Main classes Russian society in the 17th century Lesson for 7th grade
Society is the people of one country and the relationships between them.
Why do people unite insociety?
What are the challenges ahead?
society?
Estate -
Estate A large group of people withrights and obligations,
transmitted by inheritance.
Comparative table “Estates of Russian society of the 17th century”
EstateCompound
estates
Rights
Responsibilities
First estate feudal lords
boyarsOwned estates.
Served the king.
Occupied
higher
state
positions
in state
apparatus of power.
nobility
Upper layer
service people
in Russian society
Owned estates
but could transmit
estate by
inheritance
in case of continuation
state
services.
clergy
Upper class.
"Secular clergy"
(parish priests)
"Black" clergy
(monks).
Large landowner
owner -
owned up to 15%
all the land of the country.
Boyars
Responsibilities:carried
state
service
Rights
Owning land with
peasants
(fiefdoms) on
on a private basis
property.
The patrimony is possible
sell, bequeath,
give.
The nobility was formed from the servants of the princely and boyar courts:
Land-poornoble landowners
(“children of the boyars” and
"city nobles")
"Ranks" of the sovereign
yard:
* "Duma ranks" boyars, okolnichy, and
Duma nobles;
* “Moscow ranks” stewards, solicitors,
Moscow nobles
Nobles:
Responsibilities:carried
state
service
Rights:
- owned an estate
for life while I could
carry military service;
- the estate was transferred
by inheritance, if son
by the time of death
father reached 15 years of age and
could serve
to the state.
Cathedral Code of 1649
It containedspecial chapter,
which secured everything
major changes in
legal status
local
land tenure,
(for example: owners
estates could be like
boyars and nobles)
Second Estate Clergy
Black clergy(monks)
Responsibilities:
Lead by example
serving God
Rights:
The monasteries owned
lands with
peasants.
Secular clergy
(parish
priests)
Responsibilities:
preach
word of God
Rights:
had families
property
Third estate: The peasantry is the most numerous estate.
Third Estate:The peasantry is the largest class.
Palace
Landowners
Church
Chernososhnye
(state)
(personally free)
The main duties of peasants:
Corveequitrent
(monetary and
natural),
and
"land" and
"household"
tax" (submit)
Cathedral Code of 1649
Chapter 11 Cathedral Code –“Court of Peasants” - introduced an indefinite term
search for runaway peasants.
Result:
Establishment
full
serf
rights.
Service people
The state accepted them into hired service forperforming military and guard duty:
Moscow and city archers
Pushkari
State blacksmiths
City Cossacks,
residing
in cities
and border
areas
Posad (city) people
Guests (Merchants) (in the 17th century more than 30 people) –the largest entrepreneurs were
close to the king, did not pay taxes,
held financial positions. had the right
buy estates for your possessions;
Members of the living room and cloth hundred (about 400
people) – occupied a place in the financial
hierarchy, but were inferior to the guests in “honor”. They
had self-government, their common affairs were carried out
elected heads and elders.
Merchants
Responsibilitiespay taxes and
customs
state duties
Rights
entrepreneurship
– trade,
organization
manufactories
Black townspeople -
Blacktownspeople The main tax-paying population of the city
(paid taxes and bore duties).
The city's population was divided into:
white
Sloboda
black
settlements
Posad artisans and merchants
White settlementsBlack settlements:
Responsibilities:
Responsibilities:
pay taxes
pay rent
boyars,
to the state.
monasteries
Rights:
Entrepreneurship,
Rights:
manufacturing
entrepreneurship
crafts
products
Hierarchy of Russian estates in the 17th century
feudal lordsclergy
townspeople
peasants
Conclusion:
In the 17th century in Russiaa hierarchical
feudal society.
RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY
New phenomena in economics
Consequences of the Troubles. The result of the Troubles and foreign invasions was the ruin of Western and central regions countries. Contemporaries spoke of the southwestern lands as “arable land overgrown with forest,” “a wasteland that was a village.” The sown area here has decreased by almost 30 times. Completely deserted villages accounted for half of their number throughout the country. The main reason for the ruin was the lack of workers: peasants fled from the hard times of war to the north, beyond the Volga, and often went to the Cossacks to the south. But the remaining peasants were of little use either: many of them now had neither livestock, nor tools, nor money. Such peasants were called bobyli. In many regions of the country, the number of bobyl households was more than 40%, and in the western regions of the country - up to 70%.
The ruin of peasant farms was main reason the desolation of many estates, the impoverishment of the nobility. Many of the nobles became not only Cossacks, but even slaves for rich boyars. And this threatened to weaken the social base of the monarchy.
Many southern and western cities Russia. Crafts, handicraft production, and trade fell into decline. Only in the less affected northern and eastern regions of the country did the consequences of the Troubles manifest themselves to a lesser extent.
The state treasury was also in disrepair. Even the expenses of the first and second militia, and then the formation of a new dynasty, were paid not so much by the state itself, but by rich merchants - Stroganovs, Sveteshnikovs, Nikitnikovs, Guryevs, Shorins.
In these conditions, the authorities were faced with the task of finding sources of economic revival of the country.
Agriculture. One of the main such sources was the distribution of land to the nobles, which should have led to the strengthening of both the noble and peasant economies. To avoid conflicts over the redistribution of land property, Tsar Mikhail confirmed the rights to the land of those nobles to whom it was granted by Vasily Shuisky and False Dmitry II. Already in 1612-1613, the “Council of All the Earth”, and then Mikhail, distributed more than 90 thousand acres of palace lands to the boyars and nobles close to the new court. In 1614-1625, even more land was distributed to the petty bureaucratic nobility, the provincial nobility, and partly to the Cossacks. The development of the Trans-Volga and Siberian territories was carried out, where the three-field system was gradually introduced.
However, land without peasants assigned to it did not have much value. Therefore, throughout the first half of the century, the nobles petitioned the Tsar with a request to rectify the situation. In 1637, Tsar Mikhail increased the period for searching for fugitive peasants to 9 years, and in 1641 - to 10 years for fugitives and up to 15 years for those taken away by other feudal lords (most often boyars).
Peasant taxes were significantly reduced, and the townspeople became the main taxpayer. In-kind quitrent began to acquire less and less importance, while at the same time the role of monetary quitrent was constantly increasing.
Thanks to the measures taken by the authorities peasant farms managed to recover quite quickly. However, the preservation of subsistence (non-commercial) farming inevitably caused poor food supply for peasants.
A new phenomenon in development Agriculture There was an emerging specialization of individual regions of the country. This led to an increase in commodity circulation. Southern and Volga regions bread was supplied to the market in abundance; Western - flax and hemp; Pomeranians - salt and fish; Siberian - furs; Yaroslavl and Kostroma - canvases.
What was also new was that not only merchants, but also monasteries, and in some cases, boyars and even the tsar were forced to engage in entrepreneurship and trade.
Craft. IN In previous years, the development of crafts in Russia was limited by the subsistence nature of the economy: the artisan produced products only to individual orders. In the XVII century, the craft turns into small-scale production for sale on the market. Another feature of the craft is its consolidation, the creation of craft workshops (in contrast to the “home industry” of previous years).
Another innovation was specialization of handicraft production in different areas Russia. Vologda craftsmen were famous for their famous lace, Rostov for enamel, Vazh for cloth, Rshmin for matting, Belozersk for spoons, Vyazemski for sleighs, Nizhny Novgorod for locks, etc. Close to Moscow, Serpukhov, Kashira, and Tula became one of the first centers of Russian metallurgy. Metalworking was concentrated in Moscow. The capital was also a traditional center for jewelry work. Begins to be used for the first time in metalworking and river transport hired labor.
Manufactories. New phenomena in handicraft production created the prerequisites for the development of a new type of enterprise - manufactories. They were based on the division of labor and the use of manual craft techniques. The first of the Russian manufactories (Cannon Yard in Moscow) arose at the end of XV century. In the XVII century, state-owned gunpowder manufactories, the Armory, the Gold and Silver Chambers, the Khamovny (weaving) and Velvet (silk) yard appeared. They used forced labor and provided mainly for the army and royal entourage. They almost did not supply their products to the domestic and foreign markets.
Merchant manufactories that produced hemp ropes for the needs of the fleet (mainly sold abroad) were quite large. In addition to Moscow, the Tula-Kashira region and the Urals became centers of manufacturing production. Copper smelting and ironworks were established here. A Dutch merchant built three ironworks near Tula in 1637. A. D. Vinius. The first blast furnaces in Russia were launched here. There were many leather factories, as well as salt industries.
In total, about 60 different manufactories were created during the 17th century. However, in the absence large quantity free labor force, not all of them turned out to be viable. By the end of the century, there were no more than 30 manufactories in the country. Nevertheless, it was in the 17th century that manufacturing production began, and the first dynasties of industrial entrepreneurs were formed from large merchants - the Nikitnikovs, Sveteshnikovs, Shorins, Filatievs, Stroganovs, Demidovs.
Trade. The main feature of trading in XVII century became the formation all-Russian market, which is understood as strengthening economic ties and exchange of goods between different parts of the country, based on the ecological specialization of the territories. The growth of trade was also facilitated by an increase in monetary dues from peasants. Not only city markets grew, but also rural markets. For the first time, large all-Russian trading centers appeared trade fairs - Arkhangelskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, and by the end of the century - Makaryevskaya. People from all over came here on religious holidays. countries not only sellers of various goods, but also wholesale buyers. Retail trade has developed in cities and villages. There was specialization not only in the production of goods, but also in their sales. Thus, Vologda, Vyatka, Orel, Voronezh, and Nizhny Novgorod were recognized centers of bread trade. The main markets for salt were Vologda and Sol Kamskaya. Selected furs were sold in Sol Vychegda - on the way from Siberia to Moscow.
Foreign trade was actively developing, still going mainly through Arkhangelsk (up to 75%) in the western direction and through Astrakhan in the eastern direction. Until the middle XVII centuries, foreign merchants had the right to trade independently on the domestic Russian market. This led to numerous protests from Russian merchants. In 1649, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich banned the British from conducting internal trade and expelled them from the country.
The development of trade was hampered by internal customs barriers that remained from the times of fragmentation. In 1653, the Customs Charter was adopted, which eliminated small customs duties. The New Trade Charter of 1667 further limited the rights of foreign merchants: they now had to sell their goods wholesale in border towns. Higher duties were introduced on imported (brought from abroad) goods.
The growth of cities. The 17th century was the time of the emergence of many new cities in Russia. The expansion of the country's borders required their economic development. The companies created during these years played a big role in this. fortified lines, consisting of a chain of fortified cities. Under the protection of these fortifications, the development of the southern steppes, the Urals, Siberia, and the North Caucasus took place. In the middle
century was created Belgorod line(Akhtyrka - Belgorod - Voronezh - Tambov), later - the Simbirsk line (Tambov - Saransk - Simbirsk) and the Zavolzhskaya line. In the 17th century, the construction of many fortresses (ostrogs) began in Siberia. IN total by the end of the 17th century there were 250 cities in Russia (excluding Siberia and Left Bank Ukraine).
Thus, the economic development of the country in the 17th century was marked by many new features: the strengthening of the role of corvee and quitrent, the transformation of crafts into small-scale production, the development of manufactories, the formation of an all-Russian market, and the growth of cities.
The main classes of Russian society
First estate. The dominant class in society remained feudal lords. Previously they were referred to only boyars, who had their own ancestral land holdings- fiefdoms. In the 17th century, within the framework of the feudal class, the foundations arose noble class. By as approved Russian autocracy The position of the nobility, the main support of royal power, strengthened. During the 17th century, a complex system of official promotion of nobles in the army, at court and in the government system took shape. Depending on their nobility of origin and success in service, they were transferred from one rank to another. Taking into account their position, service people received the right to own larger or smaller lands with peasants living on them. All this indicated that in the 17th century the nobility gradually turned into a new class.
The tsarist government sought to strengthen the rights of both nobles and boyars to the land and peasants subject to them. For this purpose, the search period for fugitive peasants was increased, first to 10 and then to 15 years. However, this did not help much. The boyars and nobles demanded that the peasants be completely assigned to their masters. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code, according to which the eternal right of feudal lords to dependent peasants was secured and the transfer from one owner to another was prohibited.
By the end of the century, up to 10% of peasant households in the country belonged to the tsar, the same amount to the boyars, about 15% to the church, and most of all (about 60%) to the nobles.
Thus, by the end of the century, the positions of the main landowners - the boyars - were seriously undermined. The nobility became the main owner of the land and serfs. It supplanted the boyar clan nobility in the sphere of public administration. The previous system of filling senior positions in the state according to birth (system localism) in 1682 it was completely abolished. All categories of feudal lords were given equal rights. This meant a serious victory for the nobility in the long-standing rivalry with the old family nobility.
Peasants. The bulk of the population continued to be peasants. Their situation in the 17th century worsened significantly. It was on the peasant shoulders that the heavy burden of the Troubles and numerous wars of this century fell, and the restoration of the destroyed economy. The peasantry was divided into two main groups: landowners and black farmers. The first were the complete property of the boyars, nobles, royal family and the clergy. The latter retained personal freedom, owned vast lands (mainly in Pomerania and Siberia) and bore state duties. The peasants who lived on the lands of the boyars and nobles belonged to only one owner and were completely dependent on his arbitrariness. They could be sold, exchanged, gifted. The property of the serfs belonged to the feudal lord. The most severe and difficult situation was the situation of the peasants who were owned by small feudal lords.
Peasants worked for the feudal lords corvée, paid natural And cash dues. As we already know, as market relations developed, the role of monetary rent constantly grew. The average length of corvee labor was 2-4 days a week. In the second half of the century, the work of serfs in the first manufactories that belonged to their owners began to be equated with corvee labor. At the same time, dependent peasants bore duties in favor of the state.
By the end of the century the role had changed serfs.If Previously, they were powerless semi-slaves of their masters, but now they became clerks, messengers, grooms, tailors, falconers, etc. By the end of the century, this category of dependent population gradually merged with the serfs.
The tax system has changed. If in early XVII century, the tax (“tax”) was calculated from “ploughed land” and this led to a significant reduction in cultivated land, then by the end of the century, instead of land tax, a household tax was introduced.
Medium sizes peasant plots amounted to 1-2 dessiatines (1-2 hectares) of land. There were also wealthy peasants, whose plots reached several tens of hectares. Famous entrepreneurs, merchants, and traders came from such families.
Urban population. IN XVII century, the urban population grew. Every big city had Not less than 500 households. In new cities, primarily on the southern and eastern outskirts of the country, suburbs appeared after the fortresses. Not only Russians lived in them, but also representatives of other peoples of Russia. Posad population included artisans and traders, archers, merchants, clergy, nobles and boyars (with their numerous servants).
The dominant positions in city life were occupied by rich artisans and merchants, controlled the townsfolk communities. They tried to shift the entire burden of the tax burden onto the poorest part of the population - small artisans and traders. The position of boyar, noble and monastic servants and serfs, who in their free time from service were engaged in trade and craft, was also privileged. Like their masters, they were residents of white settlements, inhabited by feudal lords and clergy, and did not bear duties in favor of the state. This, in turn, caused constant complaints from the bulk of the townspeople.
Feature XVII century, it also became that as handicraft production grew, it began to be used (still in small sizes) hired labor. Not only the townspeople's poor, but also peasant farmers and serfs were hired to work with artisans who were quickly getting rich and no longer willing to do menial work.
Clergy. By the end of the 17th century, the number of Russian clergy increased significantly. Up to 110 thousand people performed church services in almost 15 thousand churches in the country. And up to 8 thousand monks lived in the monasteries. With the adoption of the patriarchate at the end of the 16th century, the Russian Orthodox Church became completely independent. At the same time, a new church hierarchy emerged. The closest to the believers and the most numerous layer of the clergy were parish priests. The highest stratum were bishops, archbishops And metropolitans. Headed the church hierarchy patriarch Moscow and all Rus' with its own yard.
The church was the largest owner of the land. This caused concern among the secular authorities and the envy of many boyars and nobles. In 1649, the Council Code prohibited the church from increasing its land holdings and eliminated the rights of white settlements (which included church holdings) in cities. At the same time, church leaders were deprived of some judicial privileges that previously belonged to them.
Nevertheless, the church was one of the largest land owners in the country, owning up to 15% of the land.
Cossacks. The Cossacks became a new class for Russia. This was a military class, which included the population of a number of outlying areas of Russia (Don, Yaik, Urals, Terek, Left Bank Ukraine). It enjoyed special rights and benefits under the conditions of compulsory and general military service.
The basis of the economic life of the Cossacks was crafts - hunting, fishing, beekeeping, and later also cattle breeding and agriculture. As in the 16th century, the Cossacks received the bulk of their income in the form of state salaries and military booty.
The Cossacks were able to quickly develop the vast outlying regions of the country, primarily the Don and Yaik lands.
The most important issues in the life of the Cossacks were discussed at their general gathering (“circle”). The Cossack communities were headed by elected atamans and elders. Ownership of the land belonged to the entire community. Atamans and elders were elected through elections, in which each Cossack enjoyed an equal right to vote.
These orders people's government compared favorably with the autocrats who were gaining strength in the country. In 1671, the Don Cossacks were sworn in to the Russian Tsar.
Thus, in the 17th century, the previously complex social structure of Russian society was significantly simplified.
Political development of the country
The first Romanovs: strengthening autocratic power. The first Russian Tsar of the new dynasty was Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613-1645). At the beginning of his reign he was barely 16 years old. At that age he could not be an independent politician. In the absence of his father (Filaret was in Polish captivity at that time), the mother of the young tsar had a great influence on Mikhail’s decisions. Marfa, who after the proclamation of her son as king became the “great empress.” Upon ascending the throne, Mikhail promised not to rule without the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma. The king kept this oath until his father returned from captivity. Filaret, proclaimed patriarch in 1619, also received the title of “great sovereign” and became co-ruler of his son. Until his death in 1633, Filaret was the de facto ruler of Russia. With strong-willed and power-hungry parents, Mikhail was a gentle and kind person. He loved flowers and spent a lot of money purchasing rare plants in Europe. The king was a physically weak man and was often sick.
After Michael's death, his son became the new king. Alexey Mikhailovich(1645-1676), who ascended the throne at the same age as his father - at 16 years old. Alexei was prepared for his reign in advance: at the age of five they began to teach
read, and at seven years old - write, in mature years He not only wrote many documents himself, but also composed small literary works. The boyar was in charge of his training Boris Ivanovich Morozov, who over time acquired great influence over Alexei (and even for the first three years actually ruled the country under the young tsar). Alexey Mikhailovich was a pious man, he welcomed pilgrims, the poor and the disadvantaged. Many contemporaries noted his kindness and benevolence, unusual for Russian rulers, and sometimes his weakness of character. The people called the king The quietest. All this did not prevent him, however, if necessary, from showing determination, will, and toughness.
From first marriage (since Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya) Alexey had 13 children, including sons Fedor And Ivan, and also a daughter Sophia. After the death of his first wife, the king married a second time to Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina. In this marriage the king had a son Peter(future Peter the Great). It was between the children from his first and second marriage that a struggle for power broke out after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich and the short-term reign of his eldest son Fyodor (1676-1682).
Already under the first kings of the Romanov dynasty There was a significant strengthening of royal power. At the same time, the role of estate-representative authorities decreased.
Zemsky Sobors. Mikhail Fedorovich’s oath to rule in accordance with the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma was not accidental: in conditions of economic ruin and weakness central government the young tsar was forced to seek support from all segments of the country's population. First of all, the Zemsky Sobor should have become such a support. Throughout the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich main feature cathedrals there was a significant increase in the representation of the lower classes at them. The deputies elected to the council received “instructions” from their voters, which they had to defend before the tsar. Unlike the reign of Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov, now in Zemsky Sobors main role Representatives of the nobles and townspeople played. Under Mikhail, Zemsky Sobors met quite often. And in the period before Filaret’s return from captivity, the Zemsky Sobor practically did not stop working. As the tsarist power strengthened, Zemsky Sobors met less and less often.
After Filaret's death, some nobles proposed transforming the Zemsky Sobor into a permanent parliament. However, these plans ran counter to the interests of the autocratic government. Councils began to be convened only to approve projects already prepared by the tsar, and not to discuss plans for the development of the country, as before. And with the strengthening of serfdom, the representation of the lower strata of the population in the Zemsky Sobors became insignificant.
The last Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1653. Since then, autocratic power has relied not on representatives of the estates, but on the bureaucracy and the army.
Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma also gradually lost its former role. At first, the composition of the Duma was expanded by Mikhail Fedorovich - this is how he thanked those who supported his accession. If previously the Boyar Duma included two dozen boyars, then by the end of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich their number increased to 100 people. Moreover, the Duma now included not only the clan nobility, but also representatives of the commoner clans.
The Duma was still called upon to resolve the most important issues - war and peace, approval of laws, introduction of new taxes, etc. Its work was led either by the tsar himself or by a boyar appointed by him.
The increase in the size of the Duma made it too cumbersome and forced the Tsar to create a more flexible governing body, consisting of the most proxies, - the “near” (“small”, “secret”) Duma, which gradually replaced the “big” Duma. The full Boyar Duma began to meet less and less often. The “nearby” Duma concentrated in its hands the solution of many issues of public administration.
Orders. The increase in the country's territory and the complication of economic life led to a significant increase in the number of orders. IN different time There were about 100 orders in the country.
In charge of foreign policy issues Ambassadorial order. He was also in charge of the release of prisoners of war for ransom. In charge of the palace management and property of the king Order of the Grand Palace. State order was responsible for the safety of jewelry and belongings of the royal family. Konyushenny managed numerous royal stables and equipment for royal trips. Bit order was engaged in the assignment of nobles and boyars to the royal service (it depended on him what service the feudal lord would end up in - at court, in the army or in government). In charge of land grants and collection of taxes from estates and estates Local order. Yamskaya was responsible for fast and reliable postal communication. With the growing scale of stone construction in the capital and major cities arose Order of stone works.
Almost central place occupied Petition order who considered the petitions and complaints of the royal subjects and therefore stood, as it were, above all others. Under Alexei Mikhailovich it was also created Order of secret affairs, who controlled the activities of all government institutions and was in charge of the household of the royal family. Even the Duma boyars were not included in it. All this led to transformation of the tsar's power into absolute, not limited by other governing bodies.
However, the numerical growth of orders had a negative impact on the management system, confused the already rather unclear responsibilities of their employees, and increased bureaucratic red tape and abuse of official position.
Sometimes the orders were in charge of solving the same or similar tasks. So, legal issues were resolved Robbery, Zemsky and other orders. In charge of military affairs Discharge, Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Inozemsky, Reitarsky, Cossack orders. All this indicated the need to reform the order system and simplify it.
Local control. In the 17th century, the main administrative units remained counties. Their number by the end of the century exceeded 250. The counties, in turn, were divided into smaller units - camps and volosts.
From the very beginning of the century, the tsar placed at the head of the districts and a number of border cities governor, heading not only local military units, but also vested with main administrative and judicial powers. They were responsible to Moscow for collecting taxes and fulfilling duties by the population. For a century, the practice of appointing voivodes to head local government has become ubiquitous. The introduction of local voivodeship power meant a significant limitation of the powers of the authorities local government(zemstvo and provincial huts) introduced during the reforms The chosen one is pleased V mid-16th century century.
From the second half XVII century, the king begins to form new, larger military-administrative units - ranks, uniting groups of fortified cities in the border regions of the country for defense against possible attacks. The introduction of this unit meant the emergence of an intermediate link between the central and district authorities.
Laws. Cathedral Code of 1649. Overcoming the consequences of the Troubles led to a rapid increase in the number of laws adopted. As before, their projects were prepared on behalf of persons close to the Tsar and gained force after the consent of the Boyar Duma and the Tsar. In cases where the bill was especially important, it was approved by the Zemsky Sobor.
The emergence of new laws in the first half of the century, as well as the application of laws of earlier times, required their streamlining, consolidation into a single document - code of laws. The compilation of such a code was entrusted to the confidants of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, headed by the prince Odoevsky. When drawing up the Council Code, adopted by the Zemsky Sobor in 1649, not only previous laws were used, but also foreign ones. The young Tsar Alexei also participated in the development of the code of laws.
The Code reflected the increased role of the tsar in the life of the country. For the first time, the concept of “state crime” was introduced into the law (against the honor and health of the tsar and his family, representatives of state power and the church), for which severe punishment was provided.
The Code for the first time approved the full right of the feudal lord to the land and dependent (serf) peasants. An indefinite search for fugitive peasants and a heavy fine for harboring fugitives were established.
Thus, during the 17th century, the autocratic power of the tsar strengthened, relying not on class representation, but on the state apparatus and army; serfdom was finally formalized; The rights and privileges of the nobility, the social support of the tsarist autocracy, increased significantly.
Power and the church. Church schism
Church after the Time of Troubles. The Troubles became a severe test And for the church. Some of the clergy led by the patriarch Ignatius supported False Dmitry I (and the patriarch himself crowned him king). However, most of the clergy showed examples of high service to the Fatherland and the Russian Orthodox Church.
The Poles who were in Moscow during the Time of Troubles not only plundered church utensils and desecrated the relics of saints, but also destroyed almost all 450 Moscow churches during the retreat. As a contemporary Pole wrote, “there were many churches everywhere, both stone and wooden. And we turned all this to ashes in three days.” Mass phenomenon there were murders of church ministers and taking them hostage. Among those captured was the actual head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Metropolitan Filaret. But all this did not break, but, on the contrary, strengthened the spiritual strength of believers and clergy.
Patriarch Filaret. After an 8-year stay in Polish captivity, Tsar Michael’s father, Metropolitan Philaret, 1619 year returned to Moscow. Participants in the Church Council elected him as the new Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'. Under him, the role and importance of the church in the life of the state grew significantly. He was, in essence, a second tsar: the tsar and the patriarch heard all reports on state affairs jointly, and Mikhail never made decisions without the consent of his father. It also happened that purely state issues the orders were given by one patriarch.
The main thing that Filaret managed to achieve was to strengthen the authority and power of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. However, many issues of a church nature were never resolved either under him or under his successors - the patriarchs Joseph I And Joseph. Among them, the main one was the issue of updating church books and rituals.
Reform of Patriarch Nikon. In the middle of the 17th century, it became clear that in Russian church books, copied by hand from century to century, there were many typos and distortions of the text in comparison with the originals. The customs of polyphony during church services (when the priest, the deacon, and the believers themselves prayed at the same time, sometimes using different prayers), baptism with two fingers, etc. raised many doubts. The opinions of believers were divided on this issue. Some (including Patriarch Joseph) proposed correcting church books and rituals, returning to ancient Russian models. Others (which included Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his inner circle) believed that they should turn not to books a hundred years ago, but to the Greek sources themselves, from which they at one time copied.
After the death of Patriarch Joseph, he was elected the new head of the Russian Orthodox Church at the suggestion of Alexei Mikhailovich. Nikon- Metropolitan of Novgorod. He was instructed to carry out church reform.
In 1653-1655 Church reform began. Baptism with three fingers was introduced, bows from the waist instead of bows to the ground, icons and church books were corrected according to Greek models.
These changes caused protest among wide sections of the population. In addition, the outbreak of war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the sacrifices and losses associated with it were regarded by ordinary people as God's punishment for violating church traditions.
The Church Council convened in 1654 approved the reform, but proposed to bring the existing rituals into conformity not only with the Greek, but also with the Russian tradition.
Increasing disagreements between church and secular authorities. New pat-
The riarch was a capricious, strong-willed and even fanatical man. Having received immense power over the believers, he soon came up with the idea of the primacy of church power over the royal one and, in essence, invited Alexei Mikhailovich to share power with him, following the example of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and Patriarch Filaret. He said that “just as the month has light from the sun,” so the king receives power from the patriarch, who represents God.
The tsar did not want to tolerate these statements and moral teachings of the patriarch for long. He stopped going to patriarchal services in the Assumption Cathedral and inviting Nikon to state receptions. This was a serious blow to the patriarch’s pride. During one of the sermons in the Assumption Cathedral, he stated O resignation of patriarchal duties and retired to the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery. There Nikon began to wait for the king to repent and ask him to return to Moscow. However, Alexey Mikhailovich acted completely differently. He began to prepare a church trial of Nikon, for which he invited Orthodox patriarchs from other countries to Moscow.
Church Council of 1666-1667. A church council was convened to try Nikon in 1666. The defendant was brought to him under the guard of soldiers. The tsar who spoke stated that Nikon “arbitrarily and without our royal majesty’s command left the church and renounced the patriarchate.” Thus, the king made it clear who exactly was the boss and who owned the real power in the country. The church hierarchs present supported the tsar and condemned Nikon, blessing his deprivation of the rank of patriarch and eternal imprisonment in a monastery.
At the same time, the Council supported church reform and cursed all its opponents (who became known as Old Believers). The participants of the Council decided to transfer the leaders of the Old Believers into the hands of secular authorities. According to the Council Code of 1649, they were threatened with death at the stake.
The cathedral of 1666-1667 deepened split in the Russian Orthodox Church.
Archpriest Avvakum. The archpriest was an outstanding leader of the Old Believers Avvakum (Avvakum Petrov)(1620 - 1682). Devoting himself to the church from a young age, he was an active supporter and preacher of godly living. For some time, Avvakum was one of the members of the “Circle of Zealots of Piety” and met Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who supported them. He perceived Nikon's reforms sharply negatively. For his views, he was deprived of his place in the Moscow Kazan Cathedral, and then arrested and imprisoned in a monastery. Later Avvakum was exiled with his family to Siberia.
Wherever fate took him, Avvakum actively promoted Old Believer ideas and principles. In 1664, he returned to Moscow, where the tsar and other people who knew and sympathized with him tried in vain to convince him to come to terms with church reform. For his refusal at the Church Council of 1666-1667, Habakkuk was condemned by the church and removed from the priesthood, and then again imprisoned. In his last imprisonment, he wrote the famous literary work “Life” and dozens of other works. For his rebellion and intransigence, Avvakum was sentenced to execution by the Church Council of 1681-1682. On April 11, 1682, the “furious archpriest” and his associates were burned alive.
Thus, the church, which strengthened its position after the Time of Troubles, tried to take a dominant position in the country's political system. However, in conditions of strengthening autocracy, this led to a conflict between church and secular authorities. The defeat of the church in this clash paved the way for its transformation into an appendage of state power.
Popular movements
Reasons and features of popular protests. Contemporaries called the 17th century "rebellious" The main reasons for the popular uprisings were:
The enslavement of peasants and the growth of feudal duties;
Increasing tax oppression, waging almost continuous wars [which affected the well-being of the population);
Increased administrative red tape;
Attempts to limit Cossack freedom;
Church schism and reprisals against Old Believers.
All this explained the participation in protests against the government of representatives not only of the peasantry (as was the case before), But and the Cossacks, the urban lower strata, the archers, the lower strata of the clergy.
Participation in the fight with power The Cossacks and Streltsy, who had not only weapons, but also experience in military operations, gave the popular uprisings of the 17th century the character of a fierce armed struggle, causing great casualties.
The most serious popular protests began in the middle XVII century.
Salt riot. In response to the government's attempt to replenish the treasury by introducing an additional duty on salt, a major uprising broke out in the capital. June 1st 1648 Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was returning from a pilgrimage from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra to the Kremlin. A crowd of Muscovites tried to file a complaint with him against the Moscow “mayor”, the head of the Zemsky Prikaz L. S. Pleshcheeva. He was accused of embezzlement, administrative red tape, pandering to rich townspeople and the population of “white settlements,” and introducing high prices for bread and salt. The performance turned out to be so powerful that the tsar was forced to “hand over his head” (to hand over to the people for punishment) not only Pleshcheev, but also the head of the Pushkarsky order. Boyar B. Morozov, Alexei Mikhailovich’s educator, who actually ruled the state, was dismissed and expelled from Moscow. Following Moscow, uprisings broke out in other Russian cities - Kursk, Kozlov, Yelets, Tomsk, Ustyug the Great.
Taking advantage of the uprising, the nobles and townspeople presented the tsar with a demand to streamline the laws and judicial system and prepare a new Council Code.
Copper riot. Constant wars depleted the royal treasury. To replenish it, it was decided to collect debts from previous years, and also to mint coins not from silver, as before, but from copper. The cost of new money turned out to be 12-15 times less than the old one. As a result, merchants refused to sell goods with the new money. This caused discontent among the population and part of the army, which was also paid with depreciated money.
In July 1662 having destroyed the estates of some boyars close to the tsar, crowds of townspeople rushed to the suburban royal palace in the village of Kolomenskoye. While awaiting the arrival of troops, the king was forced to enter into negotiations with the rebels. He promised to abolish copper money. Believing the tsar, the townspeople headed back to Moscow. However, on the way they met a new crowd of thousands, and the procession to Kolomenskoye resumed. Meanwhile, the king managed to gather troops. The unarmed crowd was put to flight by force of arms. Reprisals began against the participants of the performance. The instigators of the riot were hanged in the center of Moscow. Many of its participants had their hands, feet, and tongues cut off by court sentences. Others were whipped and sent into exile. Nevertheless, the circulation of copper money was cancelled.
The uprising of Stepan Razin. The largest public performance XVII century there was an uprising of Cossacks and peasants led by S. T. Razin.
The introduction of the Council Code of 1649, the search and reprisal of fugitive peasants, the ruin of many villagers and townspeople led to their outflow to the outskirts of the country, primarily to the Don. By the mid-60s, there had accumulated big number refugees from the central regions of the country. Many local Cossacks also remained poor. A miserable existence forced 700 Don Cossacks led by ataman Vasily Us in 1666, head towards Moscow with a request to accept them into the royal service. After receiving a refusal, the peaceful campaign of the Cossacks grew into an uprising, in which, in addition to the Cossacks, thousands of peasants took part. Soon the rebels retreated to the Don, where they joined the troops of Stepan Timofeevich Razin.
Stepan Timofeevich Razin (1630-1671) was born into a wealthy Cossack family in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don. Contemporaries noted that Stepan had not only great physical strength, but also with an extraordinary mind and willpower. These qualities allowed him to soon become a Don Cossack chieftain. Stepan showed his extraordinary qualities as a military leader in campaigns against the Crimean Tatars and Turks in 1661 - 1663. Razin gained diplomatic experience in negotiations with the Kalmyks, and then with the Persians. Being a supporter of the Cossack “freedom,” Razin could not agree with the restriction of the freedom of the Cossacks undertaken by Alexei Mikhailovich. But the last straw What broke Stepan’s patience was the execution of his older brother Ivan, who deserted from the active army in 1665. Razin's speech against royal authorities After this it became a matter of time. During the uprising of 1670-1671, Stepan Razin appeared in the guise of an extremely cruel leader who did not spare not only his enemies, but also the Cossacks who disobeyed his orders.
First stage The performances of Razin's troops (1667-1669) are usually called the “campaign for zipuns.” This was a campaign of the rebels “for booty.” Razin's detachment blocked the main economic artery of southern Russia - the Volga, and captured merchant ships of Russian and Persian merchants. The rebels captured the Yaitsky town, and then defeated the Persian fleet. Having received rich booty, in the summer of 1669 Razin returned to the Don and settled with his detachment in the town of Kagalnitsky.
Thousands of disadvantaged people began to come here from everywhere. Feeling strong, Razin announced a campaign against Moscow, where he promised “to beat all the princes and boyars and all the Russian nobility.”
In the spring of 1670 it began second phase Razin's performances. The rebels immediately captured Tsaritsyn and approached the well-fortified Astrakhan, which surrendered without a fight. Having dealt with the governor and nobles, the rebels formed a government in a circle led by atamans Vasily Us and Fedor Sheludyak.
The success of the rebels served as a signal for the population of many Volga cities to go over to Razin’s side: Saratov, Samara, Penza and others. Among the participants in the performance were not only Cossacks and Russian peasants, but also representatives of many peoples of the Volga region: Chuvash, Mari, Tatars, Mordovians. Most of them were attracted to Razin by the fact that he declared each participant in the performance to be a Cossack (i.e., a free person). Total number The population of the rebel lands was about 200 thousand people.
In September 1670, the rebels besieged Simbirsk, but were unable to take it and retreated to the Don. The punitive expedition against Razin was led by the voivode prince Yu. Baryatinsky. Fearing reprisals, wealthy Cossacks captured Razin and handed him over to the authorities. After torture and trial, the leader of the rebels was quartered.
However, the uprising continued. Only a year later, in November 1671, tsarist troops managed to occupy Astrakhan and completely suppress the uprising. The scale of reprisals against differences was enormous. In Arzamas alone, up to 11 thousand people were executed. In total, up to 100 thousand rebels were killed and tortured. The country has never known such massacres.
Speech by Old Believers. For the first time in Russia, a church schism led to mass religious protests. The Old Believers movement united representatives of various social strata, who understood in their own way adherence to the traditions of their faith. The forms of protest were also varied: from self-immolation and starvation, refusal to recognize Nikon’s reform, evasion of duties and disobedience to authorities to armed resistance to the tsarist governors. For peasant Old Believers and townspeople, this was a form of social protest.
In just 20 years (1675-1695), up to 20 thousand Old Believers died during mass self-immolations.
The largest armed uprisings of fighters for the old faith were: Solovetsky uprising 1668-1676, the movement of schismatics during the Moscow uprising of 1682, performance on the Don in the 70-80s.
The uprising of the monks of the Solovetsky Monastery was especially brutally suppressed. The bloody massacre committed by the governors against his defenders became latest event the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, who died in 1676.
However, performances by the Old Believers took place until the end of the century, already under Tsar Peter I.
Thus, the strengthening of feudal oppression, the enslavement of the peasants, attempts to eliminate the remnants of Cossack self-government, the struggle of the royal and church authorities with the “non-believers” led to mass popular uprisings.
Foreign policy
Smolensk War. The main enemy of Russia after the Time of Troubles continued to be the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish king did not recognize the rights of Mikhail Fedorovich on throne, considering his son Vladislav the Tsar of Moscow. The Smolensk lands, captured from Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, also remained behind the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish gentry did not abandon plans for a new campaign against Moscow.
Under these conditions, Russia was forced to gather forces for a new war and look for allies. Your support in the fight With Sweden and Türkiye promised Poland.
The reason for the war was the death of the Polish king, a longtime enemy of Russia, Sigismund III. The power struggle that broke out in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth seemed to make the chances of success easier. In June 1632 The Zemsky Sobor decided to start a war with its western neighbor for Smolensk.
The army was led by boyar M.B. Shein, who besieged Smolensk.
However, neither Sweden nor Türkiye supported Moscow. Meanwhile, a contender for Russian throne- Vladislav. At the head of a 15,000-strong army, he lifted the siege of Smolensk and surrounded She-in’s army. But both sides did not have the strength to continue the fight. At the suggestion of the Poles in 1634 year, a peace was concluded, according to which Russia returned all its employees V during the war, the land, and Vladislav renounced claims to the Moscow throne.
Thus, the war turned out to be unsuccessful for Russia and did not resolve the existing contradictions with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Reunification of Ukraine With Russia. Russian-Polish relations became even more strained in the context of the outbreak of the Ukrainian people’s struggle for independence.
The Ukrainian nation was formed mainly in the 15th century. Ukrainians lived on lands that were previously part of Old Russian state, had common national, religious, and cultural roots with Russians. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth they experienced triple oppression- feudal, national and religious. The owners of the lands were, as a rule, Poles and Lithuanians, who also belonged to the Catholic faith. Ukrainians were forbidden to speak native language, to profess Orthodoxy. They were treated as cattle (cattle), worthy only of working for their master. All this led to the fact that the contradictions that existed in any feudal society here acquired religious and national forms. Difficult situation The Ukrainian and Belarusian populations caused constant uprisings against the Poles. In addition to peasants and townspeople, the Golytba (the poorest Cossacks), who were the main military force of the rebels, took part in this struggle. The prosperous Cossacks were recorded by the Poles in registers(lists) and had to defend the borders of the state for a salary.
On first stage liberation struggle (spring 1648 - August 1649), the rebels managed to achieve a number major victories over the Poles. This served as a signal for the rise of the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian populations. After a series of military victories, the rebel troops led by Bogdan Khmelnitsky(1595-1657) entered Kyiv. In August 1649, the Peace of Zboriv was concluded between the Poles and the rebels, according to which the Kiev, Chernigov, Bratslav voivodeships received independent hetman control (Khmelnytsky became hetman), and the number of registered Cossacks increased to 40 thousand. This agreement satisfied mainly the interests of the registered Cossacks, the Cossack elite and wealthy townspeople, so the continuation of the struggle was inevitable.
Second phase(1650-1651) was unsuccessful for the rebels. Their defeat at Berestechko led to the conclusion of the Peace of Belotserkovo (1651), which nullified the conditions of the first period of the war.
On third stage(1652-1654) Bogdan Khmelnitsky turned to the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept Ukraine into the Russian state. On October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to incorporate Ukraine into Russia and declare war on Poland. January 8 1654 a general council was held in Pereyaslavl - Glad, which brought together elected representatives from all classes of the Ukrainian population. Present royal ambassador boyar Buturlin. The decision of those gathered was unanimous - Ukraine became part of Russia, promising “to be with the lands and cities under the sovereign’s high hand forever.” The rights and privileges of the Cossacks and cities of Ukraine were also secured. In particular, the hetman's administration and a large Cossack army were preserved.
Russian-Polish war (1654-1667). Russia's decision to accept Ukraine meant new war with Rech Po-spolita. It began almost immediately after the decisions of the Zemsky Sobor in 1653 and Pereyaslavl Rada. The war lasted almost 15 years with varying success.
After the death of Bohdan Khmelnitsky (1657), a struggle for power began in his circle. New Hetman Ivan Vygovsky, and then his successor Yuri Khmelnitsky concluded agreements with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth recognizing its authority over Ukraine.
The uprising led by B. M. Khmelnitsky and the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667.
However, the people did not support them. The war exhausted both sides. The strength of Russian weapons, the war with Sweden and the incessant attacks of the Turks forced the Poles to go to prison. 1667 The Truce of Andrusovo, according to which not only the Smolensk and Seversky lands were transferred to Russia, but also its power over the Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev was recognized. Zaporozhye remained under the authority of both states. In addition, recent opponents promised each other assistance in the fight against the constant raids of the Turks and Crimean Tatars.
Russian-Turkish War (1676-1681). In Ukraine, the interests of not only Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but also Turkey collided. In an effort to weaken the position of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Turkey provided some assistance to B. Khmelnitsky, but after the annexation of Ukraine to Russia, it began to fight against the strengthening of Moscow’s position. During the Polish-Turkish war of the 60-70s for Right Bank Ukraine, the Turks managed to achieve recognition of their power over these territories by the hetman of Right Bank Ukraine. This, in turn, became the main reason for the first Russian-Turkish war.
In the summer of 1678, the Sultan sent to political center Ukraine - Chigirin - an army of 200 thousand. The united Russian-Ukrainian army marched there. After fierce fighting, the city fell.
Protracted Russian-Turkish war was extremely ruinous for both sides. Its completion was the signing of the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty in 1681, according to which Turkey and Crimea recognized the transition of Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev to Russia.
Crimean campaigns. Realizing that the truce with Turkey was temporary, Russia tried to oppose it with an alliance of European powers. However, this was not possible: in Western Europe there was protracted war between France. Spain and Holland.
In 1684, the anti-Turkish “Holy League” was created by Austria, Poland and Venice, concerned about the Turkish invasion of Eastern Europe. Russia agreed to participate in this union only after the Truce of Andrusovo was concluded in 1686 "Eternal Peace" with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which recognized the entry into Russia of Left-Bank Ukraine And Kyiv.
IN 1687 and in 1689 Russia, fulfilling its allied obligations, launched two campaigns against the Crimean Khanate. The Russian army was led by Prince V.V. Golitsyn. At first the trips were successful. But with the onset of the summer heat, the Russian army suffered heavy losses even without battles - from lack of water, food and fodder. People were decimated by diseases.
Despite the lack of military victories, the Crimean campaigns brought Russia political success: for the first time after the overthrow of Horde rule, it undertook two major military operations against the Crimean Khanate. For the first time, Crimea felt a direct military threat from Russia, which was gaining strength. The Russian state demonstrated to Europe its growing military power.
Development of Siberia. As we know, Western Siberia was annexed to Russia as a result of the defeat of the Siberian Khanate at the end of the 16th century. At the same time, the first cities arose here - Tobolsk, Tyumen, Berezov, Surgut, etc. economic development these huge spaces. They fled here from
Feudal oppression, peasants, expeditions were sent, traders went for cheap hunting trophies, primarily for furs.
Absence from the territory Eastern Siberia and Far East state associations(most local tribes lived in a tribal system) facilitated the peaceful development of these vast expanses by Russian pioneers, and with very small forces.
In the mid-17th century, Russian expeditions became common in Eastern Siberia and Far East. The first cities and fortified settlements appeared here: the Yakut fort (1632), Albazinsky (1651), Irkutsk winter quarters (1652), Kumarsky (1654), Kosogorsky (1655), Nerchinsky (1658). The Amur region became part of Russia.
By the end of the century, Russian possessions in Asia extended to the Pacific and Northern coasts. Arctic Oceans. In the south, they were limited to the zone of influence of the Chinese Empire (mainly in the Far East and Transbaikalia), as well as the Kyrgyz tribes (in Central Asia). In order to resolve Russian-Chinese contradictions in the Far East, the Treaty of Nerchinsk was concluded between the two countries in 1689. The southernmost possessions of Russia in Siberia were the cities of Ishim, Kurgan, Kuznetsk, Krasnoyarsk, Selenginsk, which arose in the 17th century. Local authorities in Siberia were carried out by governors. General management eastern possessions were entrusted at first By order of the Kazan Palace, and then Siberian order.
Thus, during the 17th century, the territory of Russia significantly increased its size due to the annexation of huge eastern possessions in Siberia and the Far East, as well as Left Bank Ukraine.
Related information.
As the Russian autocracy consolidated, the position of the nobility, the main support of the tsarist power, strengthened. Throughout the 17th century, a complex system of official promotion of nobles in the army, at court and in the management system took shape. This indicated that in the 17th century the nobility was turning into a new class.
The tsarist government sought to strengthen the rights of both nobles and boyars to the land and peasants subject to them. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code, which established the eternal right to dependent peasants and prohibited the transfer from one owner to another. By the end of the century, the positions of the main landowners, the boyars, were seriously undermined. The nobility became the main owner of the land and serfs. It supplanted the boyar clan nobility in the sphere of public administration. All categories of feudal lords were given equal rights. This meant a serious victory for the nobility in the long-standing rivalry with the old family nobility.
Peasants:
The bulk of the population continued to be peasants. Their situation worsened significantly in the 17th century. The peasants worked for the feudal lords in corvee labor and paid quitrents in kind and in cash. At the same time, dependent peasants bore duties in favor of the state.
By the end of the century, the role of slaves had changed. Now they became clerks, messengers, grooms, tailors, falconers, etc. By the end of the century, this category of the population (dependent) gradually merged with the serfs. The tax system has changed. By the end of the century, household taxes were introduced.
The average size of peasant plots was 1-2 (ha) tithes of land. There were also wealthy peasants, whose plots amounted to several tens of hectares. Famous entrepreneurs, merchants, and traders came from such families.
Urban population:
The dominant positions in city life were occupied by rich artisans and merchants who controlled the townsfolk communities. They tried to shift the entire burden of the tax burden onto the poorest part of the population - small artisans and traders. The position of boyar, noble and monastic servants and serfs, who in their free time from service were engaged in trade and craft, was also privileged. They were residents of white settlements, inhabited by feudal clergymen, and did not bear duties in favor of the state. This caused constant complaints from the bulk of the townspeople's population.
A feature of the 17th century was that, as craft production grew, it began to use hired labor. The artisans who were quickly getting rich (who no longer wanted to do menial work) hired not only the townspeople's poor, but also peasant farmers and serfs.
Clergy:
By the end of the 17th century, the number of Russian clergy increased significantly. With the adoption of the patriarchate at the end of the 16th century, the Russian Orthodox Church became completely independent. The church was the largest owner of the land. In 1649, the Council Code prohibited the church from increasing its land holdings and eliminated the rights of white settlements (which included church holdings) in cities. At the same time, church leaders were deprived of some judicial privileges that had previously belonged to them.
Cossacks-
The military class, which included the population of a number of outlying areas of Russia. It enjoyed special rights and benefits under the conditions of compulsory and general military service.
The basis of the economic life of the Cossacks was crafts - hunting, fishing, beekeeping, and later also cattle breeding and agriculture. As in the 16th century, the Cossacks received the bulk of their income in the form of state salaries and military booty. The Cossacks managed to develop the vast outlying regions of the country in a short time.
The most important issues in the life of the Cossacks were discussed at their general meeting. The Cossack communities were headed by elected atamans and elders. Ownership of the land belonged to the entire community. Atamans and elders were elected through elections, in which each Cossack enjoyed an equal right to vote.
Society is the people of one country and the relationships between them. Why do people join together in society? What challenges does society face?
Society is divided into spheres: Politics Economy Culture In each of these spheres there are special groups of people. In Russia these groups of people were called estates
Objectives of society Spheres of public life Estate Order and politics security Feudal lords Providing material goods Tax-paying population (peasants and townspeople) economy Explanation culture the meaning of life clergy
The boyars included * service princes (from among the descendants of the Rurikovichs) * Tatar Horde princes and nobility from Moldavia and Wallachia who switched to Russian service * representatives of the old Moscow boyars * boyars of appanage principalities and lands annexed to Moscow.
Boyars Responsibilities: Performed public service Rights Ownership of land with peasants (patrimonies) on the basis private property. The estate can be sold, bequeathed, or donated.
The nobility was formed from the servants of the princely and boyar courts: Land-poor "Ranks" of the sovereign nobles-landowners of the court: ("children of the boyars" and * "Duma ranks" "city nobles") boyars, okolnichi, and Duma nobles; * “Moscow ranks” stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles
Nobles: Responsibilities: Performed public service Rights: - owned the estate for life as long as they could perform military service; - the estate was inherited if the son reached 15 years of age at the time of his father’s death and could serve the state.
Service people according to instrument (according to recruitment) The state accepted them into hired service for military and guard duty: Moscow and city archers Pushkars State blacksmiths City Cossacks living in cities and border areas
Cathedral Code of 1649. It contained a special chapter that consolidated all the most important changes in the legal status local land tenure, (for example: the owners of estates could be both boyars and nobles)
The peasantry is the largest class. Palace Landlords Church Chernososhnye (state) (personally free)
The main duties of the peasants: Corvee quitrent (cash and in kind), as well as “land” and “household tax” (to submit)
The Conciliar Code of 1649. Chapter 11 of the Conciliar Code - “The Court of Peasants” - introduced an indefinite search for fugitive peasants. Result: Establishment of complete serfdom.
Posad (city) people Guests (Merchants) (in the 17th century more than 30 people) - the largest entrepreneurs, were close to the tsar, did not pay taxes, and held financial positions. had the right to buy estates for their possessions; Members of the living room and the cloth hundred (about 400 people) occupied a place in the financial hierarchy, but were inferior to the guests in “honor”. They had self-government, their common affairs were carried out by elected heads and elders.
Merchants Responsibilities pay taxes and customs duties to the state Rights entrepreneurship - trade, organization of manufactories
Black townspeople The main tax-paying population of the city (they paid taxes and bore duties). The population of the city was divided into: white settlements, black settlements
Until the 18th century, there was no class system in Russia. Society was divided many times and changed the composition of social groups depending on different situations. Peter I and his followers adjusted Russian society to medieval Western European models and to 19th century formed a class system in the country. The situation was enshrined in Volume IX of the Code of Laws Russian Empire" In the 4th article, all “natural inhabitants of Russia” were divided into four main classes:
- The nobility is the highest privileged ruling class.
- Christian clergy is a privileged class of church servants.
- The urban population included privileged Honorary Citizens, merchants of the 1st and partly of the 2nd guild, as well as tax-paying merchants of the 3rd guild and townspeople.
- The rural population consisted of peasants different forms dependencies and privileged Cossacks.
From these classes and foreign groups, by the end of the century, several categories were formed, which conditionally made up the class structure of Russian society.
Estates in the 19th century: their rights, privileges and responsibilities
Class name | Intraclass groups | Rights and privileges | Responsibilities |
|---|---|---|---|
Nobility | Hereditary and personal. |
Personal nobles could not pass on their dignity by inheritance. | Special responsibilities for noble class Russian legislation did not provide for this. |
Clergy | White (parish) and black (monasticism). | White and Black clergy were freed from conscription and corporal punishment. Church ministers had the right to receive a good education. | Representatives of the Black clergy were obliged to devote their lives to the church, renouncing family relationships and any connections with outside world. Representatives of the White clergy were obliged to preach the word of God. |
Honorary citizens | Hereditary and personal. | Enjoyed freedom from conscription, poll tax and corporal punishment. They had the right to participate in elections public positions, except for the right to enter the civil service. | The title of honorary citizen did not come with any special responsibilities. |
Merchants | First, second and third guilds |
The merchants had the rights of class self-government and had access to decent education. | Merchants of the 2nd and 3rd guilds were required to bear recruitment, zemstvo and tax duties. |
Cossacks | — | Cossacks had the right to own land and were exempt from paying taxes. | Cossacks were required to perform military service (command and reserve) with their own equipment. |
Philistinism | Craftsmen, craftsmen and small traders. | The townspeople were engaged in city crafts and county trade. They had the rights of class self-government and limited access to education. | The bourgeoisie paid all the taxes that existed at that time, carried out conscription duties, and were the basis for military army. In addition, the townspeople did not own land, had limited rights and broad responsibilities. |
Peasantry | State and serfs before 1861 (landowners, possessions and appanages) 1861 . | State peasants had the right to communal land ownership and class self-government. Serfs had no rights at all. After 1861, the peasant class was unified, receiving a minimum of civil and property rights. | Serfs had to work corvée, pay quitrents and bear other duties in favor of the owners. The entire peasantry, before 1861 and after, bore conscription duties and most of the taxes in favor of the state. |
Foreigners | Orientals and Jews. | Foreigners had a number of fishing and administrative rights in the territories allocated to them, as well as state guarantees against private oppression. | The responsibilities of foreigners varied depending on the rank. Taxes were paid in a wide range, from yasak to generally accepted taxes. |
By the 19th century, the majority European countries abandoned the clear division of classes, but in the Russian Empire this tradition continued to exist until the middle of the century. The abolition of serfdom improved the situation of the peasants, but did not weaken inter-class contradictions. The peasantry, crushed by redemption payments, could not, for the most part, escape from severe poverty. The privileged classes retained their dominant position in Russian society for a long time.