1. Socio-economic and political development Russia under Alexander 1.
2. Domestic and foreign policy of Nicholas 1.
3. Reforms of Alexander 2 and their significance.
4. The main features of the country’s development in the post-reform period.
By the beginning of the 19th century, Russia was the largest world power, stretching from Baltic Sea before Pacific Ocean, from the Arctic to the Caucasus and the Black Sea. The population increased sharply and amounted to 43.5 million people. Approximately 1% of the population was nobility; there were also a small number of Orthodox clergy, merchants, philistines, and Cossacks. 90% of the population were state, landowner and appanage (former palace) peasants. During the studied period in social order In the country, a new trend is becoming more and more clearly evident - the class system is gradually becoming obsolete, the strict differentiation of classes is becoming a thing of the past. New features also appeared in the economic sphere - serfdom hampers the development of the landlord economy, the formation of the labor market, the growth of manufactories, trade, and cities, which indicated a crisis in the feudal-serf system. Russia was in dire need of reform.
Upon his accession to the throne, Alexander 1 ((1801-1825) announced the revival of Catherine’s traditions of rule and restored the validity of the Letters of Grant to the nobility and cities that had been canceled by his father, returned from disgrace from exile about 12 thousand repressed persons, opened the borders for the departure of nobles, allowed subscription to foreign publications, abolished secret expedition, declared freedom of trade, announced the termination of grants from state-owned peasants to private hands. Back in the 90s. Under Alexander, a circle of young like-minded people formed, who immediately after his accession became part of the Secret Committee, which actually became the government of the country. In 1803, he signed a decree on “free cultivators,” according to which landowners could set their serfs free with the land for ransom by entire villages or individual families. Although the practical results of this reform were small (0.5% d.m.p.), its main ideas formed the basis of the peasant reform of 1861. In 1804, peasant reform was launched in the Baltic states: payments and duties were clearly defined here peasants, the principle of inheritance of land by peasants was introduced. Special attention The emperor paid attention to the reform of central government bodies; in 1801 he created the Permanent Council, which was replaced in 1810 by the State Council. In 1802-1811 the collegial system was replaced by 8 ministries: military, maritime, justice, finance, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce and public education. The Senate under Alexander 1 acquired the status of the highest court and exercised control over local authorities. The reform projects put forward in 1809-1810 were of great importance. Secretary of State, Deputy Minister of Justice M.M. Speransky. Speransky's state reforms assumed a clear separation of powers into the legislative (State Duma), executive (ministries) and judicial (Senate), the introduction of the principle of the presumption of innocence, the recognition of voting rights for nobles, merchants and state peasants, and the possibility of the lower classes moving into the higher ones. Economic reforms Speransky provided for a reduction in government spending, the introduction of a special tax on landowners and appanage estates, the cessation of the issuance of unsecured bonds, etc. The implementation of these reforms would lead to the limitation of autocracy and the abolition of serfdom. Therefore, the reforms displeased the nobles and were criticized. Alexander 1 dismissed Speransky and exiled him first to Nizhny and then to Perm.
Alexander's foreign policy was unusually active and fruitful. Under him, Georgia was included in Russia (as a result of the active expansion of Turkey and Iran in Georgia, the latter turned to Russia for protection), Northern Azerbaijan (as a result of the Russian-Iranian war of 1804-1813), Bessarabia (as a result of Russian-Turkish war 1806-1812), Finland (as a result Russian-Swedish war 1809). The main direction of foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. there was a struggle with Napoleonic France. By this time, a significant part of Europe had already been occupied by French troops; in 1807, after a series of defeats, Russia signed the humiliating Treaty of Tilsit. With the beginning of the Patriotic War in June 1812. the emperor was part of the active army. In the Patriotic War of 1812, several stages can be distinguished:
June 1.12 - August 4-5, 1812 - the French army crosses the Neman (220-160) and moves towards Smolensk, where a bloody battle took place between Napoleon’s army and the united armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration. French army lost 20 thousand soldiers and after a 2-day assault entered the destroyed and burned Smolensk.
1.13 August 5 -August 26 - Napoleon's attack on Moscow and battle of Borodino, after which Kutuzov leaves Moscow.
1.14 September - beginning October 1812 - Napoleon plunders and burns Moscow, Kutuzov’s troops are replenished and rest in the Tarutino camp.
1.15 beginning of October 1812 - December 25, 1812 - through the efforts of Kutuzov’s army (battle of Maloyaroslavets on October 12) and partisans, the movement of Napoleon’s army to the south was stopped, he returned along the devastated Smolensk road; most of His army dies, Napoleon himself secretly flees to Paris. On December 25, 1812, Alexander published a special manifesto on the expulsion of the enemy from Russia and the end of the Patriotic War.
However, the expulsion of Napoleon from Russia did not guarantee the security of the country, so on January 1, 1813, the Russian army crossed the border and began pursuing the enemy; by the spring, a significant part of Poland, Berlin, was liberated, and in October 1813. After the creation of an anti-Napoleonic coalition consisting of Russia, England, Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Napoleon’s army was defeated in the famous “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig. In March 1814, the allied troops (Russian army led by Alexander 1) entered Paris. At the Congress of Vienna in 1814. the territory of France was restored to its pre-revolutionary borders, and a significant part of Poland, along with Warsaw, became part of Russia. In addition, Russia, Prussia and Austria created Holy Alliance for a joint struggle against the revolutionary movement in Europe.
Alexander's post-war policy changed significantly. Fearing the revolutionary impact on Russian society of the ideas of the FR, more progressive political system established in the West, the emperor banned secret societies in Russia (1822), creates military settlements 91812), secret police in the army (1821), increases ideological pressure on the university community. However, even during this period he did not depart from the ideas of reforming Russia - he signed the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland (1815), and declared his intention to introduce a constitutional system throughout Russia. On his instructions, N.I. Novosiltsev developed the State Charter, which contained the remaining elements of constitutionalism. With his knowledge A.A. Arakcheev prepared special projects for the gradual liberation of serfs. However, all this did not change general political course pursued by Alexander1. In September 1825, during a trip to Crimea, he fell ill and died in Taganrog. With his death, a dynastic crisis arose, caused by the secret resignation (during the life of Alexander 1) of the duties of heir to the throne of Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich. The Decembrists, a social movement that arose after the war of 1812, took advantage of this situation. and proclaimed as the main idea the priority of a person’s personality and his freedoms over everything else.
On December 14, 1825, the day of the oath to Nicholas 1, the Decembrists raised an uprising, which was brutally suppressed. This fact largely predetermined the essence of the policy of Nicholas 1, the main direction of which was the fight against free thought. It is no coincidence that the period of his reign - 1825-1855 - is called the apogee of autocracy. In 1826, the 3rd Department of its own was founded Imperial Majesty office, which became the main instrument of control over mentalities and the fight against dissidents. Under Nicholas, the official government ideological doctrine took shape - the “theory official nationality", the essence of which was expressed by its author, Count Uvarov, in the formula - Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. Reactionary politics Nicholas 1 were most evident in the field of education and the press, which was most clearly manifested in the Charter educational institutions 1828, University Charter of 1835, Censorship Charter of 1826, numerous bans on the publication of journals. Among the most important events of Nicholas’s reign:
1. reform of state peasant management P.D. Kiselyov, which consisted of the introduction of self-government, the founding of schools, hospitals, the allocation of the best lands for “public plowing” in the villages of state peasants;
2. inventory reform - in 1844, committees were created in the western provinces to develop “inventory”, i.e. descriptions of landowners' estates with precise recording of peasant plots and duties in favor of the landowner, which could not be changed in the future;
3. codification of laws M.M. Speransky - in 1833, “PSZ RI” and “Code current laws» in 15 volumes;
4. financial reform E.F. Kankrin, the main directions of which were the transformation of the silver ruble into the main means of payment, the issuance of credit notes freely exchangeable for silver;
5. commissioning of the first railways in Russia.
Despite the tough government course of Nicholas 1, it was during his reign that a broad social movement took shape in Russia, in which three main directions can be distinguished - conservative (led by Uvarov, Shevyrev, Pogodin, Grech, Bulgarin), revolutionary-democratic (Herzen, Ogarev, Petrashevsky), Westerners and Slavophiles (Kavelin, Granovsky, the Aksakov brothers, Samarin, etc.).
In the field of foreign policy, Nicholas 1 considered the main tasks of his reign to be the expansion of Russia's influence on the state of affairs in Europe and the world, as well as the fight against the revolutionary movement. To this end, in 1833, together with the monarchs of Prussia and Austria, he formalized a political union (Sacred), which for several years determined the balance of power in Europe in favor of Russia. In 1848, he broke relations with revolutionary France, and in 1849, he ordered the Russian army to suppress the Hungarian revolution. In addition, under Nicholas 1, a significant part of the budget (up to 40%) was spent on military needs. The main direction in Nicholas’ foreign policy was the “Eastern Question,” which led Russia to wars with Iran and Turkey (1826-1829) and international isolation in the early 50s, ending with the Crimean War (1853-1856). For Russia, solving the eastern question meant ensuring security southern borders, establishing control over the Black Sea straits, strengthening political influence to the Balkan and Middle Eastern regions. The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic (France) and Orthodox (Russia) clergy over “Palestinian shrines.” In reality, it was about strengthening the positions of these countries in the Middle East. England and Austria, on whose support Russia was counting in this war, went over to the side of France. On October 16, 1853, after Russia sent troops into Moldavia and Wallachia under the pretext of protecting the Orthodox population of the OI, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. England and France became allies of the Olympic Games. (November 18, 1853, the last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet - Sinop, October 54 - August 55 - siege of Sevastopol) Due to military-technical backwardness and the mediocrity of the military command, Russia lost this war and in March 1856 a peace treaty was signed in Paris an agreement under which Russia lost the islands in the Danube Delta and Southern Bessarabia, returned Kars to Turkey, and in exchange received Sevastopol and Yevpatoria, and was deprived of the right to have a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea. Crimean War showed the backwardness of serf Russia and significantly reduced the international prestige of the country.
After the death of Nicholas in 1855. his eldest son Alexander 2 (1855-1881) ascended the throne. He immediately granted amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants Polish uprising 1830-31 and announced the beginning of an era of reform. In 1856 he personally headed the Special secret committee to abolish serfdom, later gave instructions on the establishment of provincial committees to prepare local reform projects. On February 19, 1861, Alexander 2 signed the “Regulations on Reform” and the “Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom.” Main provisions of the reform:
1. serfs received personal freedom and independence from the landowner (they could not be given, sold, bought, resettled, or mortgaged, but their civil rights were incomplete - they continued to pay the poll tax, carried out conscription duties, and corporal punishment;
2. elected peasant self-government was introduced;
3. the landowner remained the owner of the land on the estate; peasants received a set land allotment for a ransom, which was equal to the annual quitrent amount, increased by an average of 17 times. The state paid the landowner 80% of the amount, 20% was paid by the peasants. For 49 years, peasants had to repay the debt to the state with %. Before the land was redeemed, the peasants were considered temporarily obligated to the landowner and bore the old duties. The owner of the land was the community, from which the peasant could not leave until the ransom was paid.
The abolition of serfdom made reforms in other areas inevitable Russian society. Among them:
1. Zemstvo reform(1864) - creation of classless elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos. In the provinces and districts, administrative bodies were created - zemstvo assemblies and executive bodies - zemstvo councils. Elections to district zemstvo assemblies were held once every 3 years at 3 electoral congresses. Voters were divided into three curia: landowners, townspeople and elected representatives of rural societies. Zemstvos solved local problems - they were in charge of opening schools, hospitals, building and repairing roads, providing assistance to the population in lean years, etc.
2. Urban reform(1870) - creation of city councils and city councils that resolve economic issues of cities. These institutions were headed by the city mayor. The right to vote and be elected was limited by property qualifications.
3. Judicial reform (1864) - the class-based, secret court, dependent on the administration and police, was replaced by a classless, public adversarial, independent court with the election of some judicial bodies. The guilt or innocence of the defendant was determined by 12 jurors selected from all classes. The punishment was determined by a government-appointed judge and 2 members of the court, and death penalty could only be sentenced by the Senate or a military court. 2 systems were established world courts(created in counties and cities, minor criminal and civil cases) and general district courts, created within the provinces and judicial chambers, uniting several judicial districts. (political affairs, malfeasance)
4. Military reform (1861-1874) - recruitment was canceled and universal conscription(from 20 years old - all men), service life was reduced to 6 years in the infantry and 7 years in the navy and depended on the degree of education of the serviceman. The military administration system was also reformed: 15 military districts were introduced in Russia, the management of which was subordinate only to the Minister of War. In addition, they were reformed military educational institutions, rearmament was carried out, corporal punishment was abolished, etc. As a result, the Russian military forces turned into a mass army of the modern type.
Generally, liberal reforms And 2, for which he was nicknamed the Tsar-Liberator, were progressive in nature and had great value for Russia - contributed to the development of market relations in the economy, an increase in the standard of living and education of the country's population, and an increase in the country's defense capability.
During the reign of A 2, a social movement reached a large scale, in which 3 main directions can be distinguished:
1. conservative (Katkov), who advocated political stability and reflected the interests of the nobility;
2. liberal (Kavelin, Chicherin) with demands for various freedoms (freedom from serfdom, freedom of conscience, public opinion, printing, teaching, publicity of the court). The weakness of the liberals was that they did not put forward the main liberal principle - introduction constitution.
3. revolutionary (Herzen, Chernyshevsky), the main slogans of which were the introduction of a constitution, freedom of the press, the transfer of all land to the peasants and the call of the people to active actions. Revolutionaries in 1861 created a secret illegal organization “Land and Freedom”, which in 1879 split into two organizations: the propaganda “Black Redistribution” and the terrorist “People's Will”. The ideas of Herzen and Chernyshevsky became the basis of populism (Lavrov, Bakunin, Tkachev), but the campaigns they organized among the people (1874 and 1877) were unsuccessful.
Thus, a feature of the social movement of the 60-80s. there was a weakness of the liberal center and strong extreme groups.
Foreign policy. As a result of the continuation of what began under Alexander 1 Caucasian War(1817-1864) the Caucasus was annexed to Russia. In 1865-1881 Turkestan became part of Russia, and the borders of Russia and China along the Amur River were fixed. And 2 continued his father’s attempts to solve the “Eastern Question” in 1877-1878. waged war with Turkey. In matters of foreign policy, he focused on Germany; in 1873 concluded with Germany and Austria " Union of three emperors." March 1, 1881 A2. He was mortally wounded on the embankment of the Catherine Canal by a bomb from Narodnaya Volya member I.I. Grinevitsky.
In the post-reform period, serious changes are taking place in the social structure of Russian society and the country's economy. The process of stratification of the peasantry is intensifying, the bourgeoisie and working class are being formed, the number of intelligentsia is growing, i.e. Class barriers are erased and communities are formed along economic and class lines. By the beginning of the 80s. The industrial revolution is coming to an end in Russia; the creation of a powerful economic base has begun; industry is being modernized and organized on capitalist principles.
A3, upon accession to the throne in 1881 (1881-1894), immediately announced his abandonment of reform ideas, but his first measures continued the same course: compulsory ransom was introduced, ransom payments were destroyed, plans for convening were developed Zemsky Sobor, established Peasant Bank, the poll tax was abolished (1882), benefits were provided to Old Believers (1883). At the same time, A3 defeated Narodnaya Volya. With Tolstoy coming to leadership of the government (1882), there was a change in the internal political course, which began to be based on the “revival of the inviolability of autocracy.” For this purpose, control over the press was strengthened, special rights were granted to the nobility in obtaining higher education, the Noble Bank was established, and conservation measures were taken peasant community. In 1892, with the appointment of S.Yu. as Minister of Finance. Witte, whose program included a tough tax policy, protectionism, widespread attraction of foreign capital, the introduction of the gold ruble, the introduction state monopoly for the production and sale of vodka, the “golden decade of Russian industry” begins.
At A3, serious changes occur in social movement: conservatism is strengthening (Katkov, Pobedonostsev), after the defeat " people's will“Reformist liberal populism began to play a significant role, Marxism was spreading (Plekhanov, Ulyanov). Russian Marxists created the “Emancipation of Labor” group in Geneva in 1883, in 1895 Ulyanov organized the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class” in St. Petersburg, and in 1898 the RSDLP was founded in Minsk.
At A 3 Russia did not lead big wars(Peacemaker), but still significantly expanded its borders in Central Asia. In European politics, A3 continued to focus on an alliance with Germany and Austria, and in 1891. signed alliance treaty with France.
deadline
Review – April 25, 23.00Creative work – May 7 23.00
Lecture 2. The Russian Empire at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.
Lecture 2. Russianempire at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.
Socio-economic
position
Political development
Empire (1894-1913)
The first general census of the Russian Empire in 1897
First general censuspopulation of the Russian
Administrative division - 97 provinces.
empires
1897
Census registered in the Russian Empire
125,640,021 inhabitants. By 1913 - 165 million people.
16,828,395 people (13.4%) lived in cities.
Largest cities: St. Petersburg - 1.26 million, Moscow -
1 million, Warsaw - 0.68 million.
The literacy rate was 21.1%, and among men
it was significantly higher than among women (29.3% and
13.1%, respectively).
By religion: Orthodox - 69.3%, Muslims
- 11.1%, Catholics - 9.1% and Jews - 4.2%.
Estates: peasantry - 77.5%, burghers - 10.7%,
foreigners - 6.6%, Cossacks - 2.3%, nobles - 1.5%,
clergy - 0.5%, honorary citizens - 0,3 %,
merchants - 0.2%, others - 0.4%.
Nationalities of Russia (1907-1917) IPE P.P. Kamensky
Class structure of society
NobilityClergy
Guild merchants
Bourgeois
Peasants
Odnodvortsy
Cossacks
Class structure of society
Bourgeoisie - 1.5 million peopleProletariat – 2.7 million people. By 1913 –
18 million people
The intelligentsia as a special layer in
social structure of society –
725 thousand people
Important:
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. social divisionsociety was an interweaving
estate and class structures. were taking shape
groups of contradictions: nobility-bourgeoisie,
bourgeoisie-workers, government-people,
intelligentsia - people, intelligentsia -
power. National problems.
The problem of social mobility.
Marginalization. Urbanization. Social
mobility.
Main problems of national policy
The presence of several faiths (Islam,Buddhism, Catholicism, Lutheranism)
Russification policy regarding
Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish and
other peoples - the growth of nationalism
The Jewish Question – “The Pale of Settlement”
discrimination in various areas
activities
Difficult situation in Islamic areas
Empire
Turn of the XIX-XX centuries.
Transition from traditional toindustrial society
Overcoming sociocultural
backwardness
Democratization of political life
An attempt to form a civil
society
10. Features of economic development of Russia
Peculiaritieseconomic development
Later transition to capitalism
Russia
Russia is a second-tier country
modernization
Uneven development of the territory
Different levels of economic and
sociocultural development
numerous peoples of the empire
Preservation of autocracy, landownership
land tenure, national problems
11. Features of economic development of Russia
Peculiaritieseconomic development
Fast pace of development, short folding time
factory production. Low labor productivity.
Russia
The factory production system developed without
passing through the previous stages of craft and manufacture.
The growth of industrial output in the 1860-1900s. – 7
once.
The credit system is represented by large commercial
banks
Diversity of the economy
Russia is characterized not by export (China, Iran), but by import of capital
High degree of concentration of production and labor
Monopolism
State intervention in economic life
Weak inclusion of the agricultural sector in the modernization process
12. Reforms S.Yu. Witte
STRENGTHENING ROLESTATES IN
ECONOMY /
Strengthening private
entrepreneurship
1895 – wine
monopoly
1897 - currency reform
Protectionist policy
Attraction
foreign capital
Construction of railways
roads
13. Turn of the XIX-XX centuries.
During the 1890s 5.7 thousand new ones were put into operationenterprises
Development of new industrial areas– Southern
(coal and metallurgical) and Baku (oil).
1890s - industrial boom. Construction
Trans-Siberian Railway, CER.
1900-1903 – economic crisis. Closing 3 thousand
large and medium enterprises.
Investing countries: France, England, Germany, Belgium
Monopolization of industrial production and
capital.
Industrial boom 1909-1913
14.
15.
16. Reforms P.A. Stolypin
Community destructionDecree of November 9, 1906
Reorganization
Peasant Bank
Buying them landowners
lands and their resale
into the hands of the peasantry
Relocation
peasants to the outskirts
Decree on military courts
17. Reform projects P.A. Stolypin
Transformation of peasantsvolost courts
National and religious
equality
Introduction of volost zemstvos
Initial Law
schools (compulsory primary
training) (since 1912)
Workmen's Insurance Act (1912)
18. Public administration of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century (before 1905).
EmperorState Council –
legislative body
The Senate is a legal oversight body
activity activities
government officials and institutions
Synod
Ministries. Cabinet of Ministers.
19. Autocracy and social life at the beginning of the 20th century.
1901 "Policeman" Policysocialism" S.V. Zubatova. Creation
professional movement of workers,
pursuing economic goals.
The workers need a “king who is for us”
the king who "will introduce the eight o'clock
working day, will increase wages
payment, will give all sorts of benefits.”
G. Gapon. “Meeting of Russian factory workers of St. Petersburg”
1904
20. Autocracy and social life at the beginning of the 20th century.
Svyatopolk-Mirsky P.D.Minister of Internal Affairs
affairs since August 1904
"Development of self-government
and the call of elected officials
Petersburg for discussion
as the only one
a tool that can
give Russia an opportunity
develop correctly."
Autumn 1904 – “autumn
spring".
21. Liberal movement
Banquet campaign 1904“We consider it absolutely necessary that all
the government system was reorganized into
constitutional principles... and so that immediately
well, before the start of the election period there was
a complete and unconditional amnesty was declared for all
political and religious crimes."
Until the beginning of January 1905, 120 events took place in 34 cities.
similar “banquets” attended by about 50
thousand people.
22. Political parties of Russia in the present day. XX century
23. "Bloody Sunday"
"The prestige of the king is herekilled - that's the meaning
day." M. Gorky.
"Last days
have arrived. Brother
stood up to my brother...
The king gave the order
shoot at icons"
M. Voloshin
24. Repin I.E. October 17, 1905. (1907)
25. “Manifesto of October 17, 1905”
the population was granted civilfreedom "on the basis of reality"
personal integrity, freedom
conscience, words, meetings and unions"
for elections to the State Duma
attracts wide sections of the population
all laws must be approved in
Duma, but “elected by the people”
provides "opportunity
effective participation in the supervision of
the pattern of actions” of the authorities.
26. Electoral law 12/11/1905
Four electoral curiae from landowners, citypopulation, peasants and workers. Were deprived of rights
choice of women, soldiers, sailors, students,
landless peasants, farm laborers and some
"foreigners". The system of representation in the Duma was
designed as follows: agricultural
the curia sent one elector from 2 thousand people,
urban - from 7 thousand, peasant - from 30 thousand,
working - from 90 thousand people. Government,
continued to hope that the peasantry would
support of the autocracy, provided him with 45% of all seats in
Duma. Members of the State Duma were elected for a term
for 5 years.
27.
28. Opening of the State Duma and State Council on April 27, 1906
29. State Duma of the Russian Empire
30. State Duma of the Russian Empire
Duma Opening hoursChairman
I
April 27, 1906 –
July 8, 1906
Cadet S.A. Muromtsev
II
February 20, 1907 –
June 2, 1907
Cadet F.A. Golovin
III
November 1, 1907 –
June 9, 1912
Octobrists - N.A. Khomyakov (November
1907-March 1910),
A.I. Guchkov (March 1910-March 1911),
M.V.Rodzianko (March 1911-June 1912)
IV
November 15, 1912 –
February 25, 1917
Octobrist M.V. Rodzianko
31.
32. Literature
Ananich B.V., Ganelin R.Sh. SergeyYulievich Witte and his time. St. Petersburg:
Dmitry Bulanin, 1999.
Literature about S.Yu. Witte: URL:
http://www.prometeus.nsc.ru/biblio/vitte/r
efer2.ssi
Zyryanov P. N. Pyotr Stolypin:
Political portrait. M., 1992.
Class system. During the reign of Alexander I, the nobles had rights and privileges that were legislated back under Catherine II in “ Certificate of merit nobility" from 1785. (Its full title is “Certificate of the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility.”)
The noble class was free from military service and from state taxes. Nobles could not be subjected corporal punishment. Only a noble court could judge them. The nobles received the preferential right to own land and serfs. They owned the mineral wealth on their estates. They had the right to engage in trade, open factories and factories. Their estates were not subject to confiscation.
The nobility united into societies, the affairs of which were in charge of the noble assembly, which elected district and provincial leaders nobility.
All other classes did not have such rights.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the population of the empire reached almost 44 million people. The peasantry made up more than 80% of the total population, 15 million peasants were serfs.
Serfdom remained unchanged. According to the decree on free cultivators (1803), only about 0.5% of the peasantry was freed from serfdom.
The rest of the peasants were considered state peasants, that is, they belonged to the state. In northern Russia and Siberia they made up the bulk of the population. A type of peasantry was the Cossacks, settled mainly in the Don, Kuban, lower Volga, the Urals, Siberia and the Far East.
Alexander I abandoned the practice widespread under his father and grandmother. He stopped distributing state peasants as a reward or gift to his confidants.
At the beginning of the 19th century, less than 7% of the population of the Russian Empire lived in cities. The largest of them was St. Petersburg, whose population in 1811 was 335 thousand people. The population of Moscow was 270 thousand people.
Cities remained the main points of trade and industry. Trade was concentrated in the hands of the merchants, divided into three guilds. The most significant business was conducted by the merchants of the first guild. They were both subjects of the Russian Empire and foreigners.
Economic development. Large centers of trade operations were fairs, the most important of which, Makaryevskaya, was located near the Makaryev Monastery near Nizhny Novgorod.
Profitable geographical position, convenient communication routes attracted people here every year big number traders from all parts of Russia and from abroad. At the beginning of the 19th century, there were more than three thousand public and private shops and warehouses at the Makaryevskaya Fair.
In 1816 the trade was moved to Nizhny Novgorod. Until 1917, the Nizhny Novgorod Fair remained the largest in Russia. It determined trade prices for whole year forward.
At the beginning of the 19th century, more than 60% of serfs paid rent to their master in money. The quitrent system contributed to the spread of crafts. After finishing agricultural work, peasants either went to work in the cities or worked at home.
Gradually, territorial specialization in the production of industrial goods took shape. In one place yarn was produced, in another - wooden or earthenware, in a third - fur products, in a fourth - wheels. Those who were especially enterprising and capable were able to pay off the master, get out of serfdom, and get their freedom. Families of handicraftsmen and artisans have produced many large entrepreneurs - founders and owners of well-known Russian factories and factories.
The needs of economic development led to the expansion of the industrial sector of the economy. Although the preservation of serfdom and strict administrative control over public activities restrained private initiative, the number of manufactories, factories and factories multiplied. Large landowners created workshops and enterprises on their estates for processing agricultural products and extracting minerals. For the most part, these were small establishments where serfs worked.
Sculpture "Waterbearer"
The largest industrial enterprises belonged to the state (treasury). Either state peasants (assigned) or civilian workers worked for them.
The textile industry developed most intensively at the beginning of the 19th century, primarily cotton production, which produced inexpensive products designed for wide demand. Various mechanisms were widely used in this industry.
Thus, in the state-owned Alexander Manufactory located near St. Petersburg, three steam engines operated. Product production increased annually by 10-15%. In the 1810s, the manufactory produced more than half of all yarn in Russia. Civilian workers worked there.
In 1801, a foundry and a mechanical plant were established in St. Petersburg. It was the biggest mechanical engineering production Russia before the 1917 revolution, producing steam boilers and equipment for domestic factories and factories.
IN Russian legislation provisions appeared to regulate new forms entrepreneurial activity. On January 1, 1807, the royal manifesto “On the new benefits, differences, advantages and new ways to spread and strengthen trade enterprises granted to the merchants” was published.
It made it possible to establish companies and firms on the basis of a merger of capitals individuals. These companies could arise only with the permission of the supreme power (all charters of joint-stock companies were necessarily approved by the tsar). Their participants now had to avoid acquiring merchant certificates and not being “assigned to the guild.”
In 1807, there were 5 joint-stock companies operating in Russia. First, " Diving company", specialized in transporting passengers and cargo along the Gulf of Finland.
In the first quarter of the 19th century, 17 more companies engaged in trade, insurance, and transportation began operating. The joint stock form of organizing capital and entrepreneurial activity was very promising, allowing one to collect significant total capital. Subsequently, with the development of industry and trade, the joint-stock company became the most important element of the Russian economy. After a few decades, the number of operating companies was already measured in the hundreds.
Questions and tasks
- The nobility was called the noble class. Explain why. By whom and when were the class rights and privileges of the nobles confirmed? What were they?
- What new did the decree on free cultivators introduce into the life of Russia?
- Analyze the following facts:
- in the southern steppes and in the Volga region, areas for the production of marketable bread were formed;
- the use of machines on landowner farms began;
- in 1818, Alexander I adopted a decree allowing all peasants, including serfs, to establish factories and factories;
- in 1815 steamships appeared in Russia.
Draw all possible conclusions.
- What new forms of entrepreneurship appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century?
- What is territorial specialization? How did its appearance indicate the development of the economy?
Management of the Russian Empire. TO end of the 19th century V. the autocracy, it seemed, stood firmly and indestructible. All higher functions powers (legislative, executive and judicial) were concentrated in the hands of the emperor, but the implementation of each of them was carried out through a system of state institutions.
Supreme legislative body, as before, remained State Council endowed with legislative advisory rights. It consisted of persons appointed by the king and ministers. For the most part, these were famous courtiers and dignitaries, many of whom were very advanced in age, which allowed the salon public to call them nothing more than State Soviet elders. The State Council had no legislative initiative. At its meetings, only bills introduced by the monarch, but developed by ministries, were discussed.
The main executive body was the Committee of Ministers. It was headed by a Chairman, whose functions were very limited. The Committee of Ministers included not only ministers, but also heads of departments and government administrations. Cases requiring the approval of various ministers were brought before the Committee. It was not a consolidated governing body coordinating the activities of individual departments. The committee was a meeting of administratively independent dignitaries. Each minister had the right to report directly to the emperor and was guided by his orders. The minister was appointed exclusively by the monarch.
The emperor was considered the head of the court and judicial administration, and all court proceedings were carried out in his name. The monarch’s competence did not extend to specific legal proceedings; he played the role of the highest and final arbiter.
The monarch exercised supervision over the court and administration through the Governing Senate, which ensured that the orders of the supreme power were carried out locally, and resolved complaints about the actions and orders of all authorities and persons up to and including ministers.
IN administratively Russia was divided into 78 provinces, 18 regions and the island of Sakhalin. There were administrative units that included several provinces - governorates-general, usually established on the outskirts. The governor was appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Internal Affairs.
Since 1809, the Russian Empire also included Finland (the Grand Duchy of Finland), the head of which was the emperor and which had broad internal autonomy - its own government (Senate), customs, police, and currency.
As vassal entities, Russia also included two Central Asian states - Bukhara Khanate(emirate) and Khanate of Khiva. They were in complete political dependence on Russia, but in internal affairs their rulers had autonomous rights.
The governor's power was extensive and extended to almost all areas of life in the province.
Public education and health care were part of the central government system.
Cities had self-government in the form of city councils and councils. They were entrusted with administrative and economic tasks - transport, lighting, heating, sewerage, water supply, improvement of pavements, sidewalks, embankments and bridges, as well as management of educational and charitable affairs, local trade, industry and credit.
The right to take part in city elections was determined by a property qualification. It was available only to those who owned this city real estate (in major centers- costing at least 3 thousand rubles, in small cities this threshold was much lower).
Four cities (St. Petersburg, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kerch-Bnikale) were removed from the provinces and were governed by mayors directly subordinate to the central government.
The provinces were divided into counties and the regions into districts. The county was the lowest administrative unit, and further division had already special appointment: volost - for peasant self-government, areas of zemstvo chiefs, areas of judicial investigators, etc.
By the end of the 19th century. zemstvo self-government was introduced in 34 provinces European Russia, and in other areas government agencies were in charge of affairs. Zemstvo bodies were mainly engaged in economic affairs - the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, charitable institutions, statistics, handicraft industry, and the organization of land loans. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos had the right to establish special zemstvo fees.
The zemstvo administration consisted of provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and executive bodies- provincial and district zemstvo councils, which had their own permanent offices and departments.
Elections to zemstvos were held every three years at three electoral congresses - landowners, townspeople and peasants. The district zemstvo assemblies elected their representatives to the provincial zemstvo assembly, which formed the provincial zemstvo government. At the head of the district and provincial zemstvo councils were elected chairmen. They not only supervised the activities of these institutions, but also represented zemstvos in state governing bodies (provincial presences).
To the question Help! Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. given by the author Insufficient salting the best answer is 1. Social movements in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first years of the reign of Alexander I were marked by a noticeable revival public life. Current issues domestic and foreign policies of the state were discussed in scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, in secular salons and in Masonic lodges. The focus of public attention was on the attitude towards French Revolution, serfdom and autocracy.
The lifting of the ban on the activities of private printing houses, permission to import books from abroad, the adoption of a new censorship charter (1804) - all this had a significant impact on further distribution in Russia the ideas of the European Enlightenment. Educational goals were set by I.P. Pnin, V.V. Popugaev, A.Kh. Vostokov, A.P. Kunitsyn, who created in St. Petersburg Free Society lovers of literature, sciences and arts (1801-1825). Being under strong influence Radishchev's views, they translated the works of Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, published articles and literary works.
Supporters of various ideological trends began to group around new magazines. “Bulletin of Europe”, published by N. M. Karamzin and then by V. A. Zhukovsky, was popular.
Most Russian educators considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. However, they constituted only a small part of society and, in addition, remembering the horrors Jacobin terror, hoped to achieve their goal peacefully, through education, moral education and the formation of civic consciousness.
The bulk of the nobility and officials were conservative. The views of the majority were reflected in the “Note on Ancient and new Russia” N. M. Karamzin (1811). Recognizing the need for change, Karamzin opposed the plan for constitutional reforms, since Russia, where “the sovereign is the living law,” does not need a constitution, but fifty “smart and virtuous governors.”
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army played a huge role in the development of national identity. The country was experiencing a huge patriotic upsurge, hopes for sweeping changes revived among the people and society, everyone was waiting for changes for the better - and they did not receive it. The peasants were the first to be disappointed. Heroic members battles, saviors of the Fatherland, they hoped to gain freedom, but from the manifesto on the occasion of the victory over Napoleon (1814) they heard:
“Peasants, our faithful people, may they receive their reward from God.” A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country, the number of which increased in the post-war period. In total, according to incomplete data, about 280 peasant unrest occurred over a quarter of a century, and approximately 2/3 of them occurred in 1813-1820. The movement on the Don (1818-1820) was especially long and fierce, in which more than 45 thousand peasants were involved. Constant unrest accompanied the introduction of military settlements. One of the largest was the uprising in Chuguev in the summer of 1819.
2. Russian foreign policy in 1801 - early 1812
After ascending the throne, Alexander I began to adhere to the tactic of refusing political and trade agreements concluded by his father. The foreign policy position he developed together with his “young friends” can be characterized as a “free hands” policy. Russia tried, maintaining its position great power, act as an arbiter in the Anglo-French conflict and, having achieved concessions related to navigation in the Eastern Mediterranean Russian ships, reduce military tension on the continent.
Answer from twig[master]
1) The theory of official nationality - state ideology during the reign of Nicholas I, the author of which was S.S. Uvarov. It was based on conservative views on education, science, and literature. The basic principles were set out by Count Sergei Uvarov upon assuming the post of Minister of Public Education in his report to Nicholas I “On some general principles who can serve as a guide in the management of the Ministry of Public Education"
Later, this ideology became briefly called “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality.”
According to this theory, the Russian people are deeply religious and devoted to the throne, and Orthodox faith and autocracy constitute the indispensable conditions for the existence of Russia. Nationality was understood as the need to adhere to one’s own traditions and reject foreign influence. The term was a kind of attempt to ideologically substantiate the government course of Nicholas I in the early 1830s. Within the framework of this theory, the head of the III department, Benkendorf, wrote that Russia’s past is amazing, the present is beautiful, and the future is beyond all imagination.
Westernism is a direction of Russian social and philosophical thought that developed in the 1830s - 1850s, whose representatives, unlike the Slavophiles and Pochvenniks, denied the idea of the originality and uniqueness of the historical destinies of Russia. The peculiarities of the cultural, everyday and socio-political structure of Russia were considered by Westerners mainly as a consequence of delays and lags in development. Westerners believed that there was the only way development of humanity, in which Russia is forced to catch up the developed countries Western Europe.
Westerners
In a less strict understanding, Westerners include everyone oriented toward Western European cultural and ideological values.
The most notable representatives of the Westernizing trend in Russian literature and philosophical thought are considered to be P. Ya. Chaadaev, T. N. Granovsky, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, N. Kh. Ketcher, V. P. Botkin, P. V. Annenkov, E. F. Korsh, K. D. Kavelin.
The Westerners were joined by such writers and publicists as N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev, A. F. Pisemsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Slavophilism is a literary and philosophical movement of social thought that took shape in the 40s of the 19th century, whose representatives claim special type culture, which arose on the spiritual soil of Orthodoxy, and also deny the thesis of Westerners that Peter the Great returned Russia to the fold European countries and she must go through this path politically, economically and cultural development.
The trend arose in opposition to Westernism, whose supporters advocated Russia's orientation towards Western European cultural and ideological values.
2)
P.S. The Decembrists would have approached the first question