and their genetic differences, as well as the diversity of the places where they exist.

BR is divided into three hierarchical categories: diversity among members of the same species (genetic diversity), between various types and between ecosystems. Research into global problems of BD at the gene level is a matter of the future.

The most authoritative assessment of species diversity was carried out by UNEP in 1995. According to this assessment, the most likely number of species is 13–14 million, of which only 1.75 million, or less than 13%, have been described. The highest hierarchical level of biological diversity is ecosystem, or landscape. At this level, patterns of biological diversity are determined primarily by zonal landscape conditions, then by local features of natural conditions (topography, soils, climate), as well as the history of the development of these territories. The greatest diversity of species is (in descending order): moist equatorial forests, coral reefs, dry tropical forests, moist temperate forests, oceanic islands, landscapes of the Mediterranean climate, treeless (savanna, steppe) landscapes.

In the last two decades, biological diversity has begun to attract the attention of not only biologists, but also economists, politicians, and the public due to the obvious threat of anthropogenic degradation of biodiversity, which far exceeds normal, natural degradation.

According to the UNEP Global Biodiversity Assessment (1995), more than 30,000 animal and plant species are at risk of extinction. Over the past 400 years, 484 animal species and 654 plant species have disappeared.

The reasons for the current accelerated decline in biological diversity are: 1) rapid population growth and economic development, which contributes huge changes into the living conditions of all organisms and ecological systems of the Earth; 2) increase in human migration, growth international trade and tourism; 3) increasing pollution of natural waters, soil and air; 4) insufficient attention to the long-term consequences of actions that destroy the conditions of existence of living organisms, exploit natural resources and introduce non-native species; 5) the impossibility in a market economy to assess the true value of biological diversity and its losses.

Over the past 400 years, the main direct causes of extinction of animal species were: 1) the introduction of new species, accompanied by the displacement or extermination of local species (39% of all lost animal species); 2) destruction of living conditions, direct withdrawal of territories inhabited by animals and their degradation, fragmentation, increased edge effect (36% of all lost species); 3) uncontrolled hunting (23%); 4) Other reasons (2%).

Diversity is the basis for the evolution of life forms. The decline in species and genetic diversity undermines the further improvement of life forms on Earth. The economic feasibility of preserving biodiversity is determined by the use of wild biota to meet the various needs of society in the fields of industry, agriculture, recreation, science and education: for the selection of domestic plants and animals, the genetic reservoir necessary for updating and maintaining the sustainability of varieties, the manufacture of medicines, as well as for providing the population with food, fuel, energy, timber, etc.

Humanity is trying to stop or slow down the increasing decline in Earth's biodiversity in various ways. But, unfortunately, for now it can be stated that, despite numerous measures, the accelerated erosion of the world's biological diversity continues. However, without these protections the extent of biodiversity loss would be even greater.

The environmental crisis is characterized by the presence of a number of problems that threaten sustainable development. Let's look at just a few of them.

Ozone layer depletion .

Ozone content in the atmosphere insignificant and amounts to 0.004% by volume. Ozone is formed in the atmosphere under the influence of electrical discharges and is synthesized from oxygen under the influence of cosmic UV radiation. Within the atmosphere, increased concentrations of ozone form the ozone layer, which has important

to ensure life on Earth. The ozone shield attenuates the deadly UV radiation in the layer of the atmosphere between 40 and 15 km above the earth's surface by about 6,500 times. Destruction of the ozone shield by 50% increases UV radiation by 10 times, which affects the vision of animals and humans and can have other detrimental effects on living organisms. The disappearance of the ozonosphere would lead to unpredictable consequences - an outbreak of skin cancer, the destruction of plankton in the ocean, mutations of flora and fauna. The first appearance of the so-called ozone hole over Antarctica was recorded by ground-based and satellite measurements in the mid-19970s. The area of ​​this hole was 5 million m², and the ozone in the air column was 30-50% less than normal. Several assumptions have been made about the causes of the destruction of the ozone layer: the launch of spaceships, supersonic aircraft, significant scale production of freons. Subsequently, based on scientific research

The international community has taken a number of measures aimed at preventing the destruction of the ozone layer. In 1977, the UN Environment Program adopted an action plan on the ozone layer; in 1985, a conference was held in Vienna that adopted the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer; a list of substances that adversely affect ozone layer, and a decision was made on mutual information between states on the production and use of these substances and on the measures taken.

Thus, it was officially stated that changes in the ozone layer are harmful to human health and the environment and that measures to protect the ozone layer require international cooperation. The decisive factor was the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, according to which control over the production and use of freezing oil is established.

new The protocol was signed by more than 70 countries, including Russia. In accordance with the requirements of these agreements, the production of freons harmful to the ozone layer must be stopped by 2010.

Greenhouse effect. The release of many gases into the atmosphere: carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbons, i.e. methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), etc., which accumulate as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels and other industrial processes, leads to the greenhouse effect, although these substances pose almost no danger as independent pollutants (except for high concentrations).

The mechanism of the greenhouse effect is quite simple. Normal solar radiation in clear weather and a clear atmosphere, it relatively easily reaches the Earth's surface, is absorbed by the soil surface, vegetation, etc. Heated surfaces release thermal energy back into the atmosphere, but in the form of long-wave radiation, which is not scattered, but is absorbed by the molecules of these gases (CO2 absorbs 18% heat given off), causing intense thermal movement molecules and temperature rise.

Atmospheric gases (nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor) do not absorb thermal radiation, but dissipate it. CO2 concentration increases annually by 0.8-1.5 mg/kg. It is believed that when the CO2 content in the air doubles, the average annual temperature will increase by 3-5ºC, which will cause global warming, and in 125 years we can expect massive melting of the ice of Antarctica, a rise in the average level of the World Ocean, flooding of a significant part of the coastal territory and other negative consequences . In addition to the greenhouse effect, the presence of these gases contributes to the formation smog.

Smog can be wet, dry or icy. Wet smog (London type) - a combination of gaseous pollutants, dust and fog droplets. This is how a poisonous, thick, dirty yellow fog—humid smog—occurs in a 100-200-meter layer of air. It is formed in countries with maritime climate where there is frequent fog and high relative humidity.

Dry smog (Los Angeles type) - secondary air pollution as a result of chemical reactions, accompanied by

caused by the appearance of ozone. Dry smog does not form fog, but a bluish haze.

Icy smog (Alaskan type). It occurs in the Arctic and Subarctic at low temperatures in an anticyclone. A thick fog forms, consisting of tiny ice crystals and, for example, sulfuric acid.

Global warming - one of the most significant consequences of anthropogenic pollution of the biosphere. It manifests itself in changes in climate and biota: the production process in ecosystems, shifts in the boundaries of plant formations, and changes in crop yields. Particularly strong changes affect the high and middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. The rise in sea level due to warming will be 0.1-0.2 m, which can lead to flooding of estuaries large rivers, especially in Siberia. At the regular conference of the countries participating in the Convention on the Prevention of Climate Change, held in Rome in 1996, the need for coordinated international action to solve this problem was once again confirmed.

Destruction of tropical forests. Over the past 50 years, with human participation, 2/3 of the forests covering the Earth have been destroyed. Over the past 100 years, 40% of the forests that existed on Earth have been irretrievably lost. The tropical rainforest is one of the most important suppliers of oxygen to the atmosphere and plays a huge role in maintaining oxygen balance. Tropical rainforests are called the “green lungs of the planet.” The problem is that these forests have already been destroyed by 40%. Every year 15-20 million hectares are lost in the world tropical forest, which is equivalent to half the area of ​​Finland. The greatest losses were suffered by 10 countries, including Brazil, Mexico, India, and Thailand. If the destruction of tropical forests continues at the same rate, then in 30-40 years there will no longer be any left on Earth.

Due to the destruction of tropical forests, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere decreases annually by 10-12 billion tons, and the content of carbon dioxide compared to the mid-20th century. increased by 10-12%. There is a danger of oxygen imbalance.

The main causes of deforestation are: plowing of forest lands for agricultural land; increase in demand for wood

spring fuel; industrial deforestation; implementation of large-scale development projects.

According to the UN, approximately 90% of rural and 30% of urban populations in Asia, Africa and Latin America rely primarily on wood fuel. Commercial logging

This work is carried out without taking into account environmental requirements and, as a rule, is not accompanied by planting trees in cleared areas.

After the UN conference in Rio de Janeiro (1992), developing countries confirmed their readiness to achieve international consensus on the problem of conserving forest resources, intending to take measures for their part to ensure sustainable development of forestry.

Water shortage. Many scientists associate it with a continuous increase in air temperature over the last decade due to an increase in carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere. It is not difficult to create a chain of problems that give rise to each other: large energy release (solution to the energy problem) - the greenhouse effect - lack of water - lack of food (crop failure). Over the past 100 years, the temperature has increased by 0.6ºC. In 1995-1998 there was a particularly large increase in its growth. Carbon dioxide, methane and some other gases absorb thermal radiation and enhance the greenhouse effect.

An even more important factor is the sharp increase in water consumption for industrial and domestic purposes. Water shortages have sharply worsened the environmental situation in many regions and caused a food crisis.

Desertification. This is the name given to a set of natural and anthropogenic processes that lead to the destruction (disturbance) of equilibrium in ecosystems and to the degradation of all forms of organic life in a specific territory. Desertification occurs in all natural areas of the world.

main reason modern growth desertification in various countries world - the discrepancy between the existing structure of economic use of natural resources and the potential natural capabilities of a given landscape, population growth, increasing anthropogenic loads, and the imperfection of the socio-economic structure of a number of countries. According to UNEP*, now deserts of anthropogenic origin

More than 9 million km² are occupied, and up to 7 million hectares of land are removed from productive use every year.

Pollution of the World Ocean. The world ocean, covering 2/3 of the earth's surface, is a huge reservoir, the mass of water in which is 1.4·10²¹ kg. Ocean water makes up 97% of all water on the planet. The world's oceans provide 1/6 of all animal proteins consumed by the planet's population as food. The ocean, especially its coastal zone, plays a leading role in supporting life on Earth, because about 70% of the oxygen entering the planet’s atmosphere is produced during the process of plankton photosynthesis. Thus, the World Ocean plays a huge role in maintaining a stable balance of the biosphere, and its protection is one of the pressing international environmental tasks.

Ocean pollution is of particular concern harmful and toxic substances, including oil and oil products, radioactive substances.

The most common ocean pollutants are oil and petroleum products. An average of 13-14 million tons of petroleum products enter the World Ocean annually. Oil pollution is dangerous for two reasons: firstly, a film forms on the surface of the water, which deprives marine flora and fauna of oxygen; secondly, oil itself is a toxic compound that has a long half-life; when the oil content in water is 10-15 mg/kg, plankton and fish fry die. Major oil spills from supertanker crashes can be considered real environmental disasters.

Particularly dangerous is Nuclear pollution when disposing of radioactive waste (RAW). Initially, the main way to dispose of radioactive waste was to bury radioactive waste in the seas and oceans. This was usually low-level waste, which was packed into 200-liter metal drums, filled with concrete and dumped into the sea. The first such disposal of radioactive waste was carried out by the United States 80 km from the coast of California. Until 1983, 12 countries practiced dumping radioactive waste into the open sea. Into the water Pacific Ocean During the period from 1949 to 1970, 560,261 containers of radioactive waste were dumped.

Recently, a number of international documents have been adopted,

whose main goal is to protect the World Ocean.

Lack of food. An important reason for food shortages is the reduction in arable area per capita since 1956 due to soil erosion and the withdrawal of fertile land for other purposes. Thanks to the “green revolution” of the 1970s. managed to compensate for the decrease in yield through the introduction of new varieties, irrigation, and the use of fertilizers and herbicides. However, this could not be achieved in Australia and Africa - there was not enough water for irrigation. Now it is clearly lacking in Asia and America.

Fish stocks have declined sharply. From 1950 to 1989, the world catch increased from 19 to 89 million tons, after which there was no further increase. An increase in the fishing fleet does not lead to an increase in catch.

Population growth. The rapidly growing population is the most serious problem on Earth.

Numerous attempts to reduce the birth rate have failed. Currently, countries in Africa, Asia and South America are experiencing a population explosion. In the Russian Federation, a situation unfavorable for population growth has developed due to a falling birth rate.

Self-test questions

What signs characterize the modern environmental crisis?

Name the main causes of biosphere pollution.

Give examples of depletion of energy resources.

What global changes are taking place in the atmosphere?

What are the causes and what are the consequences of the destruction of the ozone layer?

What are the causes and what are the consequences of the greenhouse effect?

What global continental problems do you know?

What are the main causes of tropical forest destruction?

What are the main sources of pollution in the World Ocean?

What are the consequences of population growth?