Internal and external reforms of Catherine 2. The struggle for the throne

The upbringing and education of the future empress was distinguished by great originality. On the one hand, being brought to Russia not yet at such a mature age, she never mastered the Russian language properly. But, on the other hand, she had an excellent command of the French language. Her correspondence with Voltaire and encyclopedists is known, and she herself did not shy away from literary work and was fond of history. Her mood and moral state were also influenced by her incomplete stay at the court of Elizabeth. Apparently, the fear of the possibility of a conspiracy in the first years of her reign also had an impact.

Palace coups made the change of power in the eyes of the nobility not so difficult. In 1764, officer Mirovich made an attempt to free Ivan Antonovich, who was being held in the Shlisselburg fortress, and proclaim him emperor. This attempt was unsuccessful: the soldiers of the internal guard stabbed Ivan Antonovich to death even before Mirovich and his company burst into the casemate. Catherine was greatly frightened by this attempt at a palace coup.

The internal policy of Catherine’s government can, like the Elizabethan period, be divided into two stages: before the uprising under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev 1773-1775. and after it. The first period is characterized by a policy called enlightened absolutism. Catherine wanted to implement the ideal of a “philosopher on the throne,” which was very common in the second half of the 18th century. Filled with European ideas, Catherine seemed to sincerely believe that Russian society and people could be remade. This faith was strengthened by the state-serf system itself with its powerful central authority. But the ideals of the Enlightenment did not combine well with the unique Russian phenomenon - serfdom. Natural intelligence and intuition told Catherine that this element of Russian statehood could not be changed. That is why in her Manifesto of July 3, 1762, she declared: “We intend to inviolably preserve the landowners with their estates and possessions, and maintain the peasants in due obedience.” Nevertheless, a number of events of Catherine’s reign bear the stamp of “enlightened absolutism.”

Initially, she canceled her predecessor’s decree on the secularization of church lands, but in 1764, by several decrees, she transferred the monastic lands with the peasants who inhabited them to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy. The reform caused a side effect in the form of a significant reduction in monasteries in Russia. This “atheistic” measure, quite in the spirit of the ideology of the Enlightenment, also had a completely material basis, increasing treasury revenues. At the same time, there was only one daredevil who spoke out against it - Rostov Archbishop Arseny Matseevich.

The ideology of “enlightened absolutism” affected the attitude towards people of other faiths. Here Catherine II actually continued the policy of her unfortunate husband and developed it. She eliminated the double poll tax and the beard tax, and, accordingly, the Raskolnik office, which was responsible for collecting these taxes. The Empress allowed the Tatars to build mosques and open madrassas (theological schools).

One of the empress’s grandiose events was the General Land Survey. Since the last land census, many changes have accumulated in the boundaries of private, primarily noble, estates. Disputes between landowners often turned into “domestic wars.” However, not a single predecessor of Catherine managed to carry out surveys for the simple reason that they began the painful process of investigation. Catherine refused to check the old rights to land and actually legalized all previous seizures. This made it possible to carry out land surveying, although its technological development took almost a hundred years.

In the first actions of the empress, a desire to strengthen her power is noticeable. The reform of the Senate was aimed at this, with the help of which it was divided into six departments, two of which were to be located in Moscow. At the same time, Catherine tried to strengthen the local administration: the States of 1763 increased the number of officials and their content.

In 1765, the first Russian scientific society was created in St. Petersburg, which received the name “Volny”. The founders of the Free Economic Society were high dignitaries (E.E. Orlov, R.I. Vorontsov, etc.), and the first president was A.V. Olsufiev, one of the empress’s secretaries of state. “Free”, i.e. a society free from state tutelage had to work on improving agriculture. Through the efforts of members of the organization, “Proceedings” were published (until 1855), and competitions were held.

The Empress, who loved and valued the printed word, in the late 1760s. provides complete freedom to private initiative in publishing. She herself founded the satirical magazine “All sorts of things”, designed to bring the light of knowledge to an inert society. As for the main goal of the magazine, it was more likely not satire, but light humor. But others took up satire. In the magazines “Truten” and “Zhivopiets” N.I. spoke out very critically of serfdom. Novikov. An intellectual duel arose between “Everything and Drone”, in which Novikov gained the upper hand - Catherine’s magazine was closed. But the last word, naturally, remained with the empress - soon the “Drone” was closed as well. There were other journals, commissions, debates, but in all this there was a lot of hype, empty talk and outright demagoguery.

Measures with a clear touch of “enlightened absolutism” include attempts to create a new Code. The Council Code of 1649 no longer corresponded to the new historical situation. Attempts to streamline legislation were made under Peter, and under Anna Ivanovna, and under Elizabeth, for which purpose “settled commissions” were created. However, not a single commission was able to bring the matter to the final result.

In the summer of 1767, a “Commission for drawing up a new code” was assembled in Moscow. Representation in it was class-based: nobles from each district elected their own deputy, townspeople from each city also elected one deputy, regardless of the size of the population. From the peasants of each province, elections to the commission were made from single-dvorets, service people, black-sowing and yasak peasants.

Catherine drew up special instructions for this commission - “Instructions”. It was a compilation of various works of enlightenment philosophers. The Empress revised this work more than once, its liberal spirit gradually weakened, nevertheless, it condemns the most cruel forms of serfdom.

The work of the commission eloquently testified to the intensity of social contradictions in the country. The “noble” nobility came up with a number of demands of a narrow class nature. But the demands of the nobles ran counter to the interests of the merchants who were gaining strength. However, the greatest controversy was, of course, caused by the peasant question. Deputy from Kozlovsky district Grigory Korobin sharply criticized all the cruelties of patrimonial justice. In his opinion, supported by some other deputies, peasants should have the right to real estate. The speeches of state peasants showed the difficult situation of this category of peasantry, which was exhausted under the burden of taxes. Catherine II was frightened by this turn of events. Using the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish war as a pretext, she dissolved the Commission for an indefinite period.

After the uprising under the leadership of E. Pugachev, the policy of Catherine’s government became much tougher and aimed at further strengthening the power of the state. A number of measures are being taken to strengthen the state apparatus and to better adapt the nobility to the role of support of power.

In 1775, Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished and the Zaporozhye Sich was destroyed. These attacks on the last strongholds of “direct democracy” on the outskirts of Russia testified to the onset of the despotic power of the autocracy.

In the same year, the “Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire” was published. This was the famous Catherine's provincial reform. The entire empire was divided into 50 provinces instead of the previous 23. The basis was the principle of a certain population size in the province. The county became a smaller unit.

The governor was at the head of the province. Sometimes two or three provinces were united under the authority of a specially appointed dignitary (viceroy or governor-general). The governor had an assistant - the vice-governor and a special staff - the provincial government. In cities, mayors were appointed instead of governors. The district was governed by a police captain. A division was made between administrative, financial and judicial matters. A treasury chamber was formed to manage all financial affairs of the province. In addition, in each provincial city there was an Order of Public Charity, which was in charge of schools, hospitals, almshouses and shelters. The nobles actually received the right of local self-government. At their meetings they elected a district leader of the nobility, and at the same meetings in the province a provincial leader of the nobility was elected.

In April 1785, the Charter of the Nobility was published - the most important document in the process of development of the nobility as a privileged class in the 18th century. All the privileges that the nobles achieved throughout the century were confirmed by the “Certificate” and received the status of law. The nobleman was completely freed from taxes and corporal punishment. He could only be convicted by a noble court. The nobles had exclusive ownership of land. The nobility finally formed as a class, acquiring a corporate structure. However, this “class” also had a number of features that distinguished it from Western classes.

Simultaneously with the Charter of Grant to the nobility, Catherine II also signed the Charter of Grant to the cities. According to this charter, the entire population of cities was divided into 6 categories, which made up the “city society”. Once every three years, this society had the right at its meeting to elect from its ranks the mayor and members of the “general city duma.” The General Duma elected six representatives (one from each category of city society) to the “six-voice Duma” for three years. This was the executive branch. The urban structure under Catherine II was based on the norms of the so-called Magdeburg Law, which received back in the 16th-17th centuries. distribution on the territory of Ukraine and Belarus, as well as the organization of the cities of the Baltic states (of course, local traditions were also taken into account).

The economic policy of Catherine's government was based on the principles of "enlightened absolutism." It would be more correct to say that the empress herself wanted this. That is why she sought to pay attention to indirect taxes, the position of the merchants, and tried to expand the revenue side of the budget through non-tax sources. But such principles were reflected only in individual and few events. In 1769, for the first time in the history of Russia, paper money (assignats) were introduced, which circulated on a par with silver ones. For the first time in our history, external loans made in Holland also became another means of replenishing the budget.

But the state-serf system dictated its conditions: the already established and established realities could not be shaken. This is why the main focus remains on collecting the poll tax. Under Catherine, the procedure for auditing and recording tax-paying souls was improved. The third revision, begun under Elizabeth, was completed, then the fourth and fifth revisions were carried out. Moreover, the main burden of the constantly increasing poll tax was borne by state peasants. Posad people also paid a poll tax, but unlike state peasants, it was quite stable and did not increase. A special group of taxes, constantly increasing, were taxes paid by the non-Russian and non-Orthodox population. The territory of Russia grew, and this population became more and more. It did not pay the poll tax, but was subject to indirect fees, all kinds of duties, etc.

Ancient in-kind duties, with their roots dating back to the 14th-15th centuries, were preserved: road (construction and maintenance of roads), underwater and many others.

As before, the most important, in addition to direct taxes, were indirect taxes: wine, salt, customs. To increase income from the wine monopoly, the tax farming system was again used. The state monopoly on salt was also maintained, but a more lenient pricing policy was pursued.

During Catherine's reign, the customs tariff was revised several times. Customs policy reflected the influence of the views of educators who advocated free trade. The tariff of 1782 became one of the most moderate in Russian history. The bulk of goods delivered from abroad were subject to a duty of only 10%. The moderate tariff policy did not prevent the constant increase in customs duties. If in the 1760s. income from customs duties amounted to 2-3 million rubles. annually, then by the early 1790s. it reaches 7 million rubles. It is impossible not to note the specific nature of this indirect collection. As N.D. noted. Chechulin is a brilliant representative of the St. Petersburg historical school - this was the only tax that was paid mainly by the top of society. After all, the consumers of imported goods were the nobility, and, buying them at inflated prices, they paid high import duties. It was a kind of luxury tax.

Catherine tried to normalize the management of tax collection. It was decided to once again strengthen the role of the Chamber Board. The Senate, headed by Prosecutor General A.A., played an increasingly significant role in financial management. Vyazemsky. It was under the First Department of the Senate that the State Revenue Expedition was created. Information about the receipt of taxes, arrears, etc. flocked here from all over the country.

Major changes in the organization of financial management occurred during the provincial reform. In each province, a local financial department was established - the treasury chamber. She was in charge of collecting all taxes in the province. In the counties, the positions of a county treasurer were created, who collected taxes and, under the control of the provincial treasury chamber, sent them to the center. At the same time, up to a third of the taxes collected went to local needs. In this, modern researchers see a desire to take into account local interests, to find some kind of balance between them and the needs of the state.

“Foreign policy is the most brilliant side of Catherine’s state activity, which made the strongest impression on her contemporaries and immediate descendants” (V.O. Klyuchevsky). Catherine firmly set her sights on an independent foreign policy focused on state interests. Foreign policy was based on the same idea as in the time of Peter the Great - establishment on the shores of the Baltic and Black Sea, recognizing, however, the priority of the southern, Black Sea direction. The “overarching goal” of Catherine’s diplomacy was to ensure freedom of Russian merchant shipping in the Black Sea with subsequent access to the Mediterranean, and assistance to the peoples of the same faith in the Balkans and Heresy.

One of the first foreign policy measures was the installation of Stanislav Poniatowski, the hero of one of the most striking novels of the empress, on the Polish throne to replace the deceased Augustus III. After Poniatowski's election, the Russian-Prussian alliance was concluded (March 31, 1765). According to the plan of the head of the foreign policy department, Count N.I. Panin, it was supposed to form the basis of the “Northern Accord” - a union of states located in the north of Europe: Denmark, Prussia, Poland and Sweden, with the participation of England. "Accord" (French - agreement) was supposed to resist the Franco-Spanish-Austrian bloc.

The time after Poniatowski’s enthronement was also marked by another, but very fierce confrontation in Poland between Catholics and dissidents (Orthodox and Protestants). Poland was torn apart by internal contradictions. National contradictions were also very acute in the country. The peoples of Ukraine and Belarus that were part of it were under the cruel socio-economic and national oppression of the Polish gentry. The situation was aggravated by the chaos and anarchy that reigned in Polish gentry society.

Russia, meanwhile, has significantly strengthened its position in this region. Left-bank Ukraine (Hetmanate) lost the remnants of its independence. In 1763, Catherine summoned Hetman Razumovsky to St. Petersburg, and the next year a manifesto was issued, which stated that Razumovsky “voluntarily” renounced the hetmanship. On the Left Bank, the Third Little Russian Collegium appeared with a president who had the powers of the governor-general. He became the famous commander P.A. Rumyantsev.

The right bank lands of Ukraine (Kiev region, Bratslav region, Volyn and Podolia) were under Polish rule. They experienced heavy oppression from Poland, which was accompanied by severe religious contradictions, in particular, the struggle between the Orthodox and the Uniates. Like more than a century ago in the “Khmelnytsky region,” here too there was an armed force capable of leading the people to fight - the Haidamaks - an analogue of the Zaporozhye Cossacks.

The situation became more complicated when a confederation of his opponents, formed in the city of Bar on the Right Bank of Ukraine, came out against Stanislav Poniatowski. The “Grapes of People's Wrath” once again turned into the seething wine of the armed uprising of the Haidamaks - “Koliivshchyna”. The Haidamaks, led by their leaders Maxim Zaliznyak and Ivan Gonta, captured a number of settlements in 1768 and carried out a terrible massacre in the city of Uman. Right-bank Ukraine was plunging into the abyss of bloody chaos.

At the same time, relations between Russia and Turkey became increasingly tense. Their interests collided in Moldova, the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, and French diplomacy did everything to raise Porto to war.

The reason for the war was an attack by the Haidamaks, who destroyed a town located on Turkish territory. After some setbacks, Russian troops took the Khotyn fortress in September 1769, and in September Iasi, then Bucharest. As a result of actions in the North Caucasus, Kabarda became part of Russia. In 1770 P.A. Rumyantsev inflicted serious defeats on the Turks on the Larga and Kagul rivers. In July 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral I.A. Spiridov defeated the Turkish fleet near the island of Chios in Chesma Bay.

Russia's victories in the war activated European governments that did not want our country to strengthen. Russia did not benefit from the division of Poland and the strengthening of states such as Prussia and Austria at its expense. Poland suited Russia better as a buffer state on the border with stronger neighbors. But in the current situation, Russia was forced to partition Poland.

In 1771, Russian troops took Perekop, and in 1772 the Turks concluded a truce and agreed to negotiations. Negotiations began and were interrupted, and the Turks hoped for revenge.

By the summer of 1772, Suvorov's miracle heroes defeated the Confederates. By this time, all controversial issues regarding the division of Poland had finally been settled. In July, two secret conventions were signed in St. Petersburg: one between Russia and Prussia, the other between Russia and Austria. Prussia and Austria pledged to facilitate the conclusion of peace between Russia and Turkey. Under pressure from the powers, in September 1773 the Polish Sejm sanctioned an agreement on the first partition of Poland.

About a third of the territory and 40% of the population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were given to the three powers. The most significant were the acquisitions of Prussia, which solved the most important task - the reunification of East and West Prussia. True, the most populated and industrially developed were the Austrian acquisitions - Eastern Galicia with Lvov and Przemysl, but without Krakow. Russia received the entire Podvinia and part of the Upper Dnieper region, the voivodeships of Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mstislav, part of Minsk and part of Polish Livonia.

In the 70-80s of the 18th century. the question of Right Bank Ukraine was increasingly connected with the question of Russia’s further advance towards the Black Sea, and this, in turn, gave rise to the Russian-Turkish conflict with renewed vigor. Russia's entire foreign policy was tied into a complex Baltic-Polish-Eastern knot. Russia's military successes - A.V. Suvorov's victory at Kozludzha - made Turkey more accommodating. In the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi, on July 10/21, 1774, a peace treaty was signed. According to the agreement, Russia received from Turkey a huge territory from the Bug and the Kinburn fortress at the mouth of the Dnieper to Azov, with part of the Kuban and Azov lands. Kabarda was included in the state borders of Russia. Russia also received an outlet from the Sea of Azov - the fortress of Kerch, Yenikale. Crimea was declared independent, and Russia received 4.5 million rubles from Turkey. indemnities.

The increased power of Russia allowed Catherine II to have a very strong influence on the entire course of foreign policy relations in Europe. During the war for the Bavarian inheritance that broke out between Austria and Prussia, Catherine acted as an arbitrator. The Peace of Teschen of 1779, which ended this war, the terms of which were guaranteed by Catherine, led to a significant increase in the influence of Russian diplomacy on the entire course of affairs in Central Europe and especially in Germany.

Russia also played an outstanding role in the events associated with the American colonies' war for independence. Russia rejected England's attempts to use its forces to wage war in America. Moreover, in February 1780 she published a declaration of “armed neutrality”, which dealt a blow to British supremacy at sea.

At this time, there is a change in the main course of foreign policy. Strained relations with England, cooling in relations with Prussia - all this led to the fall of the Northern Accord. The process of rapprochement with Austria begins, initiated by the meeting of Catherine II in 1780 in Mogilev with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. Even figures in the foreign policy department are changing. Count Nikita Ivanovich Panin is replaced by Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko, a talented diplomat and statesman. Prince Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin, Catherine's favorite, begins to play a major role in foreign policy.

The basic concept of foreign policy is also changing. The so-called “Greek Project” is born. It was supposed to expel the Turks from Europe and create a Greek empire led by representatives of the Russian ruling house on the territory of the former Ottoman Empire. From the Danube principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia - a new buffer state was to be formed (bearing the ancient name - Dacia). Austria was supposed to be the main ally, for which it was supposed to receive the western part of the Balkan Peninsula under its influence. This was, of course, more of an illusion than a political reality...

Be that as it may, things were heading towards a new war with Turkey. In 1783, Russia annexed Crimea, which displeased the Turkish government. Defiantly failing to fulfill the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, Türkiye itself declared war. Russia's position was soon complicated by Sweden's performance. King Gustav III began the siege of the Neishlot fortress and presented clearly impossible demands to Russia. But the defense of Neishlot and the victory of the Russian fleet in July 1788 near Gogland over the Swedish fleet, as well as a number of other campaigns, forced the Swedish government to conclude peace.

Russia achieved outstanding success in the war with Turkey. Under the leadership of A.V. Suvorov, the Ochakov fortress was taken, the Turks were defeated at Focsani and Rymnik. One of the most striking pages of this war is the capture of the Izmail fortress. But the betrayal of Austria and the Swedish danger forced Russia to be cautious. In 1791, the Peace of Jassy was signed, according to which Turkey pledged to steadily fulfill the conditions of the previous peace, recognized the new border with Russia along the Dniester and the annexation of Crimea.

In Poland, after the first partition, a movement began to grow to strengthen the economy and political system through reforms. A number of positive measures were taken by the Sejm of 1788, which was called the Four-Year Sejm. On May 3, 1791, this Sejm adopted a new constitution. But little was done to improve the lives of the lower classes, especially those of Ukrainian and Belarusian origin.

In Poland, representatives of the foreign ministries of Russia, Prussia, and Austria crossed their “diplomatic swords.” It is difficult to say who was superior to whom in deceit, but for Poland itself the events unfolded dramatically.

In the summer of 1791, Russian troops that took part in the war with Turkey were transferred to Poland. A confederation arose immediately in the city of Targowice, which was joined by the Polish king. Tsarist troops soon took Warsaw. The Constitution was abolished on May 3, and in March 1793 the second partition of Poland took place. Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine went to Russia. Prussia captured Gdansk (Danzig), Torun and Greater Poland with Poznan. The remaining part of Poland, with a population of 4 million people, was surrounded on all sides by strong and hostile states that imposed their own conditions on it.

This caused a patriotic upsurge in the country. Soon one of the units of the Polish army rebelled. Krakow becomes the center of the uprising, and its leader is General Tadeusz Kosciuszko. He occupied Warsaw. Soon the uprising spread to Lithuania, Greater Poland and Pomerania. However, a significant part of the peasantry was disappointed by the measures that Kosciuszko took, which significantly weakened his strength. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov defeated the Polish troops.

At the beginning of 1795, the third partition of Poland was carried out, destroying the independent Polish state. Most of the lands of Poland with Warsaw were given to Prussia, Lesser Poland with Lublin went to Austria. Russia received Lithuania, Western Belarus and Western Volyn. The Duchy of Courland, which was dependent on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was also annexed to Russia. The annexation of ancient Russian lands to Russia was logical, since it preserved the national integrity of the East Slavic peoples. However, the relations of the tsarist government towards Ukraine and Belarus should not be idealized. As for Poland, it was a tragedy of the Polish people, who lost their statehood for a long time.

Chronology

1764 Decree on the secularization of church lands.
1765 Decree allowing landowners to exile serfs to hard labor.
1768 - 1774 I Russian-Turkish War.
1772, 1793, 1795 Three partitions of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia.
1773 - 1775 Uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev.
1774 Signing of the Kuchuk-Kaynajir peace treaty between Russia and Turkey.
1775 Provincial reform.
1785 Charters granted to the nobility and cities.
1787 - 1791 II Russian-Turkish War.
1796 - 1801 Reign of Paul I.

"Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II

“Have the courage to use your mind,” - this is how the German philosopher Immanuel Kant defined the mentality of the era, which was called the Age of Enlightenment. In the second half of the 18th century. In connection with the general economic upswing in the ruling circles of European countries, awareness of the need to modernize the economic and political system is growing. This pan-European phenomenon is traditionally called Enlightened absolutism. Without essentially changing the state forms of absolute monarchy, within the framework of these forms, monarchs carried out reforms in various sectors.

The ideas of the French enlighteners Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot highlighted society, a specific person, his personal prosperity, which was a reflection of the emerging ideology of a new class - the bourgeoisie. Rousseau proposed creating a democratic state in which everyone could take part in governance. Voltaire actively preached humanity and justice, insisted on the abolition of medieval forms of legal proceedings. Diderot called for the abolition of class privileges and the liberation of the peasants.

Catherine II became acquainted with the works of French educators while she was still a princess. Having ascended the throne, she made an attempt to implement these ideas on Russian soil. The key word for her was “law.”

In 1767, Catherine convened a special commission in Moscow to draw up a new set of laws of the Russian Empire to replace the outdated Council Code of 1649. 572 deputies, representing the nobility, clergy, government institutions, peasants and Cossacks, participated in the work of the Coded Commission. Serf peasants, who made up half of the country's population, did not participate in the work of the commission.

Catherine prepared a special “Instruction” for the Commission to draft a new Code - a theoretical justification for the policy of enlightened absolutism. “The Mandate” consisted of 20 chapters and 655 articles, of which Catherine borrowed 294 from Montesquieu. “I only own the arrangement of the material, and here and there a line or another,” she wrote to Frederick II. The main provision of this document was the justification of the autocratic form of government and serfdom, and the features of enlightenment were visible in the creation of courts, separated from administrative institutions, and the recognition of the rights of people to do what the laws allow. Articles that protected society from despotism and the arbitrariness of the monarch deserve a positive assessment. Institutions were given the right to draw the attention of the sovereign to the fact that “such and such a decree is contrary to the Code, that it is harmful, obscure, and that it cannot be carried out according to it.” The articles that determined the economic policy of the government, which included concern for the construction of new cities, the development of trade, industry and agriculture, had a progressive significance. The commission, after working for just over a year, was dissolved under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey, but mainly because Catherine, having learned the positions of various groups of the population, considered the task completed, although not a single law was adopted.

The nobility remained the main social support of the autocracy in Russia. It opposed the huge mass of the peasantry and the weak third estate. The autocracy was strong and relied on the army and the bureaucratic apparatus to carry out its policies.

It is important to emphasize that, in contrast to the overt pro-noble and pro-serfdom policy of the autocracy of the previous period, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was carried out in new forms.

In February 1764, the secularization of church land ownership was carried out, as a result, more than a million souls of peasants were taken away from the church, and a special board was created to manage them - the College of Economics. Much former church land was transferred to the nobles in the form of grants.

A series of decrees of the 60s crowned the feudal legislation, which turned the serfs into people completely defenseless from the arbitrariness of the landowners, obliged to meekly obey their will. In 1765, a decree was issued in favor of the serf owners, providing for the assignment to the nobles of all lands seized by them from various categories of peasants. According to the Decree of January 17, 1765, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor. In August 1767, Catherine II issued the most feudal decree in the entire history of serfdom. This decree declared any complaint from a peasant against a landowner to be a grave state crime. Legally, the landowners were deprived of only one right - to deprive their serfs of life.

In Catherine’s “enlightened age,” trade among peasants reached enormous proportions. The decrees adopted during these years testified to the deep development of serfdom. But serfdom also developed in breadth, including new categories of the population within its sphere of influence. The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left Bank Ukraine from changing from one owner to another. This decree of the tsarist government legally formalized serfdom in the Left Bank and Slobodskaya Ukraine.

A manifestation of “enlightened absolutism” was the empress’s attempt to shape public opinion through journalism. In 1769, she began to publish the satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” where human vices and superstitions were criticized, and opened a printing house at Moscow University, headed by N.I. Novikov is a Russian educator, publicist and writer. Pushkin called him “one of those who spread the first rays of enlightenment.” He made the works of W. Shakespeare, J.B. available to a wide range of readers. Moliere, M. Cervantes, works of French enlighteners, Russian historians. Novikov published many magazines, where, for the first time in Russia, criticism of serfdom was voiced. Thus, it was in the age of Catherine that, on the one hand, the serfdom reached its apogee, and on the other, a protest against it arose not only from the oppressed class (the peasant war led by E. Pugachev), but also from the emerging Russian intelligentsia.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Illustration 29. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. (European part)

Two main questions in Catherine’s international policy, posed and resolved by her during her reign:

Firstly, territorial - this is the task of promoting the southern border of the state (Black Sea, Crimea, Sea of Azov, Caucasus Range).
Secondly, the national one is the reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with Russia.

After the Seven Years' War, France became one of Russia's main opponents in the international arena, which sought to create the so-called “Eastern Barrier”, consisting of Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is becoming an arena for clashes between these states.

In the context of an aggravated situation, Russia managed to conclude an alliance with Prussia. Catherine II preferred to have a complete Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Frederick II strives for its territorial division.

The Ottoman Empire, which closely followed the events in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from there. In 1768 she declared war on Russia. During the first years of the war, Turkish troops were forced to abandon Khotyn, Iasi, Bucharest, Izmail and other fortresses in the Danube theater of operations.

It is necessary to note two major victories of the Russian troops.

The first occurred on June 25-26, 1770, when the Russian squadron, having circumnavigated Europe, arrived in the Mediterranean Sea and won a brilliant victory near Chesma. A month later, the talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev inflicted a serious defeat on the Turks at the Battle of Kagul. The hostilities did not stop there.

France continued to push the Ottoman Empire into war with Russia. On the other hand, Austria supported Turkey, pursuing its own goals in this war - to conquer part of the Danube principalities that were in the hands of Russian troops. Under the current conditions, the Russian government was forced to agree to the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Convention of 1772 formalized the first section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Austria captured Galicia, Pomerania, as well as part of Greater Poland, went to Prussia. Russia received part of Eastern Belarus.

Now Türkiye in 1772 agreed to conduct peace negotiations. The main point of disagreement in these negotiations was the question of the fate of Crimea - the Ottoman Empire refused to grant it independence, while Russia insisted on it. Hostilities resumed. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov in June 1774 managed to defeat the Turkish troops at Kozludzha, this forced the enemy to resume negotiations.

On July 10, 1774, negotiations in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi ended with the signing of a peace treaty. Through this world, Kerch, Yenikale, and also Kabarda passed to Russia. At the same time, she received the right to build a navy in the Black Sea, her merchant ships could freely pass through the straits. Thus ended the First Russian-Turkish War (1768 - 1774).

However, the Turks already in 1775 violated the terms of the treaty and arbitrarily proclaimed their protege Devlet-Girey Khan of the Crimea. In response, the Russian government sent troops into Crimea and confirmed its candidate, Shagin-Girey, on the khan’s throne. The rivalry between the two powers in the struggle for Crimea ended with the promulgation in April 1783 of Catherine II’s decree on the inclusion of Crimea into Russia.

Among other Russian foreign policy steps of that period, the Georgievsky Tract should be highlighted. In 1783, an agreement was concluded with Eastern Georgia, which went down in history under the name “Treaty of St. George”, which strengthened the position of the peoples of Transcaucasia in the fight against the Iranian and Ottoman yoke.

The Ottoman Empire, although it recognized the annexation of Crimea to Russia, was intensively preparing for war with it. She was supported by England, Prussia, and France. At the end of July 1787, the Sultan's court demanded the right to Georgia and Crimea, and then began military operations with an attack on the Kinburn fortress, but this attempt was repulsed by Suvorov.

In the defeat of the Ottoman army and navy, great credit goes to the outstanding Russian commander Suvorov, who was at the head of the army, and the extraordinary talent of naval commander F.F. Ushakova.

1790 was marked by two outstanding victories. At the end of August, a naval victory was won over the Turkish fleet. Another important event of this period was the assault and capture of the Izmail fortress. This powerful fortress with a garrison of 35 thousand people and 265 guns was considered inaccessible. On December 2, A.V. appeared near Izmail. Suvorov, at dawn on December 11, the assault began, and the fortress was taken by Russian troops.

These victories of the Russian troops forced Turkey to end the war, and at the end of December 1791 to conclude a peace treaty, which confirmed the annexation of Crimea to Russia and the establishment of a protectorate over Georgia. Thus ended the Second Russian-Turkish War (1787 - 1791).

Poland continues to occupy a large place in Russian foreign policy these years. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth itself, some magnates and gentry turned to Russia for help. At their call, Russian and Prussian troops were brought into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and conditions were created for its new division.

In January 1793, a Russian-Prussian treaty was concluded, according to which Polish lands (Gdansk, Torun, Poznan) went to Prussia, and Russia was reunited with Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus, from which the Minsk province was later formed - the second partition of Poland occurred.

The second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the rise of a national liberation movement led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko. In the fall of 1794, Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov entered Warsaw. The uprising was suppressed, and Kosciuszko himself was captured.

In 1795, the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place, putting an end to its existence. The agreement was signed in October 1795, Austria sent its troops to Sandomierz, Lublin and Chelmin, and Prussia to Krakow. The western part of Belarus, Western Volyn, Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland went to Russia. The last king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abdicated the throne and lived in Russia until his death in 1798.

The reunification of Belarus and Western Ukraine, ethnically close to the Russian peoples, with Russia contributed to the mutual enrichment of their cultures.

Paul I

The reign of Paul I (1796 - 1801) is called “unenlightened absolutism” by some historians, “military-police dictatorship” by others, and the reign of a “romantic emperor” by others. Having become emperor, the son of Catherine II tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. His characteristic features were harshness, hot temper, and instability. He tightened the rules of service for nobles, limited the effect of the Letter of Grant to the nobility, and introduced Prussian order in the army, which inevitably caused discontent among the upper class of Russian society. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander I, the last palace coup in history was carried out. Pavel was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.

Since childhood, independent and inquisitive Catherine II managed to carry out a real revolution in Russia. In 1744, she was summoned by the Empress to St. Petersburg. There, Catherine converted to Orthodoxy and became the bride of Prince Peter Fedorovich.

Fight for the throne

The future empress tried in every possible way to win the favor of her husband, his mother and the people. Catherine spent a lot of time studying books on economics, law, and history, which influenced her worldview. When Peter III ascended the throne, his relationship with his wife developed into mutual hostility. At this time, Catherine began to prepare a conspiracy. On her side were the Orlovs, K.G. Razumovsky. N.I. Panin and others. In June 1762, when the emperor was not in St. Petersburg, Catherine entered the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment and was declared an autocratic ruler. After long requests for negotiations, her husband abdicated the throne in writing. The domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II began its development.

Features of the board

Catherine II was able to surround herself with talented and extraordinary personalities. She strongly supported interesting ideas that could be profitably used for their own purposes. The empress behaved tactfully and reservedly with her subjects, and had the gift of listening to her interlocutor. But Catherine II loved power and could go to any extreme to retain it.

The Empress supported the Orthodox Church, but did not abandon the use of religion in politics. She allowed the construction of Protestant and Catholic churches, and even mosques. But conversion from Orthodoxy to another religion was still punished.

Catherine 2 (briefly)

The Empress chose three postulates on which her activities were based: consistency, gradualism and consideration of public sentiment. Catherine was in words a supporter of the abolition of serfdom, but pursued a policy of supporting the nobles. She established the number of population in each province (residents should not exceed 400 thousand), and in the district (up to 30 thousand). Due to this division, many cities were built.

A number of government agencies were organized in each provincial center. These are such as the main provincial institution - the Administration - headed by the governor, the Criminal and Civil Chambers, and the financial management body (the State Chamber). The following were also established: the Upper Zemstvo Court, the Provincial Magistrate and the Upper Justice. They played the role of a court for different classes and consisted of chairmen and assessors. A body was created for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, which was called. Cases of insane criminals were also dealt with here. The problems of setting up schools, shelters and almshouses were dealt with by the Order of Public Charity.

Political reforms in counties

The internal policies of Catherine II also influenced the cities. A number of boards have also appeared here. Thus, the Lower Zemstvo Court was responsible for the activities of the police and administration. was subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court and considered the cases of nobles. The place where the townspeople were tried was the City Magistrate. To solve the problems of the peasants, the Lower Massacre was created.

Control over the correct implementation of the law was entrusted to the provincial prosecutor and two solicitors. The governor-general monitored the activities of several provinces and could directly address the empress. The internal policy of Catherine II and the table of classes are described in many historical books.

Judicial reform

In 1775, a new system for resolving disputes was established. Each class solved problems by its own judicial body. All courts, except for the Lower Court, were elected. The Upper Zemsky examined the affairs of the landowners, and the Upper and Lower reprisals dealt with peasant disputes (if the peasant was a state-owned peasant). The landowner sorted out the disputes between the serfs. As for clergy, they could only be judged by bishops in provincial consistories. The Senate became the Supreme Judicial Body.

Municipal reform

The Empress sought to create local organizations for each class, giving them the right to self-government. In 1766, Catherine II presented a Manifesto on the formation of a commission to resolve local issues. Under the leadership of the chairman of the society of nobles and the elected head of the city, the election of deputies took place, as well as the transfer of orders to them. As a result, a number of legislative acts appeared that established certain rules of local government. The nobility was endowed with the right to elect district and provincial chairmen, a secretary, a district judge and assessors and other managers. The management of the city economy was carried out by two dumas: the General and the Six-Glass. The first had the right to make orders in this area. The chairman was the mayor. The General Council met as needed. The six-voice meeting met every day. It was the executive body and consisted of six representatives of each class and the mayor. There was also a City Duma, which met every three years. This body had the right to elect the Six-Party Duma.

The domestic policy of Catherine II did not ignore the police. In 1782, she created a decree that regulated the structure of law enforcement agencies, the directions of their activities, as well as the system of punishments.

Life of the nobility

The internal policy of Catherine II, with a number of documents, legally confirmed the advantageous position of this class. It was possible to execute a nobleman or take away his property only after he had committed a serious crime. The court verdict must be agreed upon with the empress. A nobleman could not be subjected to physical punishment. In addition to managing the fate of the peasants and the affairs of the estate, a representative of the estate could freely travel abroad and send his complaints directly to the governor-general. The foreign and domestic policies of Catherine 2 were based on the interests of the class.

The rights of low-income representatives were slightly infringed. Thus, an individual with a certain property qualification could take part in provincial noble meetings. This also applied to approval for a position; in this case, the additional income must be at least 100 rubles per year.

Economic reform

In 1775, a Manifesto was announced, in which everyone was allowed to “voluntarily establish all kinds of camps and produce all kinds of handicrafts on them, without requiring any other permission” from both local and higher authorities. The exception was the mining business, which existed in the form of a state business until 1861, as well as enterprises serving the army. The measures taken contributed to the growth of the merchant economy. This class took an active part in the formation of new production and enterprises. Thanks to the action of the merchants, the linen industry began to develop, which later turned into a textile section. Catherine II in 1775 established three merchant guilds, which were divided among themselves according to the available capital. Each association was charged a 1% capital levy, which was declared and not verified. In 1785, a charter was announced, which stated that merchants had the right to participate in local government and court, and they were exempt from corporal punishment. The privileges applied only to the first and second guilds, and in return an increase in the amount of declared capital was required.

The domestic policy of Catherine II also concerned rural residents. They were allowed to practice their craft and sell the products they received. Peasants traded in churchyards, but were limited in carrying out many trade operations. The nobles could organize fairs and sell goods at them, but did not have the right to build factories in cities. This class tried in every possible way to push back the merchants and seize the textile and distillery industries. And they gradually succeeded, since by the beginning of the 19th century, 74 noblemen had factories at their disposal, and there were only twelve merchants at the head of the enterprises.

Catherine II opened the Assignation Bank, which was created for the successful activities of the upper classes. The financial organization accepted deposits, carried out issues, and accounted for bills of exchange. The result of active actions was the merger of the silver ruble and the assignation ruble.

Reforms of education, culture and science

The features of Catherine II’s domestic policy in these areas were as follows:

On behalf of the Empress, teacher I.I. Betskoy developed the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth.” On its basis, the Society of Noble Maidens, a commercial school and an educational institution at the Academy of Arts were opened. In 1782, a Commission was formed to establish schools to carry out school reform. Its plan was developed by the Austrian teacher F.I. Yankovic. During the reform, public schools - main and small - were opened in cities for everyone. The institutions were maintained at the expense of the state. Under Catherine II, the Medical College, the Mining School and other educational institutions were opened.
The successful domestic policy of Catherine II of 1762-1796 gave impetus to the development of science. In 1765, an organization appeared that was designed to expand knowledge in the geography of the country. Between 1768 and 1774, scientists from the Academy of Sciences participated in five expeditions. Thanks to such trips, knowledge was expanded not only in the field of geography, but also in biology and other natural sciences. In the 80s, the Russian Academy was built to study language and literature. During the reign of Catherine II, more books were published than in the entire 18th century. The state's first public library opened in St. Petersburg. Almost every class was fond of reading books. At this time, education began to be valued.
The internal politics of Catherine 2 did not bypass the appearance of high society. Active social life in high circles obliged ladies and gentlemen to follow fashion. In 1779, the magazine “Fashionable Monthly Essay, or Library for Ladies' Toilet” began publishing examples of new clothes. A decree of 1782 obliged nobles to wear costumes in accordance with the colors of the coat of arms of their province. Two years later, a requirement was added to this order - a certain cut of the uniform.

Foreign policy

Catherine II did not forget about improving relations with other states. The Empress achieved the following results:

1. Thanks to the annexation of the Kuban region, Crimea, Lithuanian provinces, western Rus', and the Duchy of Courland, the borders of the state expanded noticeably.

2. The Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, which indicated the role of the Russian protectorate over Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti).

3. A war for territory with Sweden was launched. But after the signing of the peace treaty, the borders of the states remained the same.

4. Development of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.

5. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war, part of the territory of Poland was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

6. Greek project. The goal of the doctrine was to restore the Byzantine Empire centered in Constantinople. According to the plan, the head of the state was to be the grandson of Catherine II, Prince Constantine.

7. At the end of the 80s, the Russian-Turkish war and the struggle with Sweden began. The prisoner in 1792 consolidated the influence of the Russian Empire in Transcaucasia and Bessarabia, and also confirmed the annexation of Crimea.

Foreign and domestic policies of Catherine II. Results

The great Russian empress left an indelible mark on the history of Russia. Having overthrown her husband from the throne, she carried out a number of events, many of which significantly improved the lives of the people. Summing up the internal policy of Catherine II, one cannot help but note the special position of the nobles and favorites at court. The Empress supported this class and her beloved confidants in every possible way.

The domestic policy of Catherine 2, briefly described, has the following main aspects. Thanks to the decisive actions of the Empress, the territory of the Russian Empire increased significantly. The population in the country began to strive for education. The first schools for peasants appeared. Issues regarding the management of counties and provinces were resolved. The Empress helped Russia become one of the great European states.

Catherine 2 was truly a great ruler. The results of her reign are significant in all areas, although not equal in all.

Mother-serf

The economic course (unlike many other directions) in the domestic policy of Catherine II was distinguished by traditionalism. The empress did not accept the industrial revolution; Russia during her reign remained an agrarian state. The main producers were large landowner farms (the Prussian way of development), where serfs worked. Catherine distributed huge land holdings to the landowners and transferred peasants to them (more than 800 thousand). Russia was a major exporter of agricultural products (its share in international trade increased in Catherine’s times), but the economy developed extensively.

Industrial production grew more slowly. It was facilitated by the decision to cancel permits for the ownership of “factories”. Metal production doubled during Catherine's years.

In the trade sphere, Catherine the Great pursued a free trade policy. Various monopolies were abolished and protectionist measures were curtailed. But the empress sought to protect the national currency. For this purpose, the exchange of copper for silver was regulated, and the Noble Bank (1770) and the Assignation Bank (1786) were created. Copper money from the reign of Catherine was distinguished by its enormous size - A.V. Suvorov, having received 5,000 rubles as a reward in copper 5-ruble notes, was forced to hire a dray cart to transport them.

Social sphere

In words, Catherine 2 was a supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment, but in reality she acted as an absolutist. The “main nerve” of her state were the nobles, who never had as many privileges as during her reign. The pinnacle of Catherine’s “liberty of the nobility” is the Charter of 178.

The charter granted to the cities consolidated and expanded the rights of the philistines and merchants. Recruitment was abolished in the cities, 3 merchant guilds were introduced, and the rights and responsibilities of different segments of the urban population were clearly regulated.

The empress's religious policy demonstrated tolerance. The property of the Orthodox Church came under secular control. Worship services of other religions and the construction of temples and religious educational institutions were allowed. It is noteworthy that Catherine gave refuge in Russia to the Jesuits expelled from all European states. But it almost certainly had to do with politics, since the Jesuits are unsurpassed masters of political intrigue.

National policies have actually disadvantaged... Russians. Other nationalities often received privileges. German nobles had more rights than Russians. The Tatars of Crimea and the majority of the peoples of Siberia never knew serfdom. Ukrainians and Poles paid a lower poll tax.

The Empress patronized art, education, and science.

Greatness of Russia

The foreign policy of Catherine II turned out to be very successful. Its goals can be formulated as follows: expansion of the empire, strengthening of international authority, border security, full support of monarchism.

The Empress has many external achievements to her name, sometimes morally and ideologically dubious, but successful in government terms.

Russia became an active participant in the three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772-1795), as a result of which it annexed right-bank Ukraine, a significant part of White Rus', and part of Poland.
The victorious wars with Turkey ensured the security of Russian borders in the south and ensured the annexation of Crimea, which immediately turned into an important military base.
In the Caucasus, the territory of modern Azerbaijan was annexed (spring 1796).
The colonization of Alaska began.
Russia supported the American War of Independence, initiating the Declaration of Armed Neutrality (actually directed against English rule of the seas). The point here was not in the republic, but precisely in the seas. Russian ships were among the first to enter the ports of the newly-minted American States.
Russia acted as an ideologist and participant in anti-French coalitions directed against the Great French Revolution. Within the framework of this policy, Suvorov’s Italian and Swiss campaigns took place. French royalist emigrants were welcomed in Russia.

It is important that Catherine knew how to act in the international arena both by force (the Potemkin-Suvorov army was distinguished by excellent combat capability) and through diplomatic channels.

1. The activities of Catherine II as Empress of Russia lasted 34 years - from 1762 to 1796. The characteristic features of this era were:

the most significant strengthening of imperial power since the time of Peter I;
attempts at limited reforms;
successful wars of conquest, the conquest of Crimea and access to the Black Sea, the liquidation of Poland as a state;
strengthening of feudal-serf oppression;
suppression of the peasant war led by E. Pugachev and other popular uprisings;
liquidation of the Cossacks;
persecution of dissidents and freethinkers (A. Radishchev);
brutal national oppression (liquidation of the remnants of self-government in Ukraine, suppression of the national liberation struggle in Poland);
the rise of favoritism.

The most significant domestic political steps of Catherine II were:

convening of the Statutory Commission;
publication of the “Charter of Complaint to the Nobility”;
publication of the “Charter of Letters to Cities”;
reform of administrative-territorial division;
creation of the Free Economic Society.

2. In the first years of her reign, in 1767, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission. The purpose of the commission was to develop a new Code - the main legal document of the country (instead of the outdated Council Code of 1649, adopted under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich). The Legislative Commission included representatives of the widest strata of the population - nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, state peasants. The new Code was supposed to:

legally justify and consolidate the serf status of peasants, relying on the achievements of legal thought of that time and the works of “enlightenmentists; give serfdom an attractive legal and ideological “façade”;
regulate in detail the privileges of classes - nobles, townspeople, etc.;
establish a new system of government bodies and administrative-territorial divisions;
legally consolidate the imperial power and absolute position in society of the monarch;
identify the sentiments of class groups.

The work of the Code Commission continued for a year, after which in 1768 the commission was dissolved, and the new Code was not adopted. Catherine II’s refusal of the new Code is explained by the following reasons:

the preparation of the Code caused a heated debate among representatives of the ruling class and there was a threat of violation of its fragile unity;
the work of the commission did not go in the direction that Catherine II had planned - the very existence of serfdom, as well as imperial power, began to be discussed, free-thinking ideas were expressed;
the new design of serfdom could cause a negative reaction from the peasantry, including new riots and uprisings;
Catherine II decided not to take risks, to leave everything as it was, revealing the mood of class groups.

Despite the fact that the work of the Statutory Commission gave many people the opportunity to speak out on a variety of issues of public life, in general its work had a negative impact on the further development of Russia. During the work of the commission, Catherine II suddenly realized how many enemies she had among the classes, how deeply the ideas of freethinking had penetrated, and also that the position of the autocracy was in fact not as strong as it seemed outwardly. As a result of this, after the dissolution of the commission in 1768, the repressive policy of Catherine II intensified significantly - the persecution of freethinkers, the brutal suppression of social protests, and the strengthening of national oppression. Catherine’s fears were confirmed by the peasant uprising led by E. Pugachev that occurred 5 years after the commission’s work, after which the repressions intensified.

3. In 1785, Catherine II issued by her decree two legal documents that influenced the further development of the country:

Letter of grant to the nobility;
Letter of commendation to cities.

The charter granted to the nobility (“Certificate of the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility”) sharply increased the gap between the nobility and all other classes of Russia and gave the nobles exceptional privileges:

from now on, only the nobles were granted the right to own land and serfs;
the decree of Peter III on the exemption of nobles from all types of service - both military and civil - was confirmed;
nobles were exempt from taxes;
nobles were exempt from prosecution and were subject only to a special court of the nobility.

4. The charter granted to cities (“Certificate of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire”) improved city self-government, but at the same time consolidated the corporate disunity of citizens:

all townspeople, depending on their occupation and property status, were divided into six categories;
a city council was created, in which all six categories should be represented;
the election of officials was partially introduced, but representatives of the propertied classes received advantages;
The townspeople ceased to be a single class.

5. Also, Catherine II in the same year, 1785, introduced a new administrative-territorial division:

the entire territory of Russia, instead of the previous 23, was divided into 50 provinces (later their number continued to grow);
as a result, the provinces became smaller in territory and there were many of them, which reduced their role and strengthened central power;
a rigid and subordinate management system was introduced in the provinces;
the key role in local government began to be played not by zemstvo class bodies, but by bodies of noble self-government;
all local authorities, including the judiciary, became controlled by the nobles.

6. Even earlier, in 1765, the Free Economic Society was created in St. Petersburg - the first non-governmental economic organization in the history of Russia. The goal of the economic society was the coordination and cooperation of the economic development of the propertied classes, primarily the nobility; establishing economic ties between nobles; strengthening international trade.

7. A distinctive feature of the era of Catherine II’s reign was favoritism - a regime in which her favorites periodically became co-rulers of the empress, influencing state policy. Favoritism had two sides:

on the one hand, it gave the opportunity to capable representatives of the common people to advance to the very top of public administration (example: G. Orlov, A. Orlov, G. Potemkin);
on the other hand, he placed favorites above the law, made them uncontrollable rulers of Russia, and often led to deception and fraud, abuse of influence on the empress. For example, G. Potemkin created “Potemkin villages”. In order to strengthen their position, pictures of beautiful life in the territories ruled by G. Potemkin were played out before the empress. Thus, the empress was misled about the actual state of affairs in the country.