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Most notable during this period were the activities of two so-called “utopian socialists”: Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella. They are the forerunners of scientific socialism and their works are similar to each other. They both, but each in their own way, tried to create a society in which people are equal to each other, there is no private or even personal property, work is the responsibility of everyone, and division occurs according to need.

Utopia: from Greek. u-no and typos-place, i.e. a place that does not exist; according to another version, from yu-good and typos-place, i.e. blessed country. The term “Utopia” comes from the title of T. More’s book. The concept of “Utopia” has become a common noun to designate various descriptions of a fictional country intended to serve as a model of a social system, as well as in the expanded sense of all writings and treatises containing unrealistic plans for social transformation.

In the history of mankind, Utopia, as one of the unique forms of social consciousness, embodied such features as the creation of a social ideal, criticism of the existing system, the desire to escape from the gloomy reality, as well as attempts to imagine the future of society. Initially, Utopia was closely intertwined with legends about the “golden age” and the “isles of the blessed.” In antiquity and the Renaissance, Utopia primarily took the form of a description of perfect states that supposedly exist somewhere on earth, or existed in the past; in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Various utopian treatises and projects for social and political reforms became widespread.

The book “The Island of Utopia” was published in 1516. The book is written in the “traveler's story” genre, popular at that time. Allegedly, a certain navigator Raphael Hythloday visited the unknown island of Utopia, whose social structure amazed him so much that he tells others about it.

The first part of “Utopia” is devoted to criticism of the government system of England. In general, English society is condemned for the property polarization of the population that has gone too far: on one side there is “miserable poverty”, on the other “impudent luxury”.

What is offered in return? Thomas More depicted a society where private and personal property was abolished, equality of consumption was introduced, production and life were socialized. Labor in Utopia is the responsibility of all citizens, distribution occurs according to need, the working day is reduced to 6 hours; Slaves do the hardest work. The absence of private property allows T. More to build production relations in Utopia according to a new principle: on the basis of cooperation and mutual assistance of citizens free from exploitation.

However, while designing a just society, More turned out to be insufficiently consistent, allowing the existence of slaves in Utopia. Slaves on the island are a powerless category of the population, burdened with heavy labor duties. They are “chained” and “constantly” busy with work. The presence of slaves in Utopia appears to have been largely due to the low level of modern Moru production technology. The Utopians need slaves to save citizens from the most difficult and dirty labor. To become a slave, you must commit a serious crime (including treason or lasciviousness). Slaves spend the rest of their days doing hard physical work, but if they work diligently they can even be pardoned. Slaves can also have universal equality: equality among themselves. They are dressed the same, have the same haircut, and have the same rights. Not individuals, but a mass of typicalities. The extent of freedom even for honest Utopians can be judged by the following passage: “Each region marks its slaves with its own sign, the destruction of which is a criminal offense, as well as appearing abroad or talking about anything with a slave from another region.” Moreover, there is no way for the slave to escape (either they will inform him or his appearance will give him away). Moreover, denunciations are encouraged in every possible way, and silence about escape is severely punished. “The slaves not only do not have the opportunity to come to an agreement, but they cannot even get together to talk or exchange greetings.” True, there remains hope for liberation in case of diligent work. The presence of slaves is undoubtedly a weak side of Thomas More's utopian concept.

The political system of Utopia is based on the principles of election and seniority. Elections are held annually. The supreme body of the state is the Senate, which takes into account everything that is produced in certain regions of the state and, if necessary, redistributes what is produced. Citizens are elected to the Senate at least once a year. Power is constantly changing; only one person, the prince, remains at the helm for life. However, he can also be removed if he wants to rule alone.

The main economic unit of Utopia is the family. Upon closer examination, however, it turns out that the family of the Utopians is unusual and is formed not only according to the principle of kinship. The main feature of a Utopian family is its professional affiliation with a particular type of craft. T. More repeatedly emphasizes that relations in the family are strictly patriarchal, “the eldest is at the head of the household. Wives serve their husbands, children serve their parents and, in general, younger people serve their elders.” In addition, veneration of ancestors is common in Utopia. T. More lists the crafts that are practiced in individual families: this is usually “wool spinning or flax processing, the craft of masons, tinsmiths or carpenters.”

The main productive unit in Utopia's agriculture is a large community of at least 40 men and women and two more assigned slaves. At the head of such a rural “family” are the “venerable in years” manager and manager.

Turning to the analysis of the ethical aspect of “Utopia,” it is easy to notice that the main thing in utopian ethics is the problem of happiness. The Utopians believed that “for people, all happiness, or its most important share,” lies in pleasure and enjoyment. However, according to the ethics of the Utopians, human happiness does not lie in all pleasures, but “only in the honest and noble”, based on virtue and ultimately striving for the “highest good”, to which “virtue leads our nature.” By posing and solving these “eternal” problems, More reveals a thorough acquaintance with ancient Greek philosophy, in particular with the writings of Plato and Aristotle. The Utopians considered their ethics the most reasonable, primarily because it was useful for society as a whole and for each member individually, since the principles of this ethics, from their point of view, most corresponded to the very essence of human nature, which manifested itself in man’s desire for happiness.

The religions of the Utopians differed from each other not only on their island, but also in each city. True, what was common to the religions of the Utopians was that they required all citizens to strictly observe moral norms that were reasonable and useful for the whole society, as well as established political orders, i.e. instead of what, from the point of view of More the humanist, represented universal human values: philanthropy, the combination of personal interests with the public good, and the prevention of religious civil strife. The maintenance of these reasonable moral and political standards, according to More, was best ensured by belief in the immortality of the soul. Otherwise, the citizens of Utopia enjoyed complete freedom of religion. Everyone could propagate their religion “only calmly and judiciously, with the help of arguments,” without resorting to violence and refraining from insulting other religions.

Unlike the philosophers of antiquity and the Middle Ages, More explores and solves ethical problems at the intersection of philosophy, politics and sociology. More's originality as a Renaissance thinker lies in the fact that he seeks the path to perfect ethics in a radical reorganization of society on the principles of social justice, equality and fraternity. At the same time, More is not limited to condemning human vices and proclaiming the principles of ethics that should guide some abstract individual, but derives the universal principle of perfect ethics of the individual from the collective ethics of a classless society; what is in the interests of the majority is declared moral. Anything that is contrary to the good of the majority is declared immoral. The author of “Utopia” does not think of any other way to solve moral and ethical problems than through the destruction of private property and the reorganization of the entire society on communist principles. This is what More means when he speaks of the abolition of the power of gold and the abolition of money. By destroying property and money, the Utopians achieved a radical solution to a number of ethical problems that generations of thinkers of antiquity and the Middle Ages had struggled with in vain. Many social vices and conflicts have disappeared: “deceptions, thefts, robberies, discord, indignation, litigation, feuds, murders, betrayals, poisonings.”

Throughout his book, Thomas More affirms the truth that it is primarily the vicious social system that is subject to reconstruction, since the sources of moral depravity of people (including pride itself, condemned by Christian morality) is inequality arising from private property, without the abolition of which a fair social system is impossible. ethics worthy of a person. Only a state where private property is abolished should be recognized not only as the best, but also “the only one that can rightfully claim to be called a state.”

Very briefly The ideal structure of the island of Utopia, where money and private property are abolished, and rulers are chosen by citizens, is contrasted with the European powers of the 16th century, where wars are fought for foreign lands.

The book begins with a kind of introduction - a letter from Thomas More to his friend Peter Aegidius with a request to read “Utopia” and write down whether any important details have escaped More.

First book

The story is told from the perspective of Thomas More. He arrives in Flanders as an ambassador and meets Peter there. He introduces his friend to the experienced navigator Raphael, who has traveled a lot. Raphael, having learned many customs and laws of other countries, identifies those that can be used for good in European countries. Peter advises the navigator to use his knowledge by getting a job as an adviser to the sovereign, but he does not want to do this - the kings pay a lot of attention to military affairs and strive to acquire more and more new lands instead of taking care of their own. All advisers, as a rule, support the ruler in this, so as not to spoil their reputation and fall out of favor. Raphael condemns the war and considers it pointless. Petty theft and murder are punishable by the same punishment: death. The rich bathe in luxury, spending their time in idleness, and the common people work hard, begging, which contributes to crime.

Each power considers it necessary to have an army and an unlimited amount of gold to support the army, but war is necessary at least in order to give soldiers experience in massacres.

As a true philosopher, Raphael wants to tell the truth, so he should refrain from engaging in public affairs. The navigator talks about a state whose customs and laws pleased him.

Second book

The island of Utopia is named after the founder of this state, Utop. There are fifty-four cities on the island. Manners, institutions and laws are the same everywhere. The center is the city of Amaurot. The fields are evenly distributed between all areas. Urban and rural residents change places every two years: those families who have not yet worked here arrive in the villages.

Amaurot is surrounded by a deep moat, loopholes and towers. This is a clean and beautiful city. Near each house there is a beautiful garden. Private property has been so abolished that every ten years the Utopians change their houses by lot.

Every thirty families elect a phylarch (or siphogrant), over ten phylarchs and their families stands a protophylarch (or tranibor). All two hundred protophylarchs elect a prince who leads the country. He is elected for life. In other positions, persons change annually.

All men and women in the country are engaged in agriculture. In addition, everyone learns some kind of craft, which is passed on by inheritance. If someone does not gravitate towards the family business, he is transferred to a family that is engaged in the required craft. The working day lasts six hours. Free time, as a rule, is devoted to science or their business. The most diligent in the sciences are promoted to the rank of scientists. From them the clergy, ambassadors, tranibors and the head of state - adema are chosen.

While working, the Utopians wear skins; they walk through the streets in cloaks (the cut and color are the same throughout the island). Everyone has one dress for two years.

In families, they obey the elder. If the cities are overpopulated, then the citizens of Utopia are resettled in the colonies, and vice versa. In the center of every city there is a market where goods and food are brought. There everyone can take as much as they need: everything is available in sufficient abundance. The entire siphograntia gathers in the palaces for public lunches and dinners.

Utopians can move between cities with the permission of the Tranibors and Syphogrants. For arbitrary movement, a Utopian will face punishment; if he violates it again, he will be subject to slavery.

Everything needed in Utopia is available in such quantities that some are given to the poor in other countries, and the rest is sold. The Utopians use money only in foreign trade and keep it in case of war. They despise gold and silver: they shackle slaves in shackles made of these metals; the Utopians do not use them at all. Precious stones serve as toys for children. Growing up, they leave them.

The Utopians reached great heights in science and art. If foreigners visit them, the citizens of Utopia become thoroughly acquainted with their culture and sciences, quickly comprehend and develop them at home.

The life of the Utopians consists of virtue and pleasures of body and spirit. Relations are built on honesty and justice, citizens help the weak and take care of the sick. Health is one of the main pleasures; beauty, strength and agility are also valued.

Utopians or representatives of other nations sentenced to execution are turned into slavery for a shameful act. The labor of slaves brings more benefits than execution.

Seriously ill people are given the right to end their suffering: after all, life is pleasure, such an act is not considered a sin. Adultery is severely punished.

The Utopians consider war to be an atrocity, therefore, to win, first of all, they use cunning, bribery of those close to the enemy sovereign, and so on. If this method does not help, they rely on military battles. The Utopians hire foreign soldiers and pay them generously. Their citizens are placed only in leadership positions. They may go to war to defend oppressed peoples, but they never allow battles to take place on their own lands.

In Utopia, citizens freely choose any religion. No one has the right to try to forcibly convert another to their faith or humiliate a person of other faiths. Most believe in one god, calling him Mithras. No one is afraid of death: a new, even happier life promises a meeting with God.

Priests are held in high esteem not only among the Utopians, but also among other peoples. They are also elected by the citizens of Utopia, and women can also be elected. Priests are not subject to trial. They can even stop the battle and save the losers, including the opponents of the Utopians.

Raphael finishes the story, and More, noting his fatigue, does not dare to speak out about the absurdity of some of the laws of the Utopians.

Thomas More entered the history of philosophical thought primarily as the author of a book that became a kind of triumph of humanistic thought. More wrote it in 1515-1516 and already in 1516, with the active assistance of Erasmus of Rotterdam, the first edition was published under the title “A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia.”

Already during his lifetime, this work, briefly called “Utopia,” brought More worldwide fame. In this book, More described an ideal state without oppression of the weak and without forced labor. The impression from “Utopia Island” was enormous. This work immediately placed More among the first politicians in England. In his book, More paints in living images a picture of a well-organized state, already created and living a full life on an imaginary island. The life of this classless nation-state is described so completely that More seemed to have resolved all the contradictions.

More knew life too well to believe that any class, no matter how just its intentions, could retain power in its hands without oppressing the poor majority. More looked far into the future and contrasted the communist system, in which everything belongs to everyone, with a class society. In his state, everything was distributed according to the principle: labor is compulsory, everyone works as much as he can and gets what he needs, every work is rewarded according to his deserts, and every person lives in luxury, although no one receives more than the other. There is no private property. On the island of Utopia there are 24 large cities, identical in language, customs, laws and institutions. In addition, the country has estates equipped with all the necessary agricultural implements. People live in these estates, gradually leaving the cities for the countryside. Each rural family should have at least forty members, men and women. From each family, every year 20 people, after spending two years in the estate, return to the city and are replaced by twenty others - city dwellers who learn farming from the remaining twenty, who have already lived for a year in the estate and therefore know agriculture. The queue for farmers is being introduced so that no one, against their will, is forced to engage in hard and painstaking agricultural labor for too long. Villagers cultivate the fields, care for livestock and chop firewood, which they transport to the city. They also engage in artificial hatching of chickens using special devices for hatching eggs. The main occupation of the Utopians is agriculture, but along with this, everyone learns a craft as their specialty, and both men and women study it. Their crafts consist mainly of processing wool and flax; in addition, there is the craft of a mason, blacksmith and carpenter. The remaining branches of labor have very little application. In Utopia they work only six hours a day: three hours from morning until lunch, then they rest for two hours and after rest they work for another three hours. Then follows dinner. They go to bed early and sleep for eight hours. Everyone spends the rest of the time at their own discretion. Six hours of work a day is more than enough to produce the things you need for a healthy and enjoyable life. Everyone works, except for the leaders of society and those who have received permission from the people to devote themselves to science. If such a person does not live up to the expectations placed on him, then he is again transferred to the category of artisans. Rural residents produce food for themselves and for the townspeople. The latter also work for the city and rural areas. Each city annually sends three of its wisest elders to the capital, who decide common affairs for the entire island. They collect information about where and what there is an excess or deficiency, and then the second is eliminated first. Cities that give their surplus to others receive nothing from them for this, because they themselves use everything they need from others, also without remuneration.

Thus, the entire island is like one family. Money in Utopia is completely unknown. All things are available in abundance. There is no reason to think that anyone will demand more than he needs, because everyone is sure that he will never have to endure want. Huge magnificent palaces were built on every street in the city. They are inhabited by “syphogrants” - officials who are elected one for every 30 families. There are 30 families attached to each of the palaces, living on both sides. The heads of the kitchens of these palaces come to the market at certain hours, where everyone takes the necessary products needed for 30 families. But the best products are first sent to the sick in hospitals. At certain times, every 30 families go to their palaces for lunch and dinner. In the markets, everyone is not prevented from taking as much food as anyone wants, but there is no one who would voluntarily dine separately at home, when there is plenty of good and ready-made food nearby in the palace. Women take turns preparing food in the palace, and boys and girls serve at the table. The main task of elected siphogrants is to ensure that no one is idle. All siphogrants appoint a prince from among four candidates chosen by the people. The position of prince is for life. He is deprived of his position only if suspicion falls on him that he is striving for autocracy.

Religion on the island is a personal matter for everyone. Priests, like all officials, are elected by the people. The population of Utopia hates war and considers military glory the most unenviable. War is necessary only to defend one's homeland or one's friends and to liberate an oppressed people from the yoke of tyranny. Scientists are held in high esteem. They are freed from physical labor, but doing science is not a monopoly of scientists. There are usually public readings early in the morning, which are open to all men and women. Depending on their inclination, they listen to readings on certain subjects.

So, in Utopia there is no private property and no money. Everyone is engaged only in the affairs of society, and everything is distributed evenly according to the principle: everyone works as much as he can and receives as much as he needs. And although there is no property, everyone there is rich and everyone has a calm and carefree life. Thomas More's communism was utopian, unrealizable. However, it was created by a deep knowledge of life and understanding of the needs of that era. More was the first to make an attempt to adapt communism to the newly emerging capitalist society and was the first in the world to put forward the basic principle of communism, which later became part of Karl Marx's theory of scientific communism: from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs. For More, science comes to the service of people for the first time. Science, which seemed hostile to Christianity, becomes necessary in the creation of a new, just system. Mor makes science accessible to everyone as the highest pleasure. But More did not indicate the path to achieving a communist society, and at that time he could not do this.

The great English humanist Thomas More is considered the founder of utopian socialism of modern times. He came from a wealthy family of hereditary citizens of London. T. More's father was a famous lawyer, a royal judge, who was awarded the title of nobility. More received his initial education at St. Anthony's Grammar School. This was followed by about two years of study at Oxford University, from where, at the behest of his father, T. More transferred to one of the law schools in London and upon graduation became a lawyer. He enjoyed exceptional authority as a lawyer. Thomas More carried out important diplomatic assignments for the king. He was elected Member of Parliament and Speaker of the House of Commons. In 1525-1532. He held the high post of Lord Chancellor of England, boldly opposing the king's excessive demands for the approval of new taxes.

20-30s of the 16th century. were the time of the Reformation in England. More refused to support Henry VIII, who sought to lead the reform movement and thus strengthen the absolutist order. He was clearly aware of the social consequences of the royal reformation. The secularization of church lands meant new enclosures, increased poverty for the peasantry and the enrichment of predatory representatives of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility. A sense of social justice guided More, who stood in opposition to the monarch. And he paid for it with his life. On July 6, 1535, Thomas More was executed on charges of “high treason.”

Thomas More's humanistic worldview was formed already in his student years in a circle of prominent Oxford scientists. Knowledge of the ancient Greek language gave More the opportunity to become acquainted with the works of ancient philosophers, historians, writers - Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, Lucian. Among the rather extensive creative heritage of T. More, the main creation that immortalized its creator was his “Very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia.” The name “Utopia” (translated from Greek as a non-existent place) was included in the definition of an independent movement of socialist thought.

The book was born from More's observations and understanding of the reality around him, full of deep social conflicts. According to I.N. Osinovsky, namely the English reality of the 16th century. determined the formation of More's views, which gives reason to consider “Utopia” in the closest connection with his practical and literary activities. At the same time, as a work of social thought, “Utopia” was not created out of nowhere. It traces the influence of Plato’s “Republic” and in particular the idea of the abolition of private property and community of property.

A talented lawyer, well versed in the intricacies of property relations in feudal society, a skilled diplomat, T. More, thanks to his humanistic beliefs, did not become a true defender of the feudal system. He denounced the most glaring vices of European monarchies. The contrast between the wealth of a few and mass poverty, revealed by More, did not correspond, in his opinion, to the reasonable laws of human nature. He pointed out the specific reasons that gave rise to social injustice. At the same time, More revealed a deep understanding of the material foundations of social contradictions for his time.

Mor rebelled not only against the “arbitrariness of the rich,” but also against the “excessive power of kings,” who handed out positions for a bribe. He accused them of the ruinous consequences for the people of feudal strife and external wars of conquest.

He did not limit himself to the analysis of individual causes that gave rise to social disasters; He pointed out the main and general cause - the dominance of private property. Reflecting on Plato’s ideas about equality in everything as a guarantee of social well-being, More expressed doubts about the feasibility of such equality “... where everyone has his own property”: “Wherever there is private property, where everything is measured by money, there is barely will it ever be possible for a state to be governed justly or happily.” The English humanist refused to recognize as “successful” an order in which “everything is distributed among very few,” while the rest are “completely unhappy.” As a result, More strongly advocated the destruction of private property. This constituted an essential feature of his utopian ideal of a communist society.

Due to the current situation, monetary circulation will become unnecessary. More predicted that in the future, “chamber pots and all kinds of vessels for sewage will be made from gold and silver not only in public palaces, but also in private houses.” The main economic unit of Utopia is the family. However, the Utopian family is unusual: it is formed both according to the principle of kinship and in accordance with the professional affiliation of its members. “For the most part, everyone is taught the craft of their elders, because they are more often drawn to this by nature. If someone is attracted to another occupation, then another family accepts him.

The principles of equality and justice proclaimed by More are contradicted by the existence of slavery in Utopia. The Utopians need slaves to save citizens from hard and dirty work. These types of labor include serving at public meals, slaughtering and skinning livestock, repairing roads, cleaning ditches, cutting down trees, transporting firewood, etc. Along with slaves, there are free citizens in Utopia who take on unpleasant jobs for religious reasons, as a special type of service to society. The share of slaves in the social production of Utopia is insignificant. The main producers are full-fledged citizens. Slavery, according to More's utopian plan, would solve the problem of "unpleasant labor." It also serves as a measure of punishment for criminal offenses and as a means of labor re-education.”

Based on the ideas of Aristotle, T. More proposed an original model of the political system of society. Utopia is a federation of fifty-four cities. Each city is headed by a ruler and a senate. The Federal Senate is located in the capital - Amaurot. Citizens annually elect and send three representatives to the Amaurotic Senate. These are old and experienced citizens called upon to discuss the general affairs of the island.

The principle of centralism is combined in a utopian state with democratic principles. All important issues are discussed in advance in each family. Then special officials - the Siphogranians, elected annually one from 30 families (farms), having discussed the matter with the citizens, consult with each other and announce their decision to the Senate. Thus, the people, through their representatives, control the activities of the Senate.

The people themselves nominate candidates for city rulers, and the syphogrants choose the most suitable one by secret ballot. In addition to the siphogrants, who represent the category of lower officials, citizens elect senior magistrates - tranibors. They are the closest advisers to the ruler. The highest officials and the ruler himself in Utopia are elected from among the scientists. More refers to the authority of Plato, who argued that “states will only be happy when philosophers reign.”

Utopian democracy involves simplification of legislation. The state, More points out, is very successfully governed with the help of few laws, distinguished by clarity, simplicity and fairness. Therefore, in Utopia, everyone understands the laws and there is no need for a special class of lawyers.

Analyzing T. More's ideas about the political structure of society, researchers emphasize that utopian democracy sharply contrasts with the system of government of feudal absolutist states, based on the appointment of officials from above and the dominance of the bureaucracy.

T. More considered the system of Utopia to be the best from the point of view of the earthly interests of people. He sought to provide a rationalistic justification for his social ideal. Religion, preserved in Utopia, is purified from everything that contradicts reason: from superstitions, fictions and “fables”. More challenged the dominant Catholic Church by introducing a system of electing priests into the Utopian state.

The rationalism of the English humanist reveals an idealistic character. More believed that the abolition of private property and the transition to a just society was possible through reasonable reforms carried out by enlightened rulers. So, explaining the origin of Utopia, More told about the legendary founder of the state, the wise ruler Utop, who led the rude and wild people to enlightenment.

The contradictions in the socio-political teachings of T. More were ultimately due to the unique historical conditions in which the English thinker lived and worked. In his time, there were no prerequisites for those fundamental social changes that would lead to the elimination of exploitation and social inequality.

For all that, “Utopia” immediately became an outstanding phenomenon of socio-political thought. Many humanists were of the opinion that T. More surpassed the ancient thinkers whom they looked up to.

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Thomas More and his utopia

Introduction

1. Biography of Thomas More

2. Mor-humanist and "Utopia"

3. The main ideas of the book "Utopia"

3.1 Criticism of feudal and early capitalist society T va

3.2 Social order " Utopias "

4. Dispute about Thomas More and his " Utopias "

Conclusion

References

INTRODUCTION

Utopia is an unrealizable dream in which various social ideals and aspirations are expressed. In all utopias there is the idea that in the future humanity will not know the division into races. People will speak the same language and have common interests. Utopia is the “kingdom of the future” that a person creates for himself in his dreams. This is the better future for which a person fights and lives.

The first European utopias of the 16th-17th centuries had a strong impact on the mind and imagination. But they were not the earliest. For example, in the dialogue “The State” Plato appears as a staunch opponent of tyranny and oligarchy, the death penalty and arbitrariness of power. But his humanism is anti-democratic. There cannot be complete equality; people are unequal by nature. The state should be headed by the most intelligent - scientist-philosophers who create laws. They are guarded by warriors. At the very bottom are traders, artisans, farmers, who manage material property. But their main duty is to supply the higher groups with everything they need.

But still, the first ideas about utopia are associated for many with the names of Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella. They were progressive thinkers and writers, children of the Renaissance, when Western Europe, shaken by anti-feudal movements, entered the stage of the initial development of capitalism, when technology and science advanced, when thought overtook reality in search of something new. In their concepts, willingly or unwillingly, one can trace the desire to preserve the existing stage of social development, but only slightly modify the forms of social relations.

The era of the late Middle Ages - the Renaissance - enriched political thought with a brilliant and deeply original development of the principle of social harmony and justice based on public property. This scientific feat was accomplished by Thomas More, who published the famous Utopia in 1516 (“A golden book, as useful as it is amusing, about the best structure of the state, and about the new island of Utopia”). And the fact that “Utopia” appeared in England early. XVI century was not an accident. More's book is not just a play of the imagination, it is a unique, albeit purely speculative, solution to the problems that worried his contemporaries, because More lived in the era of the initial accumulation of capital, the process of fencing, and the breaking of social ties that had developed over centuries. These circumstances gave rise to the impoverishment of large masses of the population, subjected to ruthless exploitation. And it was at this time, despite the growing power of money and the irresistible thirst for enrichment, that More declared that only the renunciation of private property could ensure social harmony.

1. BIOGRAPHY OF THOMAS MORE

Thomas More was born in 1478 in London into the family of a wealthy citizen, and was brought up in the house of a prominent political figure of that time, Cardinal Norton.

More received an excellent education, first at Oxford University, where for two years he enthusiastically studied Greek philosophy and literature, was a member of the circle of Oxford humanists (among whom was Erasmus of Rotterdam), and then, at the insistence of his father, a prominent royal judge, spent seven years a course in legal sciences in special schools of English legalists. As a lawyer, he quickly gained recognition among the merchants.

In 1504, More was elected to parliament and incurred the disfavor of Henry VII by speaking out against his financial claims. Under the new king, he is appointed assistant sheriff. In this position, according to Erasmus, he gained a reputation as a fair judge, “the patron of all those in need.”

In 1518 More entered the service of Henry VIII. In the early 20s, he supported him in polemics with Luther and, taking advantage of his favor, in 1529 he accepted the highest position - Lord Chancellor. However, when, convinced of the impossibility of subordinating the papal throne to his influence, Henry VIII declared himself the head of the church, T. More, remaining faithful to his convictions, resigned as Lord Chancellor in 1532.

On July 6, 1535, he was executed on charges of treason (refusal of allegiance to the king as the “supreme head” of the English church). Several centuries later, the Catholic Church, in need of heroes of high intellectual and moral rank, canonized T. More.

2. MOR-HUMANIST AND "UTOPIA"

Thomas More was imbued with sympathy for the misfortunes of its masses, knowing well the social and moral life of England. These sentiments of his were reflected in the famous work with a long title in the spirit of that time - “A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia...”. It was published with the close participation of Erasmus of Rotterdam, a close friend, in 1516 and immediately gained great popularity in humanistic circles.

The humanistic worldview of the author of "Utopia" led him to conclusions of great social relevance and significance, especially in the first part of this work. The author's insight was by no means limited to stating the terrible picture of social disasters, emphasizing at the very end of his work that upon careful observation of the life of not only England, but also “all states,” they represent “nothing but some kind of conspiracy of the rich, under the pretext and under in the name of the state, thinking about their own benefits."

Already these deep observations suggested to More the main direction of projects and dreams in the second part of Utopia. Numerous researchers of this work have noted not only direct, but also indirect references to the texts and ideas of the Bible (primarily the Gospels), especially ancient and early Christian authors. Of all the works that had the greatest impact on More, Plato's "Republic" stands out. Many humanists, starting with Erasmus, saw in Utopia a long-awaited rival to this greatest creation of political thought, a work that had existed by that time for almost two millennia.

Perhaps the most characteristic, defining feature of the socio-philosophical doctrine underlying Utopia is the anti-individualistic interpretation of social life, conceivable in an ideal state. Consistent anti-individualism necessarily requires the abolition of private property. Maximum equality in the size of property and the accompanying equalization in consumption was a frequent demand of popular opposition movements in the Middle Ages, which usually received religious justification. Elements of it are also present in More as an active supporter of “Christian humanism”, who appealed to primitive Christianity with its ideals of universal equality.

3 . MAIN IDEAS OF THE BOOK "UTOPIA"

3 .1 Criticism of feudal and early capitalist society T va

“There are a large number of nobles,” he writes, “who live in idleness, like drones, through the labors of others, for example, the holders of their lands, whom they shear to living meat to increase their income.” More is equally uncompromising about the first steps of capitalism on English soil - “fencing”, which leads to the fact that “sheep devour people.”

Criticism of feudal and early capitalist society focuses on state policies. According to More, European society itself created thieves in order to enjoy the spectacle of their hanging. He sees the solution to the problem of crime in the abolition of social contrasts, caring for workers, protecting their land plots, providing work for the landless, etc.

More puts forward innovative ideas for his time that punishment should re-educate, not deter; on the proportionality of crime and punishment: on replacing the death penalty with forced labor. He sharply criticizes feudal rulers who see their calling in conquest, and not in public improvement. More sees the root of social injustice in private property. “I am completely convinced,” says Hythloday, “that it is impossible to distribute everything equally and fairly, as well as to happily manage human affairs, except by completely destroying property...”

3 .2 Social system of "Utopia"

Since in Utopia the entire population is engaged in socially useful work, there is an abundance of products necessary “for life and its conveniences,” and a fair principle of distribution of all material goods - according to needs - operates and operates.

More paid great attention to the organization of labor in a perfect society, specifically considering the problem of the length of the working day. The latter has always been of great importance for small peasant farming. The problem of working time acquired particular beauty during the period of the emergence of capitalist manufacturing and farming. In the 16th century This is an equally important problem for the workshop industry. The masters sought to increase the working day as much as possible, forcing journeymen and apprentices to work from dawn to dusk. Manufacturing entrepreneurs (for example, in the cloth industry) increased working hours to 12-15 hours a day.

It is no coincidence that, touching on the situation of working people in England during the era of primitive accumulation of capital, T. More pointed to the unusually cruel exploitation of the people. Pestilence establishes a six-hour work day. The officials (syphogrants), who ensure that “no one sits idle,” also ensure that no one “works from early morning until late at night” and does not tire “like beasts of burden.” Everyone is allowed to spend all their free time at their own discretion, and the majority prefer their leisure time to science.

So, designing a new organization of labor, considered as the duty of every citizen, More argued that such a system of labor service, as in Utopia, does not at all turn labor into a heavy burden, which it was for workers throughout Europe at that time. On the contrary, More emphasized, the “authorities” in Utopia do not at all want to force citizens to unnecessary labor. Therefore, when there is no need for six hours of work, and in Utopia this happens quite often, the state itself reduces the “number of working hours.” The system of organizing labor as universal labor service pursues “only one goal: as far as social needs allow, to free all citizens from bodily slavery and to give them as much time as possible for spiritual freedom and enlightenment. For in this... lies the happiness of life.”

More solves the problem of hard and unpleasant work by using slavery or appealing to religion. For example, during public meals, all the dirtiest and most labor-intensive work is performed by slaves. Slaves are engaged in such types of labor as slaughtering and skinning livestock, repairing roads, cleaning ditches, cutting down trees, transporting firewood, etc. But along with them, “slave labor” is also carried out by some free citizens of Utopia, who do this because of their religious beliefs . In his theories, T. More proceeded from the level of development of the production forces and traditions of his era.

This partly explains the deliberate modesty and unpretentiousness of the Utopians in meeting their everyday needs. At the same time, emphasizing the simplicity and modesty of the life of the Utopians, More expressed a conscious protest against social inequality in his contemporary society, where the poverty of the majority coexisted with the luxury of the exploiters. More's theory is close to the ideas of primitive egalitarian communism of the Middle Ages. More has the burden of medieval traditions of Christian preaching about the need for self-restraint, respect for poverty and asceticism behind him. However, the main explanation of the problem lies in a peculiar humanistic attitude towards work. For humanists of the XV-XVI centuries. labor to provide a means of subsistence is “bodily slavery,” to which they contrasted spiritual, intellectual activity worthy of filling a person’s leisure time (otium). Not a single humanist, including More, with all his respect for ordinary working people, will find labor, we will not find an apology for labor as such.

A humanist considers only mental work worthy of a person, to which one should devote one’s leisure time. It was in this that humanists, in particular More, saw the meaning of the very concept of “leisure”, which both in “Utopia” and in his correspondence with friends he in every possible way contrasts with bodily slavery - negotium. In this historical uniqueness of the understanding of physical labor by humanists as a bodily burden, overcoming which only a person gains true freedom for spiritual activity aimed at improving his mental and moral nature, we find an explanation of many aspects of the utopian ideal of T. More, in particular voluntary asceticism, ability be content with the bare necessities in order to have maximum time to engage in the “noble sciences.” This is the only way More understands real leisure, which is so valued by his Utopians, who prefer to have one simple dress for two years, but then enjoy leisure time filled with sciences and other spiritual pleasures. As a real thinker, More understands that in a society where a person must work for his daily bread, leisure for spiritual activity must be paid for by someone else's labor, and this is unfair. Creating a project for a communist society in Utopia, More prefers universal labor service and a modest, but provided with all necessary life on the basis of equality, rather than the implementation of elite leisure for selected members of society.

The main economic unit of Utopia is the family. Upon closer examination, however, it turns out that the family of the Utopians is unusual and is formed not only according to the principle of kinship. The main feature of a Utopian family is its professional affiliation with a particular type of craft. “For the most part,” writes More, “everyone is taught the craft of their elders. For this is what they are most often drawn to by nature. If someone is attracted to another occupation, then he is accepted by another household, the craft of which he would like to learn.”

More repeatedly emphasizes that relations in the family are strictly patriarchal, “the eldest is at the head of the household. Wives serve their husbands, children serve their parents, and in general the younger ones serve the elders.” In addition, veneration of ancestors is common in Utopia. He lists the crafts that are practiced in individual families: this is usually “wool spinning or flax processing, the craft of masons, tinsmiths or carpenters.”

Everyone is involved in the craft - both men and women. However, women have easier occupations; they usually process wool and flax. The involvement of women in social production on an equal basis with men is undoubtedly a very progressive fact, since it is here that the foundations of equality between the sexes are laid, which, despite the patriarchal nature of the family structure, is still evident in Utopia.

Patriarchal relations in the family, as well as its pronounced professional attribute, allow the historian to discern the real prototype of the Utopian family community - the idealized craft community of the Middle Ages. We say “idealized”, meaning that by the beginning of the 16th century, when More wrote, the guild organization was undergoing a very significant evolution. The crisis of the guild system at the birth of capitalist manufacture led to a sharp aggravation of intra-guild relations - between the master, on the one hand, and the journeyman and apprentice, on the other. At the end of the Middle Ages, the guild organization acquired an increasingly closed character, so that the guilds could withstand the competition of growing capitalist manufacture. The position of apprentices and journeymen was increasingly approaching that of hired workers.

Creating his economic ideal of a family craft community, Thomas More, naturally, was forced to build on the contemporary dominant form of organization of urban craft. The author of Utopia certainly idealized the craft organization of the Middle Ages with its system of division of labor and specialization, as well as the features of a family-patriarchal community.

In this, More reflected the moods and aspirations of urban artisans, for whom difficult times had come due to the disintegration of the guild craft system and sharp social stratification within the guilds. The question arises: why did T. More give preference to the guild organization of craft, which was already half obsolete at that time, over capitalist manufacture, to which the future undoubtedly belonged? The answer, in our opinion, should be sought in the specifics of T. More's worldview as a humanist and the founder of the utopian movement.

The main production unit in Utopian agriculture is a large community of at least 40 people - men and women, and two more assigned slaves. At the head of such a rural “family” are the “venerable in years” manager and manager.

Thus, the family-patriarchal collective artificially created and maintained in Utopia is, according to More, the most acceptable form of labor organization, both in crafts and in agriculture.

In contrast to the traditional order of things, when the city acted as an exploiter and competitor in relation to the village district, More proceeds from the fact that in Utopia the city residents consider themselves in relation to the village district “more holders than owners of these lands.”

The author of "Utopia" tried in his own way to overcome the historical opposition between city and countryside. T. More saw that agricultural labor in the conditions of England in the 16th century. and the agricultural technology of that time was a heavy burden for those who had been engaged in it all their lives. In an effort to ease the work of the farmer in his ideal society, T. More turns agriculture into a compulsory service for all citizens.

More attaches almost no importance to technical progress to overcome the backwardness of the countryside and ease the work of the farmer. The problem of developing the productive forces of society on the basis of technical progress was clearly underestimated by him. And although the Utopians successfully used artificial breeding of chickens in special incubators, nevertheless, their agricultural technology in general was quite primitive. But even at a low level, the Utopians sow grain and raise livestock in much greater quantities than is required for their own consumption; they share the rest with their neighbors. T. More considered this order of things to be quite possible and reasonable in a state like Utopia, where there is no private property and where relations between the city and the rural district are based on mutual labor support. The farmers of Utopia “without any delay” receive everything they need for the countryside from the city. The solution to the problem of the opposition between city and countryside and the creation of an abundance of agricultural products is achieved not through the improvement of technology, but through a more equitable, from a utopian point of view, organization of labor.

The absence of private property allows T. More to build production relations in Utopia according to a new principle: on the basis of cooperation and mutual assistance of citizens free from exploitation - this is his greatest merit.

So, according to More, Utopia is a classless society consisting of a majority free from exploitation. However, while designing a just society, More turned out to be insufficiently consistent, allowing the existence of slaves in Utopia. Slaves on the island are a powerless category of the population, burdened with heavy labor duties. They are "chained" and "constantly" busy with work. The presence of slaves in Utopia appears to have been largely due to the low level of modern Moru production technology. The Utopians need slaves to save citizens from the most difficult and dirty labor. This undoubtedly revealed the weak side of More's utopian concept.

The existence of slaves in an ideal state clearly contradicts the principles of equality on the basis of which More designed the perfect social system of Utopia. However, the share of slaves in the social production of Utopia is insignificant, since the main producers are still full-fledged citizens. Slavery in Utopia has a specific character; In addition to the fact that it performs an economic function, it is a measure of punishment for crimes and a means of labor re-education. The main source of slavery in Utopia was a criminal offense committed by any of its citizens.

As for the external sources of slavery, this is either capture during the war, or (and most often) the ransom of foreigners sentenced to death in their homeland. Slavery - forced labor as a punishment, replacing the death penalty - More contrasted with the brutal criminal legislation of the 16th century. More was a strong opponent of the death penalty for criminal offenses, because, in his opinion, nothing in the world can be compared in value to human life. Thus, slavery in Utopia should be viewed specifically historically, as a call to soften the cruel system of criminal penalties widespread in medieval Europe and, in this sense, as a measure that was more humane for that time. The lot of slaves in Utopia was obviously much easier than the position of the majority of peasants and artisans oppressed by poverty and exploitation in Tudor England. Therefore, More, apparently, had every reason to assert that some "industrious" poor people from other people preferred to go into slavery to the Utopians voluntarily and that the Utopians themselves, accepting such people as slaves, treated them with respect and treated them gently, releasing them back to their homeland at their first request, and even rewarding them at the same time.

4. DISPUTE ABOUT THOMAS HIS "UTOPIA"

The attitude of various historians to “Utopia” in one way or another affects their general perception of the personality of its author. More's fame as a brilliant thinker of the Renaissance is inextricably linked with the fate of his Golden Book. An assessment of the socio-political activity of Thomas More, his literary heritage and his role in history in general and in the history of social thought largely depends on one or another understanding of “Utopia”, its place in the history of ideas.

The dynamics of the narrative of "Utopia" unfolds through the opposition of the ruling order and the ideal social order. In "Utopia" we are not talking about some abstract state: before us is England at the beginning of the 16th century and its vital problems. Fences, the expulsion of unfortunate tenants from the land that their fathers and grandfathers cultivated, endless hardships and poverty. Brutal laws against vagrants who are not guilty of their vagrancy, robbery, death penalty. On the other hand, as a manifestation of a sharp social contrast, inappropriate excesses in food and excessive whimsicality in the clothing of lords and high nobility, priests, troops and servants. Brothels, gambling houses and brothels are multiplying, indicating a deep moral decline. It seems to More that everything can be directed in a different direction, but not through the usual politics that cause disgust. Is it not possible to become an adviser to some great sovereign and instill in him “proper honest thoughts”? More comes to a decision prepared by all his thoughts: private property is an obstacle to justice and happiness. In Mora's ideal state, people are equal in all respects, not excluding economic or political ones. The image of the new society appears as the opposite of the old one, corroded by the ulcers of property. But More paints a concrete picture of an ideal society, without concealing any doubts: “You can never live richly where everything is common. How can there be an abundance of products if everyone avoids work, since he is not forced to do it by calculation of personal profit, and, on the other hand, does firm hope in someone else’s work make it possible to be lazy?” The abolition of private property in Utopia, generally speaking, is not new. The most important thing in More's fantasy, where he went beyond the demands of the plebeian masses, was the organization of production. In order for everyone to receive everything they need, it must be produced. More paints a picture of a working society in which it is not difficult for us to notice many naiveties and inconsistencies.

When reading "Utopia" one gets the feeling that an ideal society is complete perfection and all life's difficulties are resolved here forever. The ideal of "Utopia" destroys the stagnation of medieval thinking and creates the preconditions for a historical view of human society.

Already in the era of the Reformation it received sharply opposite assessments. Supporters of the Reformation, for example W. Tindel and R. Robinson, even reproached More for inconsistency, betrayal of common sense and hypocrisy for his subsequent pro-Catholic position. According to historians of Protestant orientation, the author of “Utopia” had traits of “fanaticism and ruthless fanaticism” that coexisted with humanistic ideals.

In both the 19th and 20th centuries, historians continued to be occupied with the question: to what extent did the communist ideal of “Utopia” express More’s own beliefs? Should "Utopia" be taken seriously at all? For Catholic historians, More's humanistic freethinking has long remained a mysterious phenomenon. For them, he could only be of interest as “a saint, and Utopia, with its preaching of religious tolerance and the ideas of a “communist community,” was perceived as nothing more than a joke, a game of the mind.” Historians of the liberal-Protestant school considered the "Golden Book" as "a genuine expression of More's views." In the 30s of the 19th century, starting with R. Chambers in the so-called. bourgeois Western historiography has clearly identified a tendency to interpret “Utopia” in a conservative spirit, as “a work generated by the Middle Ages, glorifying monastic asceticism and the corporate system of feudal society - the monastic idea in action.” Later, R. Johnson and G. Gerbruggen, disputing Chambers, believed “that the basis of the ideal structure of Utopia is ethics, which considers virtue as life in harmony with nature and subject to the dictates of reason.” Gerbruggen also decisively refuted the concept of those historians who considered “Utopia” as a source of socialist and communist ideas, and More himself was included in the founders of utopian socialism (F. Engels, V.I. Lenin, K. Kautsky, R. Amis, V.P. Volgin). As Gerbruggen believed, “More painted a Utopian state in order to show, as in a mirror, the shortcomings and abuses that prevail in the real world. The ideality of Utopia lies in “nowhere,” and people, despite all their attempts, cannot achieve this ideality.”

“In the concept of the impossibility of perfection in this world, attributed to More, where the course of history is ultimately carried out according to the verdict of God, Gerbruggen saw the influence of Christian ethics. And J. Evans in the article “The Kingdom inside More’s Utopia” argued that More is least concerned with the ideal political system, but most of all - the state of the human spirit, or what Christ defined as the main thing in the New Testament, declaring: “The Kingdom of God is within us.” In his opinion, the main theme of “Utopia” is not so much a radical change in the existing political system, "how much a change in the human spirit and its turning to the ideals of Christ."

From the above, it is clear that in order to understand More’s humanistic concept, along with the socio-political problems of “Utopia,” it is important to take into account its ethical and religious aspects to a greater extent. This task has become especially relevant in modern conditions, that is, in the conditions of the complete collapse of the attempt to transfer the utopian idea from dream to reality by communist fanatics. And, be that as it may, this debate can be concluded with a quotation attributed to certain generalized "bourgeois" scholars that: Utopia "may contain some of More's own opinions, but there is no way of knowing which are his own, and which ones are not."

utopia thomas more humanistic

CONCLUSION

Utopian socialism as a great achievement of social thought, which was one of the most important sources of scientific communism, owes the birth of many ideas to Thomas More. Written by More in 1516. “A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia,” or “Utopia” for short, gave the name to pre-Marxist socialism. In his works, More proposed democratic principles for the organization of state power that were completely new for his era, posed and solved legal problems from a humanistic position. Formed during the period of formation of the capitalist formation, the emergence of early capitalist relations, More's views have not lost their historical significance. His project of an ideal state still causes sharp clashes of opinions between scientists from different countries. The life and work of T. More, a scientist, poet, lawyer and statesman, attracts the attention of many researchers.

More is a supporter of monarchical power, and he boldly prevents kings from their illegal actions, protecting the rights and privileges of citizens - peasants and artisans. He is caressed and consulted by Henry VIII himself. He gives More a number of important diplomatic assignments. The conclusion of peace between England and France, on the one hand, and with Spain, on the other (1529) on the most favorable terms - this, for example, is the undoubted merit of More. And the same Henry VIII accuses him of high treason and condemns him to painful execution. Why and for what? After all, the point here is not in “Utopia” and not in the views of a humanist scientist, as an ignorant person might think. “Utopia” in those days seemed to the royal authorities to be a harmless fairy tale. No, More dared to oppose the Reformation, he remained faithful to the Pope and refused to take the oath to the king as the head of the new Anglican Church, which the royal authorities did not forgive him for.

To conclude the topic, I would like to quote the words of Robert Whittington, one of the contemporary scientists of Thomas More. His description turned out to be prophetic: “Mor is a man of angelic intelligence and rare learning. I don't know anyone equal to him. For where else can one find a man of such nobility, modesty and courtesy? And if at one time he indulges in amazing gaiety and fun, at other times he indulges in sad seriousness. A man for all times"

REFERENCES

1. Bontash P.K., Prozorova N.S. "Thomas More", 1983

2. Volodin A.I. “Utopia and History”, 1976

3. Kareva V.V. "The Fate of Thomas More's Utopia", 1996

4. Mor T. “Utopia” - M., 1978.

5. Sokolov V.V. “European philosophy 15-17 centuries. “-M., 1984.

6. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary, -M., 1983.

7. M. Ros. econ. acad. 1993 History of political and legal doctrines. Middle Ages and Renaissance - M. Science 1986

8. World history in 10 volumes, T.4. M.: Institute of Socio-Economic Literature, 1958.

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