The “Era of Palace Revolutions” is the period in the history of Russia in the second quarter of the 18th century, from 1725 to 1762. During these years, state policy was determined by individual groups of the palace nobility. They fought among themselves for power, actively intervened in resolving the issue of the heir to the throne, and carried out palace coups. During a 37-year period of political instability (1725–1762), the throne was occupied by six monarchs who gained the throne as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups.
The military force of the coups were the palace guard regiments. The Guard was not only a privileged part of the Russian army, it was a representative of the noble class, from whose midst it was formed and whose interests it represented.
The purpose of the palace coups was not to change the political structure of the country, but only to transfer power from one group of nobles to another. The political and economic role of the nobility increased during this period.
Peter I established a new order of succession to the throne, characteristic of an absolute monarchy: the ruler himself appoints an heir. But Peter himself died on January 30, 1725, without having time to bequeath his throne to anyone. A fierce struggle for power began (“passions at the throne”), during which the participants thought more about their personal ambitions than about the interests of the state and the people.
In 1725-1727 The empress was Peter's widow Catherine I, under whom A.D. Menshikov was the actual ruler. After her death in 1727-1730. The emperor was Peter II, the grandson of Peter I (the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei, Peter Alekseevich’s own son from his first marriage). The favorites of Peter II were the princes Dolgorukov. In 1730-1740 The empress was Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I (daughter of his co-ruler Ivan V). Anna's favorite was E. Biron. In the political life of the country, guards officers began to play a decisive role, being the support and driving force behind all palace coups. They were opponents of any restrictions on the imperial power, from which they directly received lands, awards, etc. for their services. In 1730, Anna Ioannovna first signed and then tore up the “Conditions”, the conditions that limited her power in favor of members Supreme Privy Council, the highest government body since 1726.
Ivan VI Antonovich was on the throne for only a few months. He was Anna Ioannovna's nephew. When he was proclaimed emperor, he was only six months old. At first, E. Biron was his regent, and after his forcible removal by Field Marshal Minich, his mother Anna Leopoldovna, who was incapable of ruling, became regent. In 1741, Peter I’s own daughter Elizaveta Petrovna overthrew the infant emperor and sent his entire entourage into exile. She ruled from 1741 to 1761, relying on her favorites and the guard. Elizaveta Petrovna was not married and had no children. After her death in December 1761, Peter III remained on the throne for six months, who was the natural grandson of Peter I, the son of his daughter Catherine, who died at the birth of the future Russian emperor. All of the rulers listed did not possess the virtues and energy of Peter the Great. Only Elizaveta Petrovna tried to imitate her outstanding father. Peter III was overthrown from the throne by his own wife Catherine in June 1762 and killed. Paul I was able to take the throne only after the death of his mother.
After the death of Peter I, the supreme power in the country twice ended up in the hands of minor children and five times in the hands of women, of whom only Elizaveta Petrovna and Catherine II ruled independently.
Slepchenko Olga Vladimirovna
The phenomenon of favoritism in the era of palace coups in Russia.
In dictionaries, the term “favorite” is defined as “a favorite; a person protected by a powerful or influential person, a temporary worker”, as well as “a favorite of a high-ranking person who benefits from such patronage” .
Favoritism is a kind of universal characteristic of the management system of an absolutist state, which should be fully considered an informal institution of power. The favorite, as a rule, had close personal relations with the sovereign and, in connection with this, received the opportunity to dispose of part of his unlimited power. Favoritism was one of the essential tools in the system of government of absolutism. It should be defined as the appointment to government posts and positions based on the personal interest of the monarch in the activities of a particular person. At the same time, favoritism is always a violation of the general principle of appointment to public positions. At the same time, he himself was the principle of functioning of the absolutist state. The favorite could limit himself to organizing his personal affairs, representing the type of “random person.”
At the same time, possessing certain personal qualities: the ability to take risks, political intuition, entrepreneurship and, finally, the desire to serve the Tsar and the Fatherland, the favorite could carry out his state activities, correlating them with the objective needs of the country and make a significant contribution to the implementation of the political course.
Favoritism has become widespread almost throughout the world. Russia was no exception. The galaxy of official favorites among the “ladies” was discovered by the boyar Prince V.V. Golitsyn. The favorite of Princess Sophia, being the “first minister”, led the Posolsky and a number of other orders .
Under Peter Iwith his talents and colossal efficiency, the “position” of the favorite was impossible and unnecessary. His “Charter on the Succession to the Throne,” adopted in 1722, gave equal rights to the throne to all members of the Romanov family. This led to the fact that after the death of PeterIThe “Era of Palace Coups” began, when people who had only a partial understanding of how to govern a state like Russia began to be elevated to the Russian throne.
Favoritism became widespread when women were placed on the throne. The favorites acted not only as lovers of the reigning persons, but also as their assistants. The degree of their influence on government affairs varied, but they all used their positions primarily for personal enrichment and careers. They influenced the appointment and dismissal of persons to government positions, “carried out trials and reprisals,” influenced the appointment of salaries, asked the empresses for rewards for themselves and their protégés, etc.
All women who ruled after Peter had favoritesIand even with him. It is known that the chamberlain cadet at the court of Tsarina Ekaterina Alekseevna, Willim Johann Mons, became her favorite. The management of villages and hamlets that belonged to the empress gradually became concentrated in his hands. He supervised the work of the abbess of those convents that were under the patronage of the queen. They began to send him reports on estates, estimates of income and expenses. Funds went through his hands for construction, sales and purchases on Catherine’s estates.
Despite the fact that Mons proved himself to be an intelligent and accurate performer of the tasks entrusted to him, he was young, good-looking, and had a reputation for being an extraordinary skill at flirting, composing love letters, and lavishing compliments. Being constantly close to Catherine, he could not help but attract her attention and favor.
However, historians do not have direct evidence that this attention developed into an intimate relationship. Indirect evidence is the death sentence passed on the chamberlain by Peter.
Elizaveta Petrovna limited herself to two official favorites: A. G. Razumovsky and I. I. Shuvalov. These were people of different social status, different levels of education. Both were endowed with enormous power and skillfully used it; they had huge property “grants” from Elizabeth. At the same time, both of the empress’s favorites tried to remain in the shadows, did not strive for ranks and titles, and did not beg them from the empress.
Under Catherine IIfavoritism reached unprecedented proportions. In accordance with her temperament and morals, and her inclination to do everything on a large scale, she gave this traditional order of things on the Russian throne unprecedented dimensions,she had 19 official favorites..
There were periods in Russian history when the influence of favorites on state policy was very significant. Such periods include the era of Anna Ioannovna’s reign, which was called “Bironovschina” - after the surname of the influential favorite E. Biron.
He was a strong, flexible, energetic and at the same time cruel, vindictive man, spoiled by the enormous power he had inherited. His personality and activities clearly reflected his era - a time of conflict between old and new, confrontation between oneself and someone else.
Biron owed his rise to the deep personal affection of the empress for him.Anna Ioannovna could not take a single step without her favorite, who had an immeasurable influence on the queen, who did not have her own views on the affairs of the empire.
The topic of favoritism is very interesting and important for consideration because by studying it, one can trace the influence of favorites, empresses, on the political life of the country, on the course of development of the history of the Russian State. Often, using the trust of the queens, the favorites came to the forefront of government activities, made decisions of enormous importance, and determined the life of the country.
In general, favoritism caused enormous material damage to Russia and led to the transfer of power from the true rulers to people not related to the royal court.
Dictionary of foreign words. M., 1964. P.667; Russian history. Educational dictionary-reference book. M., 1996. P. 259.
Coups and wars / Christopher Manstein. Burchard Minich. Ernst Minich. Unknown author. M., 1997. P.35.
At all times, history was “made” by elders, princes, viziers, sultans, monarchs, emperors, kings, people in general, but then and now there are people who may be “blurred” in the general crowd of those in power, but who sometimes have a total influence on state policy. In any socio-political system, government, dictatorship, there are unspoken or visible personalities - favorites. There are different definitions of the term favoritism itself, but they are most accurately formulated in the Soviet Historical Encyclopedia: “Favoritism is a situation characteristic of the era of absolutism of the 17th – 18th centuries, in which favorites influence state affairs...”. In the dictionary of the Russian language S.I. Ozhegov there is a similar definition, but a decoding of the term favorite itself is added: “Favorite (Italian Favorito, from Latin Fovor - favor), a person who enjoys special favor and influences the views and behavior of his patrons.
Favoritism is characterized by the delegation of some (or even most) of the powers of the monarch to the favorite or his proteges. Favoritism became most widespread under an absolute monarchy. The reason for favoritism lies in the monarch's intention to concentrate supreme power in the hands of a very small group of people, often without outstanding qualities, but personally loyal.
In the 18th century, favoritism in connection with the rule of women acquired other features. The favorites were immensely endowed with titles and estates and had enormous political influence. Often incapable of state activities, empresses (with the exception of Catherine II, of course, relied entirely on the will of their favorites. Sometimes people from low classes became prominent political figures, rising thanks to the empress, who brought them closer to the court. Sometimes, thanks to their favorites, they became rich and advanced in their relatives in the service.
Already at the beginning of the Romanov dynasty, the first bricks were laid in the building of favoritism. The personal qualities of the monarchs undoubtedly contributed to the formation and development of favoritism in Russia. In Russia, favoritism flourishes under female empresses, who were distinguished by a special passion for love affairs. Moreover, not being distinguished by their desire for state affairs, in many cases they gave domestic and foreign policy into the hands of their favorites, thereby, at least indirectly, placing them above themselves in the state. In Western Europe, monarchs predominated - men who could not afford to place women at the helm of state policy, whose destiny, I exaggerate, was the kitchen and the bed.
After Peter's death, Menshikov could only do what he had done dozens of times before, when the Tsar was absent or indulged in entertainment. And the next day after death, just like the day before, the administrative bodies - the Senate, collegiums, various offices - turned out to be incapable of any initiative. Menshikov replaced her and continued to manage as before. He became a ruler, as a permanent substitute for royal authority, although such exercise of unlimited power was not stipulated by any law. This is an inherent feature of favoritism wherever it appears. The practical application of such a regime was not without difficulties. During the life of Peter, when the favorite performed the duties of the sovereign, the latter stood behind him, giving his consent to the temporary orders of his second self. Catherine wanted to imitate her husband; but she did not have the iron hand of a reformer, and among those around the empress Menshikov found rivals. From the first days, the Duke of Holstein showed his intention to compete with him and not to submit to the arrogance that was growing in this former cake maker. Bassevich tried further to stir up the ambition and suspicion of his duke. Menshikov had neither the flexibility nor the tact to eliminate the consequences of this. One day, when he introduced his eight-year-old son to the prince, the boy decided to stand up during the reception, and all the courtiers followed his example; and Menshikov did not even think of finding such an expression of respect unnecessary. This incident caused a scandal. He could unhinderedly enter Catherine I for a report. And the empress, in turn, did not forget to thank Menshikov. She granted him the city of Baturin - the same one that Alexander Danilovich literally begged from Peter I, but to no avail... Catherine I also forgot about all Menshikov’s debts.
When Anna Ioannovna comes to power, according to many historians, a dark streak begins in Russia. One of the contemporaries of that era described the thirties of the 18th century as follows: “A terrible word and deed was heard everywhere, dragging into the dungeons hundreds of victims of Biron’s gloomy suspicion or the personal enmity of his spies, scattered throughout the cities and villages, settling in almost every family. The executions were so common that they already aroused no one’s attention...” V. Pikul called Anna simply “a dirty, stupid woman, full of anger and vices, a wild lady on the Russian throne. Behind Anna stood the one they called Ernest Johann Biron. His real name is Johann Ernest Biren. As N. Kostomarov writes: “Out of vain ambition, he adopted the surname Biron, changing only one vowel in his real family nickname, and began to descend from the ancient aristocratic French family of Biron.” Active members of this family in France, having learned about such an impostor, laughed at him, but did not resist or protest, especially after with the accession of Anna Ioannovna to the Russian throne, he, under the name Biron, became the second person in a powerful European state. Around 1728, Johann Ernest came to Anna's court thanks to the patronage of Bestuzhev, who was then the duchess's favorite. An extremely ambitious man, Biron made the question of a career a matter of life. Vengeful, “without a concept of honor, without a sense of duty, he made his way in life with the self-interest of a petty egoist.” Having taken a strong position with Anna, Biren became close to her to such an extent that he became the most necessary person for her. At first he tried to be with her as often as possible and soon reached the point that she herself, even more than he, needed his company. According to contemporaries, Anna Ioannovna’s affection for Biren was unusual. The Empress thought and acted in accordance with how her favorite influenced her. Everything that Anna did essentially came from Biren.
If we talk about the personal qualities of the favorite, Count Manstein most clearly described them in his “Note”. “By the way, he owed the information and upbringing that he had to himself. He did not have the kind of intelligence that was liked in society and in the world, but he had a certain kind of genius. One could add to this the saying that work makes a man. Before arriving in Russia, he hardly even knew the name of politics, and after several years of staying in it he learned quite thoroughly the weight that concerns this state. Biron loved luxury and pomp to the point of excess and was a great lover of horses. This explains the words of the Austrian regent Ostein: “Biron speaks about horses like an intelligent person, but as soon as he talks about something other than horses, he lies like a horse.” “This man, who made an amazing career, had no education at all, spoke only German and the Courland dialect. I didn't read German well. He was not ashamed to publicly say during Anna’s life that he did not want to learn to read and write in Russian in order not to be obliged to present Her Majesty with petitions, reports and other documents sent to him daily.”
Arrogant, proud, cruel at heart, he covered up the dark sides of his character with the sophistication and sophistication of a secular man. Having come to power, the empress did not interfere with her favorite in any way. Due to natural laziness, she did not know the “tricks” of her favorite, and moreover, she sincerely believed that the people given to her by God were prospering. Anna saw the people through the prism of amusements, fireworks, balls and judged the situation in the state based on the official reports that she happened to read and sign. The Empress had no idea what was going on in the empire, and she did not want to know or think about it. She was satisfied with the way of life and affairs that she led. Taking advantage of the empress's abstraction from power, Biron takes it into his own hands. His power rested on three “pillars”: the Secret Chancellery (which was used by the favorite to fight enemies), the guard, and the minions of the ruler’s favorite. N. Kostomarov gives the following characterization to E. Biron “... had no state views, no program of activity and not the slightest acquaintance with Russian life and people. This did not prevent him from despising Russians and deliberately persecuting everything Russian. His only goal was his own enrichment, his only concern - strengthening one’s position at court and in the state.” Manstein wrote: “Speaking about the Duke of Courland, I said that he was a great hunter of luxury and splendor; this was enough to inspire the empress with the desire to make her court the most brilliant in Europe. Large sums of money were spent on this, but still the empress’s wish was not soon fulfilled. Often, with the richest caftan, the wig was very carefully combed; an inexperienced tailor spoiled beautiful damask fabric with a bad cut; or if the toilet was impeccable, then the carriage was extremely bad: a gentleman in a rich suit rode in a crappy carriage, which was dragged by beds.”
Anna moves to St. Petersburg because, in her opinion, Moscow was not safe. He was pleased with the move and did not like Biron - the “barbarian capital”. In addition, an unprecedented embarrassment happened to him in Moscow: he, a brilliant rider, was thrown to the ground by a horse in front of the empress, courtiers and crowd. Anna, breaking the entire ceremony of the royal departure, jumped out of the carriage in order to lift the poor, bruised, but infinitely beloved chief chamberlain from the damned Moscow mud. This event reflects the true attitude of the empress towards her favorite. E. Biron was Anna's greatest object of passion. “Never in the world, I believe, was there a more friendly couple who would show such participation in the amusement or sorrow of a perfect person as the empress and the duke,” writes E. Minich and continues: “Both were almost never able to pretend in their outward appearance . If the Duke appeared with a gloomy face, then the Empress at the same moment took on an alarmed look. If he was cheerful, then the monarch’s face showed obvious pleasure. If someone did not please the Duke, then it was from the eyes and the meeting. The kindness the monarch gave him, he could immediately notice a sensitive change. All favors had to be asked from the duke, and through him alone the empress decided on it.”
Many historians attribute the licentiousness and cruelty of the court's morals to Biron's influence. It was believed that it was Biron who was able to give the empress’s amusements a character that served to humiliate the Russian noble families. For example, V. Andreev believes that the cruelty visible in such amusements as the ice house was not akin to Anna’s soul and was a consequence of Biron’s influence. His influence was reflected in Anna’s indecisive character and changeable opinions. Biron did not see a single independent person around him. He gradually destroyed all notable Russian people and was the complete manager of affairs. The so-called cabinet, established in 1731 from three persons: Osterman, Golovkin and Cherkassky, was supposed to replace the abolished Supreme Privy Council and become the head of government over the Senate and Synod. Deprived of any legal identity and independence, “...the cabinet confused the competence and office work of government agencies, reflecting the behind-the-scenes mind of its creator and the nature of the dark reign.” According to I.V. Kurukin: “Biron’s strength lay in the fact that he became the first “correct” leader in our political history, who turned the little-respected image of a night “temporary worker” into a real institution of power with unwritten, but clearly defined rules and boundaries.” From 1732, he began to take the initiative, meeting with foreign ambassadors on issues that interested them. The reports of the English consul K. Rondeau and I. Lefort clearly recorded this important change in the work of diplomats at the St. Petersburg court: in 1733 they already reported on the “custom” of visiting the chief chamberlain, which was strictly adhered to by members of the diplomatic corps.
After the rapprochement between Russia and England 1734-1741. Rondo becomes a welcome guest of Biron and Osterman, and therefore the awareness of his reports increases sharply. From the surviving reports of the English consul, we learn about Biron’s methods of diplomatic work. During informal meetings and conversations, he always made it clear that he was aware of the news coming from Russian ambassadors abroad; was the first to put forward initiatives, inform the interlocutor about decisions taken, but not yet officially announced; explained the point of view of the Russian government on certain issues. In some cases, Biron emphasized that he spoke on behalf of the empress, in others that he acted not as a minister, but solely as a friend. According to contemporaries, Biron played his role according to “European” rules, without abusing his power, and was kind and polite to everyone. However, if I.V. Kurukin is convinced that Biron, with all his information and influence, was still only a conductor of the will of the empress, and was more like the head of the office than an all-powerful temporary worker. Anisimov draws the opposite conclusion: “Biron’s influence was enormous in both foreign and domestic policy. In the system of power that developed under Anna without Biron, her confidant, a power-hungry man, not a single important decision was made at all. In his letters, the temporary worker constantly complains about his workload, but at the same time shows himself to be a very cautious person, trying not to emphasize his role in management, to remain in the shadows.”
Biron also secretly controlled the office. P.V. Dolgorukov especially singles out his confidant, the Jew Lipman, whom Biron made a court banker. Lipman openly sold positions, places and favors in favor of the favorite and engaged in usury on a half-basis with the Duke of Courland. Biron consulted him in all matters. Lipman often attended Biron’s classes with cabinet ministers, secretaries and presidents of the boards, expressing his opinions and giving advice, which everyone respectfully listened to. The most senior and influential people tried to please this favorite, who more than once sent people to Siberia on a whim. He traded his influence by selling official positions, and there was no baseness that he was not capable of.
Biron is credited with the development of denunciation and espionage in the country, explaining this by his fear for the safety and strength of his position. The Secret Chancellery, the successor to the Preobrazhensky Order of the Petrine era, was inundated with political denunciations and cases. Terror hung over society. And at the same time, physical disasters came one after another: pestilence, famine, wars with Poland and Turkey depleted the people's strength. It is clear that under such circumstances of life the people could not be calm. Hence another phenomenon of “Bironovism” - constant popular unrest.
In 1734-1738 impostors appeared in the southeast, calling themselves the sons of Peter. They were successful among the population and troops, but were soon caught. But even without them, the people's murmur did not cease. The people attributed all the country's disasters to foreigners who had seized power and were taking advantage of the fact that there was a weak woman on the throne.
Biron was married to Anna's maid of honor. Their children felt completely free at court. The Empress treated the young Birons very warmly. Awards and ranks rained down on them like from a cornucopia, it seems that Anna and the Birons formed a single family. They attended holidays together, attended theaters and concerts, rode sleighs, and played cards in the evenings. Anna's accession opened dizzying horizons for Biron. Already in June 1730, Anna obtained from the Austrian Emperor the title of count for him, and in the fall Biron became a Knight of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called and Chief Chamberlain, so that this position would look more respectable, in the Table of Ranks - a document regulating the career advancement of military officers, officials and courtiers, changes were made, and the newly-minted chief chamberlain, together with the rank, “moved” from the fourth class directly to the second class.
The opinions of historians regarding the role of Biron and the scale of his influence are divided, but there is something on which modern researchers mostly agree: that Biron was an intelligent and strong-willed man, well acquainted with all the internal and foreign policy issues of the state. However, Biron should not be considered the only key figure involved in governing the country. As Rondeau noted, in the field of foreign policy, all matters passed through the hands of Osterman, who in many ways surpassed the chief chamberlain in experience and knew how to stun him with his analysis of the situation. As a result, the actual negotiation process with foreign diplomats was entirely in the hands of Osterman, as well as the current leadership and instructions to ambassadors. According to V. O. Klyuchevsky: “... over the pile of Bironov’s nonentities towered the real bosses of the state, Vice Chancellor A. I., Osterman and Field Marshal Minich. V. Pikul directly called Anna Ioannovna’s reign not Bironovism, but Ostermanism. This opinion can be confirmed by the notes of the Spanish Ambassador to Russia, a contemporary of those events, Duke of Lyria, in which he describes Biron and Osterman as follows: “Baron Osterman: He had all the necessary abilities to be a good minister, and an amazing figure, ... he was cunning in the highest degree, he was very stingy, but did not like bribes. He possessed the art of pretending to the greatest degree, with such dexterity he knew how to give a gloss of truth to the most obvious lies that he could deceive the most cunning people... Duke Biron - he had little to do and therefore allowed others to control him to the point that he could not distinguish bad advice from good... " Of course, the German party, based on this disposition, could overthrow Biron and replace him with Osterman or Minich. But, since Anna’s favorite did not bother himself with state affairs and did not pretend to be a commander, they only needed a person who would defend against the attacks of the Russian party, and at the same time would not interfere in political affairs. Based on the notes of Ya. P. Shakhovsky, a witness to the treaty of the German party, Biron could only conduct intrigues within the party and the court “... with his comrade, the Cabinet Minister Count Osterman, he had a secret enmity, and in each of them having their highest ranks at the court their party, constantly trying to make cunning nets for catching and ditches for falling...” Not without Osterman’s efforts, P. P. Shafirov, A. D. Menshikov, A. V. Makarov, D. M. Golitsyn, I. A. and P. L. Dolgoruky, A. P. Volynsky were destroyed. That is, we see his direct participation in the largest political processes of the second quarter of the 18th century. A master of political intrigue, he knew how to arrange the matter in such a way that the victims had no idea that it was Osterman who owed severe punishment and even turned to him for help.
In 1735, a seventeen-year-old princess (Anna Leopoldovna), who was already looking for a groom, fell romantically in love with the Saxon envoy Count Linar. Her governess, Aderkas, a Prussian relative of Mardefeld, helped in this intrigue. Having learned about this, the empress sent the guilty teacher to Germany, demanded that the too enterprising diplomat be recalled and, as it seemed, managed to return her niece to feelings more befitting of her rank. But as soon as Anna received unlimited power and freedom, Linar appeared in St. Petersburg. He came from an Italian family that had been settled in Germany since the sixteenth century; he was about forty years old; he was left a widower by his wife, née Fleming, to whom he owed his diplomatic career. Handsome, well-built, busy with his own person, he seemed much younger than his years. Catherine II, who saw him nine years later, half-jokingly draws him like this: “He was a man who, as they say, combined great knowledge with the same abilities. In appearance, he was in the full sense of a fop. He was tall, well built, reddish-blond, with a complexion as delicate as a woman's. They say that he took such care of his skin that every day before going to bed he covered his face and hands with lipstick and slept in gloves and a mask. He boasted that he had eighteen children and that everything their nurses could do this work by his grace. This, so white, Count Linar had a white ladies' order and wore dresses of the lightest colors, such as sky blue, apricot, lilac, flesh."
“Count Linar never misses an opportunity to prove to the Grand Duchess how madly in love he is with her. She takes this from signs to displeasure... He rented a house near the royal garden and from then on the Grand Duchess Regent, contrary to her custom, began to take walks very often.”
The evenings were spent behind closed doors in the apartment of the ruler's closest friend, her maid of honor Juliana (Julia) Mengden, or, as Elizaveta Petrovna contemptuously called her, Zhulia, Zhulki. Anna could not live even a day without this “beautiful dark-skinned woman.” Their relationship was extraordinary. Anna's love for Julia "was like the most ardent love of a man for a woman." It is only known that there was an intention to marry Linara and Julia, which was not carried out due to the coup, although in August 1741 they managed to get engaged, and Anna presented her friend with a countless number of jewelry and a fully furnished house. The purpose of this marriage was to disguise the ruler's relationship with Linar. Be that as it may, it was Julia Mengden, sitting by the fireplace with Anna doing needlework (on long evenings, her friends tore off the gold braid from the camisoles of the overthrown Biron), who gave the ruler advice on governing Russia. These pieces of advice from the provincial Livonian young lady, who had enormous influence on the ruler, made Osterman and other ministers' hair stand on end. When power changed again, the crown princess personally entered the ruler’s chambers and woke her up. Anna Leopoldovna did not resist the coup, but only asked not to harm either her children or Juliana Mengden. These were the people for whom Anna feared more than anything in the world. In this example, you can see the true attitude of the ruler towards her favorite.
On the night of November 25, 1741, power changed once again in the Russian Empire. The influence of the German party also finally fell, and it went into oblivion, trying to nominate a new favorite under Anna Leopoldovna, regent of Ivan VI, Moritz Linara. It didn't take much to overthrow the rulers. Firstly, a contender for the royal family: there already was one - Elizaveta Petrovna. The second favorable circumstance is the French ambassador of the famous de Chétardy: a clever, experienced intriguer, he did not spare gold in order to strengthen his influence in the Russian court and weaken the German one. The empress's lifestyle and character suggest that she was practically not involved in state affairs. The secrecy and suspicion that arose in Elizabeth during Anna's reign, a jealous attitude towards the actions, and more often imaginary encroachments on her power, are bizarrely combined with her almost complete failure to govern the country, which led to the dominance of favorites or “strong people” who begin become an integral part of the state. In 1750, Bestuzhev complained to the Austrian ambassador Gernes about the complete impossibility of any work under Elizabeth: “The whole empire is falling apart. My patience is running out. I am forced to demand my resignation."
Of these strong persons, during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, two warring noble parties stood out - the Shuvalovs and the Razumovskys. The Duke of Lyria described the situation that existed at the court of Elizabeth in this way. “In the present reign, the new favorite Razumovsky ruled the empire..., a simple Cossack reached the point of secret marriage with the empress...” It was actually the case that Alexey Grigorievich Razumovsky was Elizabeth’s marganastic husband, and they married her in the village of Perovo near Moscow in 1742. Razumovsky’s favor began in 1731, when Colonel Vishnevsky noticed a handsome singer from the family of the Cossack Reason in the village of Lemerr, Chernigov province. Contemporaries unanimously asserted that Razumovsky, who enjoyed enormous power for a long time, behaved extremely modestly: he did not strive for high government positions and, if possible, avoided participating in court intrigues. Perhaps the only thing that the “modest” Razumovsky did actively and shamelessly was to enrich himself through the numerous gifts of the Empress with money, lands and serfs. Although Alexei Razumovsky himself removed himself from government affairs, his potential significance in their decision was enormous. Pezold, secretary of the Saxon embassy, wrote in 1747 in Dresden: “The influence of the modest Razumovsky on the empress increased so much after their marriage that although he does not directly interfere in state affairs, for which he has no attraction or talent, everyone can be sure of achieving what he wants, as long as Razumovsky puts in a word.” Thus, such a situation in which power really “was lying under the feet of the favorites, but they simply did not deign to raise it, persists further in the reign of Catherine II.
Since the early 50s of the 18th century, the influence of A. G. Razumovsky has eclipsed the Shuvalov clan, led by Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov. The beginning of his nomination dates back to the mid-40s. This was helped a little by his marriage to Mavra Shepeleva, Elizabeth’s favorite mistress. His influence on the political life of that time is evidenced by examples worthy of a reformer: these are projects on wine and salt trade; gradual replacement of direct taxation with indirect taxation; projects to abolish internal customs in the empire; return to protectionist policies. His real power is also evidenced by his own strength - the Observation Corps, consisting of 30 thousand people. That is, both internal politics and military power were in his hands. Pyotr Ivanovich was the eldest and always remained, as it were, in the shadows, and the “chance” was “fulfilled” by the young and handsome, his cousin, Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov. After the fall of Chancellor Bestuzhev, having achieved the appointment of his brothers to the Council of Ministers, the temporary worker always contributed to the triumph of the ideas and decisions of one of them. Elizabeth spoke through his lips, but he speaks only the words of Pyotr Shuvalov. The empress had no secrets from her favorite, and when Louis XV decided to enter into a secret relationship with the empress, he was warned that the third person between them would be the favorite. Officially, he does not hold any significant position, but he was simply called “Chamberlain,” and this word was respected at court. At the beginning of 1750, the Empress developed another serious hobby. Cadets of the Land Noble Corps (officer school) organized an amateur theater, which Elizaveta Petrovna wished to see at her court.
One of the cadets, Nikita Afanasyevich Beketov, attracted the empress's attention with his talented acting and beautiful appearance, and everyone started talking about him as a new favorite. In the spring of the same year, he left the corps with the rank of prime major and was taken to court as an adjutant to Razumovsky, who, due to his good nature, favored Elizabeth’s young favorite. At that time, she herself found herself in a very difficult situation. Catherine II recalled that on Easter, right in the church, “the empress scolded all her maids... the singers and even the priest all received a scolding. There was a lot of whispering later about the reasons for this anger; from vague hints it was revealed that this angry mood of the empress was caused by the difficult situation in which Her Majesty found herself between three or four of her favorites, namely, Count Razumovsky, Shuvalov, one choir named Kachenovsky and Beketov, whom she had just appointed as adjutant to Count Razumovsky. It must be admitted that anyone else in Her Majesty’s place would have been baffled even under less difficult conditions. Not everyone is given the ability to see and reconcile the pride of four favorites at the same time.” Kachenovsky turned out to be Elizabeth’s fleeting hobby, while Beketov’s favor lasted more than a year. The young officer was strongly supported by A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who, not without reason, feared the rise of Ivan Shuvalov and the strengthening of the influence of his brothers.
The time of Elizaveta Petrovna can be distinguished by the fact that favoritism is strengthened in an already constructed building, but, as in the subsequent period of history, it will only be an adornment of absolute power. This can be exemplified by the words of the French diplomat at the court of Elizabeth L. J. Favier: “The Empress is completely master of the art of implementation. The secret depths of her heart often remain inaccessible to even the oldest and most experienced courtiers. She under no circumstances allows herself to be controlled by any one person or favorite.”
Thus, the evolution of favoritism in Russia reaches a peak when this phenomenon degenerates into something special, unique, into a tradition on Russian soil. This, undoubtedly, is facilitated by the “greatest woman - the empress” on the Russian throne, under whom favoritism acquires the rank of a state institution and during whose reign the “golden age” of favoritism in Russia will come - Ekaterina Alekseevna. We can say that under all the previous empresses, favoritism was more of a whim, a royal whim, but under Catherine II it became a traditional state institution, supported by the empress herself. Thus, Russia of the 18th century is a society and court no more, no less depraved than all the court circles of Europe, and at the top of the hierarchical ladder, on the steps right next to the throne, there is favoritism. Almost all the favorites have one thing in common: they ended their lives poorly. K. Birkin expressed himself most clearly on this matter in his work on the topic of favoritism: “the fate of temporary workers and favorites reminds us of the fate of those three Turkish viziers, whom the Sultan paid from his own shoulders, and tomorrow sent the same viziers a silk cord for their own necks ... Another temporary worker, thinking of sitting on the throne, ended up impaled instead, putting his head on the block...”
Everyone knows and talks about the favorites, they slavishly obey them, but at the same time, they don’t seem to notice them, because this cannot happen in an absolute monarchy. Thus, the political history of the past shows that favoritism is an integral part of the governmental structure of society. And as absolutism develops, this phenomenon takes on the form of a permanent, important political institution that has a great influence on the development and direction of state activity
palace coup imperial throne
The general prerequisites for palace coups include:
Contradictions between various noble factions in relation to Peter's legacy. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and non-acceptance of reforms.
Both the so-called “new nobility”, which emerged during the years of Peter thanks to their official zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and, first of all, to themselves.
But each of these groups defended their narrow-class interests and privileges, which created fertile ground for internal political struggle.
An intense struggle between various factions for power, which most often boiled down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.
The active position of the guard, which Peter raised as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the compliance of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that its “beloved emperor” left.
The passivity of the masses, absolutely far from the political life of the capital.
The aggravation of the problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power.
The spiritual atmosphere that emerged as a result of the emancipation of the noble consciousness from traditional norms of behavior and morality pushed for active, often unprincipled political activity, instilled hope in luck and “omnipotent chance”, opening the way to power and wealth.
ZD 16 Favoritism in the 18th century. (message)
Favoritism in the 18th century
At all times, history was “made” by elders, princes, viziers, sultans, monarchs, emperors, kings, people in general, but then and now there are people who may be “blurred” in the general crowd of those in power, but who sometimes have a total influence on state policy. In any socio-political system, government, dictatorship, there are unspoken or visible personalities - favorites. There are different definitions of the term favoritism itself, but they are most accurately formulated in the Soviet Historical Encyclopedia: “Favoritism is a situation characteristic of the era of absolutism of the 17th – 18th centuries, in which favorites influence state affairs...”. In the dictionary of the Russian language S.I. Ozhegov there is a similar definition, but a decoding of the term favorite itself is added: “Favorite (Italian Favorito, from Latin Fovor - favor), a person who enjoys special favor and influences the views and behavior of his patrons.
Favoritism is characterized by the delegation of some (or even most) of the powers of the monarch to the favorite or his proteges. Favoritism became most widespread under an absolute monarchy. The reason for favoritism lies in the monarch's intention to concentrate supreme power in the hands of a very small group of people, often without outstanding qualities, but personally loyal.
In the 18th century, favoritism in connection with the rule of women acquired other features. The favorites were immensely endowed with titles and estates and had enormous political influence. Often incapable of state activities, empresses (with the exception of Catherine II, of course, relied entirely on the will of their favorites. Sometimes people from low classes became prominent political figures, rising thanks to the empress, who brought them closer to the court. Sometimes, thanks to their favorites, they became rich and advanced in their relatives in the service.
Already at the beginning of the Romanov dynasty, the first bricks were laid in the building of favoritism. The personal qualities of the monarchs undoubtedly contributed to the formation and development of favoritism in Russia. In Russia, favoritism flourishes under female empresses, who were distinguished by a special passion for love affairs. Moreover, not being distinguished by their desire for state affairs, in many cases they gave domestic and foreign policy into the hands of their favorites, thereby, at least indirectly, placing them above themselves in the state. In Western Europe, monarchs predominated - men who could not afford to place women at the helm of state policy, whose destiny, I exaggerate, was the kitchen and the bed.
After Peter's death, Menshikov could only do what he had done dozens of times before, when the Tsar was absent or indulged in entertainment. And the next day after death, just like the day before, the administrative bodies - the Senate, collegiums, various offices - turned out to be incapable of any initiative. Menshikov replaced her and continued to manage as before. He became a ruler, as a permanent substitute for royal authority, although such exercise of unlimited power was not stipulated by any law. This is an inherent feature of favoritism wherever it appears. The practical application of such a regime was not without difficulties. During the life of Peter, when the favorite performed the duties of the sovereign, the latter stood behind him, giving his consent to the temporary orders of his second self. Catherine wanted to imitate her husband; but she did not have the iron hand of a reformer, and among those around the empress Menshikov found rivals. From the first days, the Duke of Holstein showed his intention to compete with him and not to submit to the arrogance that was growing in this former cake maker. Bassevich tried further to stir up the ambition and suspicion of his duke. Menshikov had neither the flexibility nor the tact to eliminate the consequences of this. One day, when he introduced his eight-year-old son to the prince, the boy decided to stand up during the reception, and all the courtiers followed his example; and Menshikov did not even think of finding such an expression of respect unnecessary. This incident caused a scandal. He could unhinderedly enter Catherine I for a report. And the empress, in turn, did not forget to thank Menshikov. She granted him the city of Baturin - the same one that Alexander Danilovich literally begged from Peter I, but to no avail... Catherine I also forgot about all Menshikov’s debts.
When Anna Ioannovna comes to power, according to many historians, a dark streak begins in Russia. One of the contemporaries of that era described the thirties of the 18th century as follows: “A terrible word and deed was heard everywhere, dragging into the dungeons hundreds of victims of Biron’s gloomy suspicion or the personal enmity of his spies, scattered throughout the cities and villages, settling in almost every family. The executions were so common that they already aroused no one’s attention...” V. Pikul called Anna simply “a dirty, stupid woman, full of anger and vices, a wild lady on the Russian throne. Behind Anna stood the one they called Ernest Johann Biron. His real name is Johann Ernest Biren. As N. Kostomarov writes: “Out of vain ambition, he adopted the surname Biron, changing only one vowel in his real family nickname, and began to descend from the ancient aristocratic French family of Biron.” Active members of this family in France, having learned about such an impostor, laughed at him, but did not resist or protest, especially after with the accession of Anna Ioannovna to the Russian throne, he, under the name Biron, became the second person in a powerful European state. Around 1728, Johann Ernest came to Anna's court thanks to the patronage of Bestuzhev, who was then the duchess's favorite. An extremely ambitious man, Biron made the question of a career a matter of life. Vengeful, “without a concept of honor, without a sense of duty, he made his way in life with the self-interest of a petty egoist.” Having taken a strong position with Anna, Biren became close to her to such an extent that he became the most necessary person for her. At first he tried to be with her as often as possible and soon reached the point that she herself, even more than he, needed his company. According to contemporaries, Anna Ioannovna’s affection for Biren was unusual. The Empress thought and acted in accordance with how her favorite influenced her. Everything that Anna did essentially came from Biren.
If we talk about the personal qualities of the favorite, Count Manstein most clearly described them in his “Note”. “By the way, he owed the information and upbringing that he had to himself. He did not have the kind of intelligence that was liked in society and in the world, but he had a certain kind of genius. One could add to this the saying that work makes a man. Before arriving in Russia, he hardly even knew the name of politics, and after several years of staying in it he learned quite thoroughly the weight that concerns this state. Biron loved luxury and pomp to the point of excess and was a great lover of horses. This explains the words of the Austrian regent Ostein: “Biron speaks about horses like an intelligent person, but as soon as he talks about something other than horses, he lies like a horse.” “This man, who made an amazing career, had no education at all, spoke only German and the Courland dialect. I didn't read German well. He was not ashamed to publicly say during Anna’s life that he did not want to learn to read and write in Russian in order not to be obliged to present Her Majesty with petitions, reports and other documents sent to him daily.”
Arrogant, proud, cruel at heart, he covered up the dark sides of his character with the sophistication and sophistication of a secular man. Having come to power, the empress did not interfere with her favorite in any way. Due to natural laziness, she did not know the “tricks” of her favorite, and moreover, she sincerely believed that the people given to her by God were prospering. Anna saw the people through the prism of amusements, fireworks, balls and judged the situation in the state based on the official reports that she happened to read and sign. The Empress had no idea what was going on in the empire, and she did not want to know or think about it. She was satisfied with the way of life and affairs that she led. Taking advantage of the empress's abstraction from power, Biron takes it into his own hands. His power rested on three “pillars”: the Secret Chancellery (which was used by the favorite to fight enemies), the guard, and the minions of the ruler’s favorite. N. Kostomarov gives the following characterization to E. Biron “... had no state views, no program of activity and not the slightest acquaintance with Russian life and people. This did not prevent him from despising Russians and deliberately persecuting everything Russian. His only goal was his own enrichment, his only concern - strengthening one’s position at court and in the state.” Manstein wrote: “Speaking about the Duke of Courland, I said that he was a great hunter of luxury and splendor; this was enough to inspire the empress with the desire to make her court the most brilliant in Europe. Large sums of money were spent on this, but still the empress’s wish was not soon fulfilled. Often, with the richest caftan, the wig was very carefully combed; an inexperienced tailor spoiled beautiful damask fabric with a bad cut; or if the toilet was impeccable, then the carriage was extremely bad: a gentleman in a rich suit rode in a crappy carriage, which was dragged by beds.”
Anna moves to St. Petersburg because, in her opinion, Moscow was not safe. He was pleased with the move and did not like Biron - the “barbarian capital”. In addition, an unprecedented embarrassment happened to him in Moscow: he, a brilliant rider, was thrown to the ground by a horse in front of the empress, courtiers and crowd. Anna, breaking the entire ceremony of the royal departure, jumped out of the carriage in order to lift the poor, bruised, but infinitely beloved chief chamberlain from the damned Moscow mud. This event reflects the true attitude of the empress towards her favorite. E. Biron was Anna's greatest object of passion. “Never in the world, I believe, was there a more friendly couple who would show such participation in the amusement or sorrow of a perfect person as the empress and the duke,” writes E. Minich and continues: “Both were almost never able to pretend in their outward appearance . If the Duke appeared with a gloomy face, then the Empress at the same moment took on an alarmed look. If he was cheerful, then the monarch’s face showed obvious pleasure. If someone did not please the Duke, then it was from the eyes and the meeting. The kindness the monarch gave him, he could immediately notice a sensitive change. All favors had to be asked from the duke, and through him alone the empress decided on it.”
Many historians attribute the licentiousness and cruelty of the court's morals to Biron's influence. It was believed that it was Biron who was able to give the empress’s amusements a character that served to humiliate the Russian noble families. For example, V. Andreev believes that the cruelty visible in such amusements as the ice house was not akin to Anna’s soul and was a consequence of Biron’s influence. His influence was reflected in Anna’s indecisive character and changeable opinions. Biron did not see a single independent person around him. He gradually destroyed all notable Russian people and was the complete manager of affairs. The so-called cabinet, established in 1731 from three persons: Osterman, Golovkin and Cherkassky, was supposed to replace the abolished Supreme Privy Council and become the head of government over the Senate and Synod. Deprived of any legal identity and independence, “...the cabinet confused the competence and office work of government agencies, reflecting the behind-the-scenes mind of its creator and the nature of the dark reign.” According to I.V. Kurukin: “Biron’s strength lay in the fact that he became the first “correct” leader in our political history, who turned the little-respected image of a night “temporary worker” into a real institution of power with unwritten, but clearly defined rules and boundaries.” From 1732, he began to take the initiative, meeting with foreign ambassadors on issues that interested them. The reports of the English consul K. Rondeau and I. Lefort clearly recorded this important change in the work of diplomats at the St. Petersburg court: in 1733 they already reported on the “custom” of visiting the chief chamberlain, which was strictly adhered to by members of the diplomatic corps.
After the rapprochement between Russia and England 1734-1741. Rondo becomes a welcome guest of Biron and Osterman, and therefore the awareness of his reports increases sharply. From the surviving reports of the English consul, we learn about Biron’s methods of diplomatic work. During informal meetings and conversations, he always made it clear that he was aware of the news coming from Russian ambassadors abroad; was the first to put forward initiatives, inform the interlocutor about decisions taken, but not yet officially announced; explained the point of view of the Russian government on certain issues. In some cases, Biron emphasized that he spoke on behalf of the empress, in others that he acted not as a minister, but solely as a friend. According to contemporaries, Biron played his role according to “European” rules, without abusing his power, and was kind and polite to everyone. However, if I.V. Kurukin is convinced that Biron, with all his information and influence, was still only a conductor of the will of the empress, and was more like the head of the office than an all-powerful temporary worker. Anisimov draws the opposite conclusion: “Biron’s influence was enormous in both foreign and domestic policy. In the system of power that developed under Anna without Biron, her confidant, a power-hungry man, not a single important decision was made at all. In his letters, the temporary worker constantly complains about his workload, but at the same time shows himself to be a very cautious person, trying not to emphasize his role in management, to remain in the shadows.”
Biron also secretly controlled the office. P.V. Dolgorukov especially singles out his confidant, the Jew Lipman, whom Biron made a court banker. Lipman openly sold positions, places and favors in favor of the favorite and engaged in usury on a half-basis with the Duke of Courland. Biron consulted him in all matters. Lipman often attended Biron’s classes with cabinet ministers, secretaries and presidents of the boards, expressing his opinions and giving advice, which everyone respectfully listened to. The most senior and influential people tried to please this favorite, who more than once sent people to Siberia on a whim. He traded his influence by selling official positions, and there was no baseness that he was not capable of.
Biron is credited with the development of denunciation and espionage in the country, explaining this by his fear for the safety and strength of his position. The Secret Chancellery, the successor to the Preobrazhensky Order of the Petrine era, was inundated with political denunciations and cases. Terror hung over society. And at the same time, physical disasters came one after another: pestilence, famine, wars with Poland and Turkey depleted the people's strength. It is clear that under such circumstances of life the people could not be calm. Hence another phenomenon of “Bironovism” - constant popular unrest.
In 1734-1738 impostors appeared in the southeast, calling themselves the sons of Peter. They were successful among the population and troops, but were soon caught. But even without them, the people's murmur did not cease. The people attributed all the country's disasters to foreigners who had seized power and were taking advantage of the fact that there was a weak woman on the throne.
Biron was married to Anna's maid of honor. Their children felt completely free at court. The Empress treated the young Birons very warmly. Awards and ranks rained down on them like from a cornucopia, it seems that Anna and the Birons formed a single family. They attended holidays together, attended theaters and concerts, rode sleighs, and played cards in the evenings. Anna's accession opened dizzying horizons for Biron. Already in June 1730, Anna obtained from the Austrian Emperor the title of count for him, and in the fall Biron became a Knight of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called and Chief Chamberlain, so that this position would look more respectable, in the Table of Ranks - a document regulating the career advancement of military officers, officials and courtiers, changes were made, and the newly-minted chief chamberlain, together with the rank, “moved” from the fourth class directly to the second class.
The opinions of historians regarding the role of Biron and the scale of his influence are divided, but there is something on which modern researchers mostly agree: that Biron was an intelligent and strong-willed man, well acquainted with all the internal and foreign policy issues of the state. However, Biron should not be considered the only key figure involved in governing the country. As Rondeau noted, in the field of foreign policy, all matters passed through the hands of Osterman, who in many ways surpassed the chief chamberlain in experience and knew how to stun him with his analysis of the situation. As a result, the actual negotiation process with foreign diplomats was entirely in the hands of Osterman, as well as the current leadership and instructions to ambassadors. According to V. O. Klyuchevsky: “... over the pile of Bironov’s nonentities towered the real bosses of the state, Vice Chancellor A. I., Osterman and Field Marshal Minich. V. Pikul directly called Anna Ioannovna’s reign not Bironovism, but Ostermanism. This opinion can be confirmed by the notes of the Spanish Ambassador to Russia, a contemporary of those events, Duke of Lyria, in which he describes Biron and Osterman as follows: “Baron Osterman: He had all the necessary abilities to be a good minister, and an amazing figure, ... he was cunning in the highest degree, he was very stingy, but did not like bribes. He possessed the art of pretending to the greatest degree, with such dexterity he knew how to give a gloss of truth to the most obvious lies that he could deceive the most cunning people... Duke Biron - he had little to do and therefore allowed others to control him to the point that he could not distinguish bad advice from good... " Of course, the German party, based on this disposition, could overthrow Biron and replace him with Osterman or Minich. But, since Anna’s favorite did not bother himself with state affairs and did not pretend to be a commander, they only needed a person who would defend against the attacks of the Russian party, and at the same time would not interfere in political affairs. Based on the notes of Ya. P. Shakhovsky, a witness to the treaty of the German party, Biron could only conduct intrigues within the party and the court “... with his comrade, the Cabinet Minister Count Osterman, he had a secret enmity, and in each of them having their highest ranks at the court their party, constantly trying to make cunning nets for catching and ditches for falling...” Not without Osterman’s efforts, P. P. Shafirov, A. D. Menshikov, A. V. Makarov, D. M. Golitsyn, I. A. and P. L. Dolgoruky, A. P. Volynsky were destroyed. That is, we see his direct participation in the largest political processes of the second quarter of the 18th century. A master of political intrigue, he knew how to arrange the matter in such a way that the victims had no idea that it was Osterman who owed severe punishment and even turned to him for help.
In 1735, a seventeen-year-old princess (Anna Leopoldovna), who was already looking for a groom, fell romantically in love with the Saxon envoy Count Linar. Her governess, Aderkas, a Prussian relative of Mardefeld, helped in this intrigue. Having learned about this, the empress sent the guilty teacher to Germany, demanded that the too enterprising diplomat be recalled and, as it seemed, managed to return her niece to feelings more befitting of her rank. But as soon as Anna received unlimited power and freedom, Linar appeared in St. Petersburg. He came from an Italian family that had been settled in Germany since the sixteenth century; he was about forty years old; he was left a widower by his wife, née Fleming, to whom he owed his diplomatic career. Handsome, well-built, busy with his own person, he seemed much younger than his years. Catherine II, who saw him nine years later, half-jokingly draws him like this: “He was a man who, as they say, combined great knowledge with the same abilities. In appearance, he was in the full sense of a fop. He was tall, well built, reddish-blond, with a complexion as delicate as a woman's. They say that he took such care of his skin that every day before going to bed he covered his face and hands with lipstick and slept in gloves and a mask. He boasted that he had eighteen children and that everything their nurses could do this work by his grace. This, so white, Count Linar had a white ladies' order and wore dresses of the lightest colors, such as sky blue, apricot, lilac, flesh."
“Count Linar never misses an opportunity to prove to the Grand Duchess how madly in love he is with her. She takes this from signs to displeasure... He rented a house near the royal garden and from then on the Grand Duchess Regent, contrary to her custom, began to take walks very often.”
The evenings were spent behind closed doors in the apartment of the ruler's closest friend, her maid of honor Juliana (Julia) Mengden, or, as Elizaveta Petrovna contemptuously called her, Zhulia, Zhulki. Anna could not live even a day without this “beautiful dark-skinned woman.” Their relationship was extraordinary. Anna's love for Julia "was like the most ardent love of a man for a woman." It is only known that there was an intention to marry Linara and Julia, which was not carried out due to the coup, although in August 1741 they managed to get engaged, and Anna presented her friend with a countless number of jewelry and a fully furnished house. The purpose of this marriage was to disguise the ruler's relationship with Linar. Be that as it may, it was Julia Mengden, sitting by the fireplace with Anna doing needlework (on long evenings, her friends tore off the gold braid from the camisoles of the overthrown Biron), who gave the ruler advice on governing Russia. These pieces of advice from the provincial Livonian young lady, who had enormous influence on the ruler, made Osterman and other ministers' hair stand on end. When power changed again, the crown princess personally entered the ruler’s chambers and woke her up. Anna Leopoldovna did not resist the coup, but only asked not to harm either her children or Juliana Mengden. These were the people for whom Anna feared more than anything in the world. In this example, you can see the true attitude of the ruler towards her favorite.
On the night of November 25, 1741, power changed once again in the Russian Empire. The influence of the German party also finally fell, and it went into oblivion, trying to nominate a new favorite under Anna Leopoldovna, regent of Ivan VI, Moritz Linara. It didn't take much to overthrow the rulers. Firstly, a contender for the royal family: there already was one - Elizaveta Petrovna. The second favorable circumstance is the French ambassador of the famous de Chétardy: a clever, experienced intriguer, he did not spare gold in order to strengthen his influence in the Russian court and weaken the German one. The empress's lifestyle and character suggest that she was practically not involved in state affairs. The secrecy and suspicion that arose in Elizabeth during Anna's reign, a jealous attitude towards the actions, and more often imaginary encroachments on her power, are bizarrely combined with her almost complete failure to govern the country, which led to the dominance of favorites or “strong people” who begin become an integral part of the state. In 1750, Bestuzhev complained to the Austrian ambassador Gernes about the complete impossibility of any work under Elizabeth: “The whole empire is falling apart. My patience is running out. I am forced to demand my resignation."
Of these strong persons, during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, two warring noble parties stood out - the Shuvalovs and the Razumovskys. The Duke of Lyria described the situation that existed at the court of Elizabeth in this way. “In the present reign, the new favorite Razumovsky ruled the empire..., a simple Cossack reached the point of secret marriage with the empress...” It was actually the case that Alexey Grigorievich Razumovsky was Elizabeth’s marganastic husband, and they married her in the village of Perovo near Moscow in 1742. Razumovsky’s favor began in 1731, when Colonel Vishnevsky noticed a handsome singer from the family of the Cossack Reason in the village of Lemerr, Chernigov province. Contemporaries unanimously asserted that Razumovsky, who enjoyed enormous power for a long time, behaved extremely modestly: he did not strive for high government positions and, if possible, avoided participating in court intrigues. Perhaps the only thing that the “modest” Razumovsky did actively and shamelessly was to enrich himself through the numerous gifts of the Empress with money, lands and serfs. Although Alexei Razumovsky himself removed himself from government affairs, his potential significance in their decision was enormous. Pezold, secretary of the Saxon embassy, wrote in 1747 in Dresden: “The influence of the modest Razumovsky on the empress increased so much after their marriage that although he does not directly interfere in state affairs, for which he has no attraction or talent, everyone can be sure of achieving what he wants, as long as Razumovsky puts in a word.” Thus, such a situation in which power really “was lying under the feet of the favorites, but they simply did not deign to raise it, persists further in the reign of Catherine II.
Since the early 50s of the 18th century, the influence of A. G. Razumovsky has eclipsed the Shuvalov clan, led by Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov. The beginning of his nomination dates back to the mid-40s. This was helped a little by his marriage to Mavra Shepeleva, Elizabeth’s favorite mistress. His influence on the political life of that time is evidenced by examples worthy of a reformer: these are projects on wine and salt trade; gradual replacement of direct taxation with indirect taxation; projects to abolish internal customs in the empire; return to protectionist policies. His real power is also evidenced by his own strength - the Observation Corps, consisting of 30 thousand people. That is, both internal politics and military power were in his hands. Pyotr Ivanovich was the eldest and always remained, as it were, in the shadows, and the “chance” was “fulfilled” by the young and handsome, his cousin, Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov. After the fall of Chancellor Bestuzhev, having achieved the appointment of his brothers to the Council of Ministers, the temporary worker always contributed to the triumph of the ideas and decisions of one of them. Elizabeth spoke through his lips, but he speaks only the words of Pyotr Shuvalov. The empress had no secrets from her favorite, and when Louis XV decided to enter into a secret relationship with the empress, he was warned that the third person between them would be the favorite. Officially, he does not hold any significant position, but he was simply called “Chamberlain,” and this word was respected at court. At the beginning of 1750, the Empress developed another serious hobby. Cadets of the Land Noble Corps (officer school) organized an amateur theater, which Elizaveta Petrovna wished to see at her court.
One of the cadets, Nikita Afanasyevich Beketov, attracted the empress's attention with his talented acting and beautiful appearance, and everyone started talking about him as a new favorite. In the spring of the same year, he left the corps with the rank of prime major and was taken to court as an adjutant to Razumovsky, who, due to his good nature, favored Elizabeth’s young favorite. At that time, she herself found herself in a very difficult situation. Catherine II recalled that on Easter, right in the church, “the empress scolded all her maids... the singers and even the priest all received a scolding. There was a lot of whispering later about the reasons for this anger; from vague hints it was revealed that this angry mood of the empress was caused by the difficult situation in which Her Majesty found herself between three or four of her favorites, namely, Count Razumovsky, Shuvalov, one choir named Kachenovsky and Beketov, whom she had just appointed as adjutant to Count Razumovsky. It must be admitted that anyone else in Her Majesty’s place would have been baffled even under less difficult conditions. Not everyone is given the ability to see and reconcile the pride of four favorites at the same time.” Kachenovsky turned out to be Elizabeth’s fleeting hobby, while Beketov’s favor lasted more than a year. The young officer was strongly supported by A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who, not without reason, feared the rise of Ivan Shuvalov and the strengthening of the influence of his brothers.
The time of Elizaveta Petrovna can be distinguished by the fact that favoritism is strengthened in an already constructed building, but, as in the subsequent period of history, it will only be an adornment of absolute power. This can be exemplified by the words of the French diplomat at the court of Elizabeth L. J. Favier: “The Empress is completely master of the art of implementation. The secret depths of her heart often remain inaccessible to even the oldest and most experienced courtiers. She under no circumstances allows herself to be controlled by any one person or favorite.”
Thus, the evolution of favoritism in Russia reaches a peak when this phenomenon degenerates into something special, unique, into a tradition on Russian soil. This, undoubtedly, is facilitated by the “greatest woman - the empress” on the Russian throne, under whom favoritism acquires the rank of a state institution and during whose reign the “golden age” of favoritism in Russia will come - Ekaterina Alekseevna. We can say that under all the previous empresses, favoritism was more of a whim, a royal whim, but under Catherine II it became a traditional state institution, supported by the empress herself. Thus, Russia of the 18th century is a society and court no more, no less depraved than all the court circles of Europe, and at the top of the hierarchical ladder, on the steps right next to the throne, there is favoritism. Almost all the favorites have one thing in common: they ended their lives poorly. K. Birkin expressed himself most clearly on this matter in his work on the topic of favoritism: “the fate of temporary workers and favorites reminds us of the fate of those three Turkish viziers, whom the Sultan paid from his own shoulders, and tomorrow sent the same viziers a silk cord for their own necks ... Another temporary worker, thinking of sitting on the throne, ended up impaled instead, putting his head on the block...”
Everyone knows and talks about the favorites, they slavishly obey them, but at the same time, they don’t seem to notice them, because this cannot happen in an absolute monarchy. Thus, the political history of the past shows that favoritism is an integral part of the governmental structure of society. And as absolutism develops, this phenomenon takes on the form of a permanent, important political institution that has a great influence on the development and direction of state activity
ZD 17 Russian culture of the 19th century. (independent work)
Marina Mnishek
The first adventurer who managed to achieve significant success in Russia. For a long time, she was the only woman who was crowned queen in Russia (the second, 120 years later, was Catherine I).
However, unlike classic adventuresses, Mniszech acted not so much “on her own,” but according to the calculations of her father, who had conceived a serious political intrigue.
Marina's father was the Polish tycoon Yuri Mniszek. He was not some seedy nobleman, but rather an influential person, he had the rank of great crown prince. Apparently, Mnishek’s support for False Dmitry was his private enterprise. In any case, Polish intervention in the affairs of the Russian Troubles occurred much later, after the Swedes intervened in the political squabbles. Before this, False Dmitry had no official state support, and Mniszek had to use his own efforts to gather a Polish detachment (which was later reinforced by the Cossacks, who were always looking for adventure and willingly participated in any quarrels) to support the impostor.
Mniszech was present in this detachment and de facto led it. The risky adventure of the Mnisheks succeeded not so much thanks to military force, but thanks to the successful legend of the impostor, the political crisis in Russia and the compliance of the boyars, who hoped that False Dmitry would become a weak-willed pawn in their hands.
Whoever False Dmitry was, he turned out to be an intelligent person and, as soon as he ascended the throne, he tried to minimize his influence on him. However, this was not easy to do; he found himself between two fires and could not decisively break with either the Poles or the boyars.
Apparently, False Dmitry himself planned to marry Ksenia Godunova, the daughter of Boris Godunov and the sister of the deposed Tsar Fyodor Godunov, which would strengthen his claim to the throne. However, this caused concern for Mniszek, who demanded that the new king marry his daughter Marina.
In the end he succeeded. Marina arrived in Moscow, Ksenia was tonsured a nun. However, soon after the wedding and coronation (this was the first coronation of a woman in Russian history), False Dmitry was overthrown and killed on the initiative of the conspiratorial boyars, who feared that they were losing influence on the tsar. However, the Mnisheks themselves were not touched. They were transported to Yaroslavl, where they spent almost two years.
From there, under Streltsy escort, Marina was deported to her homeland. However, on the way they met a detachment of Alexander Zborovsky, who took part in the first campaign of False Dmitry-Mnishek to Russia. Zborovsky brought Mnishek to Tushino, where the camp of False Dmitry II was. The second impostor instilled even more fear in the boyars than the first (most of the large cities swore allegiance to him), so they agreed on the accession of the Polish prince Vladislav in exchange for the help of the Poles against False Dmitry II.
By this time, Marina Mnishek had already married impostor No. 2, recognizing him as her happily escaped husband.
After the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth wedged itself into the Troubles, Mniszech also became a hindrance for the Poles. Her existence now interfered with the Polish king Sigismund, who had his own plans for Moscow and Queen Marina was definitely not included in them. Mnishek herself, even if only for a short time, but having been a queen, was not going to renounce her titles.
After the death of False Dmitry II, Mnishek came under the protection of Ataman Zarutsky, who played an important role in the Tushino camp of the impostor. The cunning Zarutsky led his intrigue, in which there was a place for the widow Mnishek twice. She had a son (his father is considered to be False Dmitry II, but the paternity of Zarutsky cannot be ruled out), and the charismatic ataman saw in him a contender for the throne. He even managed to ensure that several cities swore allegiance to Ivan Dmitrievich.
However, Zarutsky’s intrigue failed and the Cossacks who went over to the side of the new government handed over the ataman, Mnishek and the child. In 1614, all three were killed, although it was officially announced that Mniszech died in custody “of melancholy.”
Princess Tarakanova
The most famous adventurer, who at one time became famous throughout Europe and became a character in many works of art. The true identity of this woman has still not been established. The first evidence of it is found only in the early 70s of the 18th century. She traveled from country to country, was called by different names everywhere and acted according to the same scheme. She found a rich admirer, charmed him, spent his money, incurred huge debts, and then hid from creditors and abandoned the unlucky admirer to his fate.
This continued until she found herself in Paris, the political and cultural center of Europe at that time. Finding herself surrounded by well-born aristocrats, the enterprising adventurer composed a good legend about her origins. Initially, she called herself Princess Voldomir, then Princess of Vladimir and sometimes Azov (Princess Tarakanova was christened by European authors much later). According to her, she was the secret child of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, taken to Persia at an early age, where she was raised until adulthood. For this reason, she does not know Russian, but she has a huge inheritance in Russia.
With such a biography it was possible to seduce not only merchants and burghers, but also noble people. The “Princess” managed to captivate Count Rochefort de Valcourt, but she incurred debts according to the old scheme and had to flee to Frankfurt. There she managed to meet de Valcourt’s “chief” Count Philip of Limburg-Stirum, for whom he was chamberlain.
Count Limburg-Stirum (by the way, this aristocratic family still exists, a distant descendant of the count - Otto van Limburg was the uncle of the famous actress Audrey Hepburn) became so carried away by the mysterious girl that he even decided to marry her. He paid her debts, moved her to his castle and began preparations for marriage. However, it should be noted that in this marriage there was a considerable amount of mercantile calculation. Marriage to the heir to the Russian throne not only increased the status of the count. At one time, he tried to dispute Holstein from the heir to the Russian throne, Pavel Petrovich, and a wedding with a pretender to the Russian throne was in his favor.
However, for marriage, the count demanded documents confirming her origin. Obviously, she could not obtain such documents. Meanwhile, the count began to doubt her words and even threatened to break off the engagement.
While still in Paris, the “princess” had acquaintances with some representatives of the Polish nobility and tried to enlist their support in deceiving the count. She managed to establish contact with the influential Polish magnate Karl Radziwill, who played an important role in the Bar Confederation, which opposed Russian influence in Poland (it was great at that time) and the power of the king. Radziwill was just looking for influential allies in Europe.
It is difficult to say who exactly came up with the idea of a dangerous political intrigue, but after communicating with Radziwill, the adventurer changed her mind about marrying the count and now decided to try her luck in a business that promised her the Russian crown.
The adventurer moved to Venice and then to Ragusa, from where, through the mediation of Polish aristocrats, she tried to establish contact with the Ottoman Empire, which was then at war with Russia. In order to give weight to her claims to the throne, she tried to convince the Turks that Emelyan Pugachev was fighting in Russia on her behalf to return her to the throne. During the same period, she obtained several forged documents indicating that she rightfully belonged to the throne.
However, the war turned out unsuccessfully for the Turks; Pugachev was also defeated. Having lost all his trump cards, Radziwill lost interest in his ward; most of the Polish retinue left her. She moved to Livorno, where she tried to establish contact with the commander of the Russian squadron in the Mediterranean, Alexei Orlov, the brother of Catherine II’s favorite.
Orlov reported contacts to Ekaterina. The Empress, who herself took the throne after the coup and always felt vulnerable on the throne, ordered the impostor to be caught. Moreover, she believed that the adventurer was acting on her own behalf, and at the initiative of the French, she was part of their political intrigue.
Orlov carried out an entire special operation to kidnap the girl. He pretended to be a man passionately in love with her, ready to throw everything at her feet. He assured that the entire squadron supported her against the “impostor and usurper Catherine,” and in every way ingratiated himself into her trust. Finally, he invited her to watch the ships maneuver and then receive honors from the faithful crew. The adventurer, who had forgotten about caution, agreed. When boarding the ship, she was indeed given all the due honors, and then both were arrested (Orlova was just for show, so that the lady would not suspect anything).
The adventurer was taken to Russia, where the empress showed special interest in her case. Catherine wanted to find out who was behind this intrigue, since she was sure that it could not have happened without the participation of the French. The Empress even guaranteed that the girl would be immediately released as soon as she testified that she was not the daughter of Elizabeth Petrovna and confessed who was behind this adventure.
The woman regularly changed her testimony, but flatly refused to reveal her real name and admit that she was not the daughter of Empress Elizabeth. After being imprisoned for just under a year, she died of consumption in the winter of 1775.
Catherine I
This woman cannot be called an adventurer in the classical sense of the word. However, it is obvious that the circumstances of the appearance on the throne of a simple and not at all well-born woman, whose true name and origin have not yet been clarified, are unusual, to say the least.
The true name and origin of the first Russian empress in history have never been established, which indicates that she did not come from the noble strata of society. According to the most popular version, her name was Marta Skavronskaya. According to another version, her last name was Rabe. Peter himself called her Katerina Vasilevskaya or Veselovskaya. According to various versions, she was of Latvian, Estonian or Lithuanian origin.
Martha was married to Johann Kruse, who enlisted in the Swedish army a few days after the wedding. According to one version, he died in Poland, according to another, he was captured by Russians, and later boasted that his wife had gotten together with the Russian Tsar, for which he was sent into exile and died in Siberia in the 20s of the 18th century.
During the Northern War, Marienburg was captured by Russian troops. Marta, who worked as a servant in the house of a local pastor, went into the service of Menshikov, who captured the city. Tsar Peter, who often visited Menshikov, had his eye on the maid, and she soon became his mistress.
Later, she converted to Orthodoxy, took the name Ekaterina Mikhailova and became the de facto wife of Peter, accompanying him even on military campaigns. They got married only in 1712, after 10 years of relationship. Peter became so attached to her that at the end of his life he even crowned her. Catherine became the second crowned woman in Russian history after Marina Mnishek. For the first time in history, a special imperial crown was made especially for her.
It was with her that the era of palace coups began. Peter changed the order of succession to the throne, according to which the king could now choose any successor for himself. But Peter himself died without leaving a will, and a dynastic crisis arose.
The courtiers were divided into two powerful parties. The old nobility supported Peter Alekseevich, the young grandson of the deceased tsar. Peter's associates - the Tsar's wife. Each party hoped that its influence would increase under the monarch it supported, while the influence of its rivals would be weakened.
Catherine and her supporters turned out to be the most efficient. While senators, members of the Synod and high-ranking officials argued until they were hoarse at a special meeting over who should be the next emperor, the building was cordoned off by guards. Armed "Preobrazhenists" burst into the meeting room and asked those present if anyone had any objections to Mother Catherine? There were objections, but no one dared to voice them in front of the determined armed guardsmen. Catherine was proclaimed the new empress, becoming the first woman in history to occupy the throne in Russia.
The reign of Catherine I lasted only a little over two years. She died in 1727 at the age of 43. Her short reign was practically unremembered, but it became an important milestone in history, ushering in the era of palace coups and the era of female rule. For almost the entire subsequent 18th century, Russia was ruled by women.