The huge army, built on drill and long-term (25 years) service of part of the population, was not reformed for 30 years. The weapons were outdated and outdated strategic and tactical combat schemes were used. The military bureaucracy aimlessly spent huge budget money allocated for defense. This prompted the start of military reforms in Russia.
Reforms began with the appointment of D.A. to the post of Minister of War in 1861. Milyutin (elder brother of N.A. Milyutin), a professor at the Academy of the General Staff, who had outstanding military and personal talents and adhered to liberal views. With the name D.A. Milyutin, who served as Minister of War for 20 years, was responsible for the radical restructuring of the Russian army. On January 15, 1862, he provided Alexander II with a program of military reforms. It provided for the reduction of armed forces in peacetime and their deployment through trained reserves in times of war, the reorganization of officer training and the creation of a new army command structure. First of all, Milyutin achieved a reduction in the period of military service to 15 years, while after 7-8 years of service the soldier was granted temporary leave. Then corporal punishment was abolished in the army - spitzrutens, “cats”, whips and whips. Following this, the military command system was reorganized. According to the “Regulations” published on August 6, 1864, the entire territory of Russia was divided into 15 military districts, each with its own administration, directly subordinate to the Ministry of War. Artillery, guards, engineering troops, military educational institutions (before that they had their own separate departments), and for the duration of hostilities - the active army were transferred under the control of the Ministry of War. In 1867, a new military judicial charter was adopted, built on the principles of the judicial reform of 1864. Three courts were introduced - regimental, military district and main military courts. During the war, the Main Military Field Court was established. Decisions of military courts were subject to approval by the regimental and district commanders, respectively, and, in the final instance, by the Minister of War.
In the mid-60s, a reform of military educational institutions was carried out. In 1863, the cadet corps was transformed into military gymnasiums, similar in terms of the program of general education disciplines (in addition to special military ones) to real schools. The system of higher military education was expanded in military academies - the Academy of the General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, Military Medical and the newly established Military Legal Academy. In 1863, the Main Directorate of Military Educational Institutions was created within the Ministry of War, headed by N.V. Isakov, who became the immediate leader of the military education reform.
In 1872, the first women's courses for learned midwives in Russia were opened at the academy, where students received higher medical education. In 1877, the Maritime Academy was created on the basis of the Academic Course of Marine Sciences. In total, by 1880, the number of military educational institutions included: 6 military academies, 6 military schools, 18 military gymnasiums, 16 cadet schools, 8 pro-gymnasiums, the Page and Finnish corps with special classes, the preparatory boarding school of the Nicholas Cavalry School and the Naval Corps.
The reform of military educational institutions made it possible to significantly reduce the shortage of officers and raise the level of their training.
Since the 60s, the rearmament of the Russian army began. Since 1866, smooth-bore weapons began to be replaced by rifled weapons. A rapid-fire rifle of the Berdan system was adopted for service. The artillery fleet was replaced with new systems of steel rifled guns, and the construction of a military steam fleet began. The introduction of all-class conscription made it possible to increase the size of the army, create a trained reserve of up to 550 thousand people necessary for the deployment of the army in wartime, and also contributed to the transformation of the Russian armed forces into a modern mass army. Persons who had not undergone military service at all, as well as those who had served the required number of years (active service and reserve), were to be enrolled in the state militia. The age limit for joining the militia was set at 40 years. It was later increased to 40 years. However, the law was not entirely consistent. A significant part of the “foreign” population was excluded from military service (natives of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, some peoples of the Far North).
Military factories underwent a radical technological reconstruction. It required the creation of new industrial enterprises and production facilities. Several strategic railways were built to the western borders and to the south. In 1870, special railway troops were created. For the rearmament of artillery, the creation of the Obukhov and Perm steel cannon plants, as well as the achievement of Russian scientists and engineers P.M., was extremely important. Obukhova, N.V. Kalakutsky, A.S. Lavrova, N.V. Maievsky, etc. Thus, thanks to the discovery of P.M. Obukhov in Russia, for the first time in the world, gun barrels from cast steel began to be created. As a result, in the 60s, Russia, along with Germany, became a monopolist in the production of steel tools. Nevertheless, in conditions of general economic backwardness, it was not possible to completely overcome the dependence of the Russian army on foreign supplies.
In field artillery in 1866, 9- and 4-pound steel guns were installed as model guns, and in 1970, rapid-fire guns were introduced. In siege artillery, instead of smooth-bore guns, rifled guns were installed, and instead of copper guns, steel guns were installed. Much work on the re-equipment of artillery was carried out under the direct leadership of General A.A. Barantsova. The reconstruction of the fortresses began according to the plan drawn up by General E.I. Totleben. However, it was not completed due to lack of funds. The transition to new weapons encouraged the development of military theory. At this time, the works of major military theorists D.A. appeared. Milyutina, G. A. Leer, M.I. Dragomirov and others. Their works on questions of strategy, tactics and military history had a great influence both on the course of military reforms themselves and on the development of military art in the 2nd half of the 19th century.
The rearmament of the army made significant adjustments to combat training. The task was to teach troops only what was necessary in war. A number of new statutes, instructions and teaching aids were published. For example, in the Military Regulations on combat and infantry service of 1862, much attention was paid to single training. In 1863, the Disciplinary Regulations were introduced and a special order was issued for the training of recruits, which ordered that they be taught training with a gun, loading and shooting, the rules of scattered and rank formation with the indispensable condition of conscious assimilation.
Since 1876, military conscription was introduced: during the war, horse stock suitable for military purposes was subject to mobilization with monetary compensation to its owners. In this regard, military-horse censuses began to be carried out regularly.
In the field of foreign policy, one of the main tasks of the government of Alexander II was the fight for the abolition of the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, and the main one was the prohibition of Russia from having fortresses and a combat-ready navy in the Black Sea. This was done after France's defeat in the war against Prussia in 1870. Despite protests from England, Russia announced that it no longer considered itself bound by the terms of this peace treaty.
Military administration also underwent changes. Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed. Humiliating corporal punishment was abolished. The military command and control system underwent radical changes in order to strengthen control over the locations of troops. The result of this revision was the “Regulations on Military District Directorates” approved on August 6, 1864. On the basis of this “Regulation”, initially nine military districts were organized, and then (August 6, 1865) four more. Each district has a chief commander, appointed at the highest discretion, bearing the title of commander of the troops of the military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant commander of the troops is also appointed.
Concern for the defenders of the Motherland was manifested in everything, even in small things. Let’s say that for more than a hundred years (until the 80s of the 19th century), boots were made without distinguishing between the right and left feet. It was believed that during a combat alert, a soldier had no time to think about which boot to put on which foot.
There was a special attitude towards prisoners. Military personnel who were captured and were not in the service of the enemy, upon returning home, received a salary from the state for the entire time they were in captivity. The prisoner was considered a victim. And those who distinguished themselves in battles received military awards. Orders of Russia were especially highly valued. They gave such privileges that they even changed a person’s position in society.
These transformations significantly improved the combat training of the Russian army. Universal conscription has long been introduced in many European countries. In Russia, for a long time, the recruitment system introduced by Peter I was preserved, which was one of the most advanced in Europe at that time, where recruitment and hiring dominated. But for the second half of the 19th century, when the era of mass armies began, it did not provide the army with a trained reserve. Actually, the problem of reserves arose already during the Patriotic War of 1812, but after its end, the governments of Alexander I and Nicholas I took the path of increasing the size of the standing army and creating military settlements. However, it turned out that, having the largest peacetime army in terms of numbers, Russia in the event of war cannot ensure its replenishment with trained people; had to resort to convening the militia. The main provision of the military reform carried out by Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin was the introduction of universal military service.
Milyutin managed to prove to Alexander II the injustice of class military service and the need to abolish it. After all, military service was previously carried out only by the subject class, i.e. peasants and townspeople. However, it took a lot of time to convince the tsar to introduce universal conscription.
On January 1, 1874, Alexander II approved the “Charter of Military Service” and a special Manifesto about it. According to the law of 1874, clergy of all religions, representatives of some religious sects and organizations (due to their religious beliefs), the peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, and some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were exempted from military service. In relation to the Russian population, military service actually extended to the tax-paying classes, since the privileged classes, thanks to their education or training in military educational institutions, were practically exempt from military service. Class differences persisted in the army itself. The command staff of the Russian post-reform army was predominantly made up of nobles, although formally persons from the tax-paying classes had the right to enter military educational institutions and eventually become officers. An ordinary soldier could only rise to the rank of non-commissioned officer.
First, on the initiative of Milyutin in 1862, a special commission was created to revise the recruiting regulations under the chairmanship of the State Council N.I. Bakhtin. This commission included a number of representatives of the War Ministry, headed by General F.L. Heyden.
The commission's work progressed extremely slowly. The idea of equality of all classes to bear this heaviest military service found irreconcilable opponents among those sections of society to which it had not yet extended. The serf owners resisted with all their might the all-class military service, which would have forced the “noble” nobility to serve it on an equal basis “with the peasants.”
The intention to eliminate the outdated recruiting system for the army was the most strongly attacked.
Reactionary figures and publicists, referring to the manifesto on the freedom of the nobility, defended their class immunity. Shuvalov, for example, proposed keeping educated youth in the army “separate from the troops.”
Even the merchants were indignant that it would be impossible to pay off the recruiting with money. As a result of this, the reform, conceived in 1862 by Milyutin, who was supported by Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, was carried out only in 1874. A strong impetus for this was the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. Prussia, the name of greater military conscription, a better organized army, more developed soldiers, defeated France. On November 7, 1870, the Minister of War presented a note “On the main grounds for personal military service,” approved by the emperor. After 10 days, two commissions were created by “highest order” to develop the proposed measures: one on the charter on military service, the other on the issue of reserve, local, reserve troops and state militia. The Chief of the General Staff, General Heyden, was appointed chairman of both commissions. The general management of their work was headed by D.A. Milyutin. The commission on conscription was selected from representatives of various ministries and departments. Representatives not only of the highest bureaucracy, but also of different classes and individual groups of the population were invited to its meetings.
For more qualified preparation of the various chapters of the charter, the commission was divided into 4 departments. The first department developed the issue of terms of service and benefits for serving military service, the second - about the return of conscripts to service, the third - about monetary expenses for conscription, the fourth - about volunteers and military replacement.
Another, the so-called Organizational Commission, began work in early January 1871. It consisted mainly of military personnel and was divided into 9 departments: 1) on the organization of infantry units, serving as personnel for the formation of reserve and reserve troops in wartime; 2) about artillery and engineering units; 3) about personnel of guards units; 4) about cavalry personnel; 5) on the procedure for recruiting and calling up reserve ranks; 6) about quartermaster and artillery supplies and convoys; 7) about the Cossack troops; 8) about irregular militias; 9) about the state militia. In 1872, the Organizational Commission was significantly strengthened by introducing several commanders of military districts into its composition.
The problems discussed at the meeting of this commission related to the possibility of using the territorial system in Russia are of some interest. As a rule, M.N. rightly notes in his study. Osipov, these issues are once again becoming relevant in connection with the reforms being carried out in the army. Let us recall that the territorial recruitment system provides for the replenishment of troops with personnel from conscript contingents arriving near the locations of military units. Such a system makes it easier to send conscripts to their units, reduces the associated costs, makes it possible to attract those liable for military training to military training with minimal disruption from productive work and mobilize troops in the shortest possible time. At the same time, this system, given the lack of conscripts in the areas where military units are deployed, makes it difficult to staff them with the necessary specialists. There are other flaws too. The organizational commission, recognizing the impossibility of fully applying the territorial system in Russia, unanimously came to the conclusion: “In the structure of the army, apply from the beginnings of the territorial system only that which, according to the conditions of our fatherland, can be usefully applied, preserving the possibility of moving and concentrating troops, but allowing constant , from certain areas, recruiting each part of the army in peacetime and replenishing it to military strength when brought to martial law.”
Based on this, it was decided, according to the General Staff project, to divide all of European Russia into recruitment areas (in the territory of one or several counties). Each sector was required to provide at least one infantry regiment, one separate battalion, two artillery batteries, and one cavalry squadron. Upon completion of the work of the commission on military service, D.A. On January 19, 1873, Milyutina presented an extensive note to the State Council, which also covered the course of her activities. As an appendix to the note, drafts of the Charter on Military Service and the Regulations on the State Militia were presented. During the discussion of the draft of all-class conscription on the State Council, a fierce and irreconcilable struggle unfolded. Some of the council members considered this reform premature, others demanded privileges for the nobility.
The establishment of compulsory military service, firstly, elevated the rank of warrior, and secondly, attracted into the ranks of the army a significant number of people who belonged to the upper classes and generally received an education, whereas according to the existing laws such persons were previously exempt from conscription duty.
“Milyutin turned the matter of defending the homeland,” wrote A.F. Horses - from a severe burden for many to a high duty for all and from an isolated misfortune to a common duty.”
The new law also had an impact on the composition of the army, making it younger, due to a reduction in active service, and homogeneous, in terms of the age of the lower ranks.
Significant transformations also extended to irregular troops (troops that did not have a unified and permanent organization or differed from regular troops in the system of recruitment, service, etc. In Russia in the 18th - early 20th centuries - Cossack troops, etc.).
By the beginning of 1871, the following Cossack troops were under the jurisdiction of the Military Ministry: Don, Terek, Astrakhan, Ural, Orenburg, Siberian, Semirechenskoe, Transbaikal, Amur; Yenisei and Irkutsk cavalry regiments and three Cossack foot teams. New regulations on conscription and military service of the Cossacks were issued. The Cossacks received new weapons. Cossack units that were in active service were placed on equal terms with regular troops.
All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and at the same time increase its combat effectiveness. Universal conscription gave the necessary effect only if the military reserves in reserve were quickly mobilized, and this largely depended on the state of the means of communication.
Thus, the result of the reform was the creation of a small peacetime army with a significant trained reserve in case of war. Military reforms 1861 -1874 played an important role in increasing the combat effectiveness of the Russian army. However, the results of these reforms did not appear immediately. Military educational institutions were not yet able to fill the acute shortage of officer personnel; the process of rearmament of the army dragged on for several decades.
emerging from serfdom." This document set out the basic conditions for the abolition of serfdom. The peasants received personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property. The landowners, while retaining their property, were obliged to provide the peasants with a plot of land for permanent use, as well as a field allotment. For use landowners' land, peasants were obliged to perform duties - corvée or pay quitrent. They did not have the right to refuse a field allotment in the first ten years. The size of the allotment and duties had to be determined by agreement (charter) between the landowners and peasants. The period for signing charters was determined in two years. The drafting of the charters was entrusted to the landowners themselves, and their verification - to the peace intermediaries, who were also nobles. The charters were concluded not with an individual peasant, but with the rural community. The peasants were given the right to buy out the estate, and the redemption of the field plot was determined by the will of the landowner. The peasants who bought their plots were called owners by the peasants. Before the redemption of their plots, peasants had to fulfill feudal duties in favor of the landowners and were called temporarily obligated. To determine the land allotment for the Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian provinces, the entire territory was divided into non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe stripes. The size of the land allotment provided to peasants in various parts of the empire ranged from 3 to 12 dessiatines. The largest allotment was established where the land was of insignificant value, for example, in the northern districts of the Vologda province. The peasant could redeem the plot received for use with the consent of the landowner. The government organized a "buyout organization" to facilitate the implementation of the agreement between the landowner and the peasants. The peasants received a redemption loan issued by the state to the landowner, which the peasants gradually repaid. Moreover, the issuance of redemption loans extended only to peasants who paid rent. The terms of the redemption operation provided for the issuance of a loan in the amount of 80% of the cost of the quitrent, provided that the allotment corresponded to its size according to the charter, and a loan in the amount of 75% in the event of a reduction in the allotment compared to the charter. The peasants were required to repay the redemption amount received from the government over 49 years at 6% annually.
zemstvo institutions." The zemstvo reform introduced local government bodies: district and provincial zemstvos. Zemstvo institutions were to consist of representatives of all classes - nobles, officials, clergy, merchants, burghers, industrialists, peasants. All voters were divided into three curiae. The first curia - county landowners - included owners who had at least 200 dessiatines, as well as owners of large commercial and industrial enterprises and real estate valued at least 15 thousand rubles.The second curia - city - included merchants, owners of real estate, which was valued from 500 to 3000 rubles. For participation and elections in the third curia - rural societies - there was no property qualification. But in fact, the dominant position in the zemstvos was occupied by landowners. Thus, in the first elections to the district zemstvos, on average in the country, the nobles made up - 41.7, the clergy - 6.5, merchants - 10.4, peasants - 38.4. Zemstvos met annually at zemstvo meetings. At the meetings, an executive body was elected - the zemstvo government, headed by a chairman. The scope of activity of the new bodies was limited to economic and cultural affairs. They were in charge of the construction of local communications, healthcare, public education, local trade and industry. New bodies of all-estate self-government were only at the level of provinces and districts. Zemstvos were not created in the volosts. Government control was established over the activities of zemstvos. Thus, the governor had the right to stop the execution of the zemstvo resolution. Among the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s, the judicial reform, which was adopted on November 24, 1864, was the most radical. A system of judicial independence was introduced. The trial became public. The trial took place openly, publicly, and an adversarial process was introduced. Both parties - the accused and the prosecutor - participated in the development of the case. The prosecutor and defense attorneys represented by sworn attorneys or lawyers acted. The fate of the accused was decided by the jury. According to the law, a person with Russian citizenship, aged from 25 to 70 years old and living for at least two years in the county where the election to the jury was held, could become a juror. Jurors were appointed by zemstvos and city dumas. A single court was introduced for the entire population - an all-estate court, although the volost court was retained for the peasants. There were special courts for the clergy, for high officials, and for the military. Court reform has been the most consistent reform. It not only eliminated the imperfections of the pre-reform legal system, but also provided a significant degree of protection for the subjects of the Russian Empire. The principle of the priority of legality and rights gradually began to be introduced into the political system. The lessons of the Crimean War showed that the Russian army needs a radical reorganization. Military reforms in the 60s began to be carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. To improve the training of officers, special military schools were established, the contingent for which was trained by military gymnasiums. Military academies were also created, and a naval school was created. The entire territory of Russia in 1864. divided into 10 military districts. At the head of the district was a commander who led the troops. January 1, 1874 A new military charter was adopted, according to which universal military service was introduced in the country for males over 20 years of age. Some of the annually conscripted persons were enlisted for active service in the army, the other part - in the militia. The charter provided for a reduction in the period of military service in the ground forces to 6 years and in the navy to 7 years. Persons who had an education were allowed to serve as volunteers for a period of 6 months to 4 years. Exemption from military service was obtained based on marital status, for example, if the only son was the breadwinner. Russian army 1877-1878. became more modern in structure, weapons, and education.
Hypermarket of knowledge >>History >>History 8th grade >>Liberal reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century
§ 21-22. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century
Local government reforms.
After cancellation serfdom a number of other changes were required.
One of the most important reforms of Alexander II was the creation of local government bodies - zemstvos.
By the beginning of the 60s. the previous local management showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials who led the provinces and districts, appointed in the capital, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions brought economic life to a standstill. healthcare, enlightenment to the point of extreme frustration. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems.
At the same time, when establishing zemstvos, the government could not help but take into account the sentiments of the nobility, a significant part of which was dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom. “The nobility,” wrote K. D. Kavelin, “cannot come to terms with the idea that the government freed the peasants as it wanted, and not as the nobles wanted, that the nobility was not even properly listened to. The role of the first estate of the empire in a matter of such importance was pathetic and humiliating.” Therefore, one of the reasons for the zemstvo reforms there was a desire to compensate for the nobles - at least partially - the loss of their former power.
By creating local self-government bodies, the government also hoped that their activities would be able to distract the most active part of society “from political dreams” and force them to engage in specific useful activities.
On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions,” which provided for the creation of new elected local government bodies in counties and provinces - zemstvos (zemstvos were not created in the volosts).
Owners of at least 200 dessiatines of land or other real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises generating an income of at least 6 thousand could be voters in the landowner curia. rubles in year. Small landowners, uniting, nominated only their representatives.
The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6 thousand rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small cities) to 3.6 thousand rubles (in large cities).
Elections for the peasant curia were multi-level: first, village assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. At volost assemblies, electors were first elected, who then nominated representatives to county government bodies. At district zemstvo assemblies, representatives from peasants to provincial self-government bodies.
Zemstvo bodies were divided into administrative and executive. The administrative - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of representatives of all classes represented by elected councilors (deputies). Vowels both in the district and in the provinces were elected for 3 years.
Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for 3 years. The chairman of the zemstvo assembly was the leader of the nobility.
The range of issues that zemstvo institutions resolved was limited to local affairs: the construction of communications, the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of zemstvo actions.
The material basis for the activities of zemstvos was a special tax that was levied on real estate: land, houses, factories and commercial establishments.
Zemstvos were not introduced in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where noble land ownership was absent or insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus did not receive local government bodies, since the landowners there were not Russian.
The zemstvo reform had shortcomings. First of all, the principle of all-class status was inconsistently maintained. The elections were actually based on class. At the same time, distribution among curiae gave significant advantages to the nobles. The range of issues resolved by zemstvos was limited.
Nevertheless, the creation of zemstvo institutions was a success for supporters of constitutional government. The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. Over the years of their existence, zemstvos raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to peasants on a scale that state power was incapable of. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility predominated in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses.
In 1870, an urban reform was carried out according to the zemstvo type. It replaced the former class city dumas with all-class elected city institutions - city dumas and city councils.
Men who had reached 25 years of age and paid city taxes had the right to elect to the city council. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia was a small group of the largest owners of houses, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, who contributed another 1/3 of the city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each curia elected an equal number of vowels, which ensured the predominance of large owners.
City public self-government was in charge of solving economic issues: improvement of the city, development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.
The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the City Duma was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city self-government, a special body was created in each province - the provincial presence for city affairs.
For all its limitations, urban reform was a step forward in the matter of urban self-government. It, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.
Judicial reform.
The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform, carried out on the basis of new judicial statutes adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the trial; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; election of some judicial bodies.
According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general. Magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. Only a “local resident” who was at least 25 years old and had an impeccable reputation could become a magistrate. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges: higher or secondary education and ownership of real estate were twice as high as in elections to zemstvos in the landowning curia. At the same time, they received fairly high wages - from 2.2 to 9 thousand rubles per year.
The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Criminal cases were tried with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a Russian citizen between the ages of 25 and 70 with an impeccable reputation, who had lived in the area for at least two years and owned real estate worth at least 2 thousand rubles. The jury lists were approved by the governor.
Appeals against the district court's decision were filed with the trial chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict passed by the jury was not allowed. The Trial Chamber also considered cases of official misconduct. Such cases were equated to state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.
The reform established transparency in the conduct of courts. They began to be held openly, the public was allowed to attend, and newspapers printed reports on trials of public interest. The adversarial nature of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy has arisen in Russian society. Outstanding lawyers F.N. Plevako, Prince A.I. Urusov and others became famous in this field, laying the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-orators. Although the new judicial system still retained a number of remnants of the past (special volost courts for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and high officials), nevertheless it turned out to be the most advanced in the world of that time.
Military reforms.
Liberal reforms in society, the government's desire to overcome the gap in the military field, and also to reduce military spending necessitated radical reforms in the army.
They were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, who assumed this position in November 1861. The reforms lasted for several years and covered all aspects of army life. Taking into account the experience of a number of European countries, D. A. Milyutin considered one of the main tasks of transformation to be the reduction of the army in peacetime, with the possibility of significantly increasing it in wartime through the creation of a trained reserve. In 1863-1864. military educational institutions were reformed. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. Mostly children of nobles studied in these educational institutions. For people who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created. They welcomed representatives of all classes. In 1868, military gymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools. The programs of higher military educational institutions were revised and improved. In 1867, the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 - the Naval Academy.
The procedure for replenishing the army changed radically: instead of the conscription sets that had existed since the time of Peter I, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life in the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years were active service, 9 years were in reserve. In the navy - 10 years: 7 years - active, 3 years - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from primary schools) to 6 months (for those who had a higher education).
The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were exempt from active military service. Those exempt from conscription were enrolled in militias, which were assembled only during war. Representatives of the peoples of the North, Central Asia, and some residents of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to conscription.
Corporal punishment was abolished in the army; improved nutrition; The network of soldiers' schools expanded.
The army and navy were being rearmed: in 1867, instead of smooth-bore ones, rifled guns were introduced, and the replacement of cast iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; in 1868, rifles created by Russian inventors with the assistance of the American Colonel X. Berdan (Berdanka) were adopted. The combat training system has changed. A number of new regulations, instructions, and training manuals were published, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was necessary in war, significantly reducing the time for combat training.
As a result of military reforms, Russia received a massive army of a modern type. Drill and cane discipline with cruel corporal punishment were largely banished from it. Most of the soldiers were now taught not only military affairs, but also literacy, which significantly raised the authority of military service. The transition to universal conscription was a serious blow to the class organization of society.
Reforms in the field of education.
The education system has undergone significant restructuring, affecting all three levels: primary, higher and secondary.
In June 1864, the Regulations on primary public schools were approved. From now on, such schools could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of primary schools of various types - state, zemstvo, parish, and Sunday. The duration of study in such schools, as a rule, did not exceed three years.
Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of secondary educational institution. They were divided into classic and real. In the classical ones, a large place was given to ancient languages - Latin and ancient Greek. They prepared young people to enter universities. The period of study in classical gymnasiums was initially seven years, and since 1871 - eight years. Real gymnasiums were designed to prepare “for employment in various branches of industry and trade.” Their training lasted seven years. The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed. They could continue their studies at technical higher educational institutions.
The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set.
The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums.
In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, which restored the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues.
Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates could not enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kyiv. Later, girls began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.
Implementation of reforms. The implementation of reforms was very difficult. Even during their development, Alexander II more than once expressed a desire to make “corrections” to them in a conservative spirit, in order to thus protect the country from shocks. In practice, this resulted in the fact that the reforms were developed by young liberal officials, and they were implemented by old conservative officials.
Almost immediately after the promulgation of the peasant reform, its active participants - the Minister of Internal Affairs S. S. Lanskoy and his closest assistant N. A. Milyutin - were dismissed. Conservative P. A. Valuev was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs. He announced that his main task was “the strict and precise implementation of the provisions of February 19, but in a conciliatory spirit.” Valuev’s conciliatory spirit was expressed in the fact that he began persecuting those world mediators who, in his opinion, too zealously defended the interests of the peasants during the reform. He arrested the organizers of the congress of peace mediators in Tver, at which it was stated that peace mediators would be guided in their activities not by government orders, but by the views of society.
However, it was no longer possible to stop the progress of the peasant reform, and the conservatives began an attack on other reforms. The impetus for this was the assassination attempt on Alexander II in 1866 by a member of the secret revolutionary organization D. Karakozov, which ended in failure. Conservatives accused the liberal Minister of Education A.V. Golovnin of corrupting youth with the ideas of nihilism and achieved his resignation.
Golovnin's departure was followed by the resignations of other senior officials. Representatives of conservative forces were appointed in their places. The post of Minister of Education was taken by D. A. Tolstoy, General Count P. A. Shuvalov was appointed chief of the gendarmes, and General F. F. Trepov was appointed head of the St. Petersburg police. Nevertheless, Alexander II retained some liberals in the government, so reform activities were not curtailed. Its main guide was Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, brother of the leader of the peasant reform N. A. Milyutin.
In 1871, D. A. Tolstoy presented a report to Alexander II, in which he sharply criticized real gymnasiums. He argued that the spread of natural science and a materialistic worldview in them leads to an increase in nihilism among young people. Having received the approval of the emperor, Tolstoy carried out a reform of secondary school education in the same year, which amounted to the elimination of real gymnasiums and the introduction of a new type of classical gymnasium, in which natural science was practically excluded and ancient languages were introduced to an even greater extent. Education in gymnasiums was henceforth based on the strictest discipline, unquestioning obedience, and encouragement of denunciation.
Instead of real gymnasiums, real schools were created, the duration of training in which was reduced to 6 years. They were freed from the task of preparing students for higher education and provided only narrow technical knowledge.
Not daring to change the university charter, Tolstoy nevertheless significantly increased the number of bodies supervising higher educational institutions.
In 1867, conservatives managed to significantly limit the rights of zemstvos. On the one hand, the powers of the chairmen of zemstvo assemblies (leaders of the nobility) were expanded, and on the other, control over their activities by government bodies was strengthened. The publicity of zemstvo meetings was limited, and the printing of zemstvo reports and reports was restricted.
Constitutional throwing. "Dictatorship of the heart."
Despite all the restrictions, many innovations that appeared in Russia as a result of reforms came into conflict with the principles of the autocratic system and required significant changes in the political system. The logical conclusion of the zemstvo reform would be the expansion of representative institutions, both downward - in the volosts, and upward - to the national level.
The Emperor was convinced that autocratic power was the most acceptable form of government for the multinational and vast Russian Empire. He repeatedly stated “that he opposes the establishment of a constitution not because he values his power, but because he is convinced that it would be a misfortune for Russia and would lead to its collapse.” Nevertheless, Alexander II was forced to make concessions to supporters of constitutional government. The reason for this was the terror unleashed against senior officials and constant attempts to assassinate the emperor himself by members of secret revolutionary organizations.
After the second unsuccessful attempt on Alexander’s life in April 1879, the tsar, by a special decree, appointed temporary governors general in St. Petersburg, Kharkov and Odessa, who were granted emergency powers. To calm the agitated population and cool the heads of the revolutionaries, popular military leaders were appointed as governors general - I.V. Gurko, E.I. Totleben and M.T. Loris-Melikov.
However, in February 1880, a new attempt to assassinate the emperor was made in the Winter Palace itself. A few days later, Alexander II established the Supreme Administrative Commission and appointed its head the Kharkov Governor-General M. T. Loris-Melikov, who received the powers of the de facto ruler of the country.
Mikhail Tarielovich Loris-Melikov (1825-1888) born into an Armenian family. He was known as an outstanding general who became famous in the war with Turkey. For bravery and personal courage, Loris-Melikov was awarded the title of count. His merit was also the victory over the plague that raged in the Astrakhan province. Appointed governor-general of Kharkov, Loris-Melikov began to restore order in the province by curbing the arbitrariness of local officials, which earned him the sympathy of the population.
In his political views, Loris-Melikov was not a fan of constitutional government. He feared that the people's representatives gathered together would bring with them a mass of fair complaints and reproaches, to which at the moment it would be very difficult for the government to give a satisfactory answer. Therefore, he considered it necessary to fully implement the plans for all reforms, and only then allow some participation of representatives of the population in the discussion of government affairs. Loris-Melikov saw his primary task in the fight against the anti-government movement, without stopping “at any strict measures to punish criminal acts.”
Loris-Melikov began his activities in his new post with the restructuring of police agencies. The III Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery was annexed to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The Minister of the Interior became the chief of the gendarmes. All security agencies were concentrated in one hand - the Ministry of Internal Affairs. As a result, the fight against terrorists began to be conducted more successfully, and the number of assassination attempts began to decline.
Realizing the role of newspapers and magazines, Loris-Melikov weakened censorship, promoted the opening of previously prohibited publications and the emergence of new publications. He did not interfere with criticism of the government or public discussion of policy issues, with the exception of only one problem - the introduction of a constitution. Loris-Melikov did not apply prohibitions or punishments to the press, preferring to conduct personal conversations with editors, during which he softly gave advice on topics desirable for the government to discuss in newspapers and magazines.
Listening to public opinion, Loris-Melikov began replacing some senior officials. He insisted on the dismissal of the Minister of Public Education, Count D. A. Tolstoy, and with this step attracted sympathy among wide circles of the public.
The time when Loris-Melikov was at the head of the state’s internal policy was called by his contemporaries the “dictatorship of the heart.” The number of terrorist attacks decreased, and the situation in the country seemed to become calmer.
On February 28, 1881, Loris-Melikov presented a report to the Tsar, in which he proposed to complete the “great work of state reforms” and attract public forces for this purpose in order to finally calm the country. He believed that in order to develop the relevant laws, it was necessary to create two temporary commissions from representatives of zemstvos and cities - administrative, economic and financial. The composition of the commissions was to be determined by the emperor himself. Loris-Melikov proposed sending the draft laws prepared there for discussion to the General Commission, composed of elected representatives of zemstvo and city self-government. After approval in the General Commission, the bills would go to the State Council, the meeting of which would also be attended by 10-15 elected officials who worked on the General Commission. This is the content of the project, which was called the “Loris-Melikov Constitution”.
This draft bore little resemblance to the real constitution, since the measures proposed in it could not significantly influence the political structure of the Russian Empire. But its implementation could be the beginning of the creation of the foundations of a constitutional monarchy.
On the morning of March 1, 1881, Alexander II approved the Loris-Melikov project and scheduled a meeting of the Council of Ministers for March 4 for its final approval. But a few hours later the emperor was killed by terrorists.
During the reign of Alexander II, liberal reforms were carried out in Russia, affecting all aspects of public life. However, the emperor failed to complete economic and political transformations.
? Questions and tasks
1. Why, after the abolition of serfdom, did the state face the need to carry out other reforms?
2. What circumstances determined the creation of local government? Give a description of the zemstvo reform. What do you see as its pros and cons?
3. What principles were the basis for judicial reform? Why do you think judicial reform has proven to be the most consistent?
4. What changes have occurred in the army? Why did conscription no longer meet the needs of the state?
5. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of educational reform?
6. Give an assessment of the project by M. T. Loris-Melikov. Can this project be considered constitutional?
Documentation
From the regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. January 1, 1864
Art. 1. To manage affairs related to the local economic benefits and needs of each province and each district, provincial and district zemstvo institutions are formed...
Art. 2. Cases subject to the management of zemstvo institutions...
I. Management of property, capital and monetary collections of the zemstvo.
II. Construction and maintenance of buildings, other structures and communications routes belonging to the zemstvo...
III. Measures to ensure the people's food supply.
IV. Management of zemstvo charitable institutions and other charity measures; ways to stop begging; care for the building of churches...
VI. Care for the development of local trade and industry.
VII. Participation, mainly in economic terms... in the care of public education, public health and prisons.
VIII. Assistance in preventing livestock deaths, as well as in protecting grain crops and other plants from destruction by locusts, gophers and other harmful insects and animals...
About the new trial (from the memoirs of the popular singer P. I. Bogatyrev)
The fascination with justices of the peace has not yet subsided; they quickly, without any formalities and overhead costs, publicly tried civil and criminal cases, acted equally in defense of the personal and property rights of both nobles and commoners, and used arrest for arbitrariness and rioting, even if it was perpetrated by a wealthy man in the street, who was previously insured against such punishment and got off with an unspoken monetary contribution. The charm of the magistrate's court among the Moscow petty people, common townspeople, townspeople, artisans and domestic servants, for whom the magistrate's court after the police massacre was a revelation, was too great. In the first years, the chambers of justices of the peace were filled every day, in addition to those participating in the case, with outsiders... The strongest impression on society was then made by the sessions of the district court with jurors. Before their introduction, many voices were heard warning against being carried away by this form of trial here in Russia on the grounds that our jurors, among whom illiterate peasants were initially admitted, would not understand the duties assigned to them, would not be able to fulfill them and, perhaps, will appear as judges who can be bribed. Such talk further increased public interest in the first steps of the newly minted jurors, and regardless of this, the first speeches of the state prosecutor - the prosecutor and, as defenders - members of the class of sworn attorneys, seemed extremely curious. And from the very first sessions of the court, it became obvious that the fear for our jurors was completely in vain, since they, being thoughtful and aware of the moral responsibility and importance of the new case, faithfully and correctly fulfilled the task assigned to them and contributed to the administration of justice what they needed. What our pre-reform criminal courts still lacked was a living sense of justice, not constrained by formalities, knowledge of life in its most diverse manifestations and public understanding and assessment, which does not always agree with the written law of other crimes, as well as humanity. The verdicts of the jury were hotly discussed in society, causing, of course, different opinions and passionate debates, but in general Moscow was pleased with the new court, and ordinary people of all classes went to court hearings in civil, especially criminal cases, and followed the course of the trial with intense attention and speeches of the parties.
The oldest time on the territory of Russia- The place and role of history in the system of human knowledge. Subject and objectives of the course on the history of the Fatherland
- The most ancient peoples on the territory of Russia. Population of ancient Bashkiria
- Formation of early feudal states. Economic and political relations between them
- The role of religion in the formation of statehood and culture
- The struggle for the independence of early feudal states against aggression from the West and East
- The unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Relations with the Golden Horde and the Principality of Lithuania
- Formation of statehood. Political system and social relations
- Reforms of Ivan the Terrible. Strengthening the regime of personal power
- Change of the ruling dynasty. Evolution of the government system
- The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. Bashkiria in the 17th century
- Reforms of Peter I. Completion of the formalization of absolutism in Russia
- Russian foreign policy during the proclamation of the empire
- "Enlightened absolutism" in Russia. Domestic policy of Catherine II
- Government circles and public thought on ways of further development of the country
- Socio-economic development of the country. Bashkiria in the first half of the 19th century
- Socio-economic development of the country and its features
- Economic policy of Witte. Stolypin's agrarian reform
- Socio-political forces in Russia. Revolution 1905 - 1907
- Formation of political parties: social composition, program and tactics
- The State Duma is the first experience of Russian parliamentarism
- Changes in the balance of political forces from February to October 1917. Alternatives for the development of events
- The Soviet state and the world in the 20-30s. The Great Patriotic War (1941-1945): results and lessons
- Objective need for change. Reforms of the political system
- Finding ways to transition to a market economy: problems and solutions
Reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century
On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the “Regulations” on the new structure of the peasants. According to the “Regulations”, serf peasants (22.6 million people) received personal freedom and a number of civil rights: to conclude transactions, open trade and industrial establishments, transfer to other classes, etc. The law was based on the principle of recognizing the property rights of the landowner for all the land on the estate, including the peasant allotment. Peasants were considered only users of allotment land, obliged to serve established duties for it - quitrent or corvee. To become the owner of his allotment land, the peasant had to buy it from the landowner. The state took over the redemption operation: the treasury paid the landowners 75-80% of the redemption amount at once, the rest was paid by the peasants.
The reform of 1861 not only preserved, but further increased landownership by reducing peasant ownership. 1.3 million peasants were actually left landless. The allotment of the remaining peasants averaged 3-4 dessiatines, while for the normal standard of living of a peasant, due to agriculture with existing agricultural technology, 6 to 8 dessiatines of land were required.
In 1863, the reform was extended to appanage and palace peasants, and in 1866 - to state peasants.
The lack of almost half of the land needed by the peasants, the persistence in the countryside of bonded, semi-serf forms of exploitation of the peasants, the artificial increase in prices for the sale and rental of land were the source of poverty and backwardness of the post-reform countryside and ultimately led to a sharp aggravation of the agrarian question at the turn of the 19th century. XX centuries
The abolition of serfdom necessitated other reforms in the country - in the field of administration, court, education, finance, and military affairs. They, too, were of a half-hearted nature, retained dominant positions for the nobility and higher officials, and did not provide real scope for the independent manifestation of social forces.
In 1864, zemstvos were created in the districts and provinces of Russia. Landowners, merchants, factory owners, homeowners and rural communities received the right to elect zemstvo councilors from among themselves. The district councilors gathered once a year for zemstvo meetings, at which they elected an executive body - the zemstvo council and vowels for the provincial assembly. The zemstvos were in charge of: the construction of local roads, public education, healthcare, fire insurance, veterinary services, local trade and industry. Zemstvos were under the control of local and central authorities - the governor and the Minister of Internal Affairs, who had the right to suspend any decisions of zemstvos.
In 1870, city self-government was introduced. City councils elected for 4 years appeared in 509 Russian cities. The competence of city elected bodies was in many ways similar to the functions of county zemstvos. They paid main attention to the financial and economic condition of the cities. A significant part of the city budget was spent on maintaining the police, city government, military posts, etc.
Along with local government reform, the government began to address the problem of transforming judicial institutions.
In 1864, judicial statutes were approved, introducing bourgeois principles of judicial system and legal proceedings in Russia. A court independent of the administration, the irremovability of judges, publicity of the court, the liquidation of class courts (with the exception of religious and military courts) were proclaimed; the institutions of jurors, the legal profession and the recognition of equal rights before the court were introduced. An adversarial process was introduced: the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, the defense by the lawyer (attorney). Several judicial instances were established - the magistrate's and district courts. Judicial chambers were created as courts of appeal (the Ural provinces were under the jurisdiction of the Kazan Judicial Chamber).
The needs of the developing market have necessitated streamlining financial affairs. By decree of 1860, the State Bank was established, which replaced the previous credit institutions - zemstvo and commercial banks, the treasury and public charity orders. The state budget was streamlined. The Minister of Finance became the sole responsible manager of all income and expenses. From that time on, a list of income and expenses began to be published for public information.
In 1862-1864. reforms were carried out in the field of education: seven-year gymnasiums for girls were established, in men's gymnasiums the principle of equality for all classes and religions was proclaimed. The university charter of 1863 provided universities with broad autonomy: the university council received the right to decide all scientific, financial and educational issues, and the election of rectors, vice-rectors and deans was introduced.
The consequence of glasnost was the “Temporary Rules” of 1865 on censorship, which abolished preliminary censorship for publications published in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Government and scientific publications were completely freed from censorship.
The military reform of 1874, in the preparation and implementation of which Minister of War D. A. Milyutin played a large role, legislated the transformations in military affairs that began in the 60s. Corporal punishment was abolished, and instead of conscription, universal conscription was introduced. The 25-year military service period was gradually reduced to 6-7 years. When serving military service, a number of benefits were provided based on marital status and education. Soldiers in service were taught to read and write, measures were taken to technically re-equip the army, and to increase the level of officer training.
Reforms of the 60-70s The 19th century, which began with the abolition of serfdom, despite their half-heartedness and inconsistency, contributed to the development of capitalism in the country and the acceleration of the socio-economic development of Russia.
Abolition of serfdom
Economic and political prerequisites for peasant reform
In the middle of the 19th century. Serfs made up about 37% of the country's total population. Among European countries, serfdom remained only in Russia, hindering its economic and socio-political development. The long-term preservation of serfdom was due to the nature of the Russian autocracy, which throughout its history relied exclusively on the nobility, and therefore had to take into account its interests. And yet, by the middle of the 19th century. Both economic and political prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom had developed.
The defeat in the Crimean War testified to Russia's serious military-technical lag behind the leading European states. Along with the defeat came the understanding that one of the main reasons for Russia's economic backwardness was serfdom. The landed economy, based on the labor of serfs, fell increasingly into decline due to its inefficiency. The shortage of civilian labor hampered the development of industry. Serfdom hampered the process of the emergence of qualified personnel at enterprises and the use of complex machines on a mass scale. Since otkhodnichestvo was a seasonal phenomenon and there was no employee interest in the results of production, low labor productivity remained. Thus, serfdom interfered with the industrial modernization of the country and predetermined the low pace of development of Russia.
Along with economic ones, there were also political prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom. The liberation of the peasants was the secret goal of many monarchs on the Russian throne. Even Catherine II, in letters to Voltaire, declared her desire to abolish slavery in Russia. This topic was discussed in the Secret Committee of her grandson Alexander I, and the touchstone of future peasant reform was the Baltic states in 1816-1819. During the reign of Nicholas I, secret committees were created on the peasant issue, a reform of the state peasants was carried out, and a number of specific steps were taken that served as the basis for further transformations of the privately owned village. The need to abolish serfdom was also caused by the direct action of the peasants themselves. The bourgeois-liberal movement against the existence of serfdom also revived. Numerous notes were developed on the abnormality, immorality and economic unprofitability of the serfdom of the peasants. The most famous was the “Note on the Liberation of Peasants”, compiled by a lawyer K.D. Kavelin. They called for the liberation of the peasants A.I. Herzen in "Bell" N.G. Chernyshevsky And ON THE. Dobrolyubov in Sovremennik. Publicistic speeches by representatives of different political trends gradually prepared the country's public opinion to resolve the peasant issue.
For the first time about the need to abolish serfdom Alexander II (1855-1881 ) stated in 1856 in a speech at a meeting of the leaders of the nobility of the Moscow province. At the same time, he, knowing the mood of the majority of landowners, emphasized that it is much better if this happens from above than to wait for it to happen from below. January 3, 1857 was educated Secret committee to discuss the issue of abolition of serfdom. However, many of its members, former Nikolaev dignitaries, slowed down the work of the committee. Under these conditions, Alexander II instructed the Vilna Governor-General V.I. Nazimov appealed to the emperor on behalf of the Livonian nobility with a request to create commissions to develop a reform project. In response to the appeal on November 20, 1857, a rescript from V.I. Nazimov on the creation of provincial committees “to improve the life of landowner peasants.” During 1858, such committees were established in 46 provinces. Thus, for the first time, preparations for the reform began to be carried out publicly.
IN February 1858 The Secret Committee was renamed Main Committee. Its chairman became Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich. IN February 1859 under the Main Committee were established Editorial commissions. They had to collect all projects coming from the provinces. General was appointed chairman of the commission ME AND. Rostovtsev. He recruited supporters of reforms - ON THE. Milyutina, Yu.F. Samarina, Y.A. Solovyova, P.P. Semenov.
In projects coming from the localities, the size of peasant plots and duties depended on the fertility of the soil. In non-black earth districts, the middle nobility received their main income from quitrents, so they offered to free the peasants with land, but for a large ransom. In the black earth districts, the main income came from land, where landowners demanded the release of peasants without land in order to make them farm laborers. The government proposed an intermediate option: to release peasants with a small plot for a large ransom. Thus, the nobility as a whole advocated a gradual bourgeois transformation of the countryside while maintaining actual power in their hands.
In October 1860, the editorial commissions completed their work. On February 17, 1861, the reform project was approved by the State Council. February 19, 1861 it was signed by Alexander II. Announced the abolition of serfdom Manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of free rural inhabitants.” The practical conditions for liberation were defined in the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.”
Basic principles and conditions for the abolition of serfdom
According to these documents, the content of the peasant reform consisted of four main points. First there was personal liberation without ransom of 22 million peasants (the population of Russia according to the 1858 revision was 74 million people). Second point - the right of peasants to buy out the estate (the land on which the yard stood). Third - land plot (arable, hayfield, pasture land) - purchased by agreement with the landowner. Fourth point - land purchased from the landowner became not the private property of the peasant, but the partial property of the community (without the right of alienation). After the landowner was deprived of power, class peasant self-government was created in the village.
The most important achievement of the reform was providing peasants with personal freedom, status of “rural inhabitants”, economic and civil rights. A peasant could own movable and immovable property, enter into transactions, and act as a legal entity. He was freed from the personal guardianship of the landowner, could enter the service and educational institutions, move to another class: become a tradesman, a merchant, marry without the consent of the landowner.
However, the liberated peasants remained to live in peasant community. She, in turn, distributed land among community members, made decisions on peasants leaving the community or accepting new members, and was responsible for administrative procedures, as well as the collection of taxes (according to the system of mutual responsibility). The community periodically redistributed land due to the arrival of new members and thus did not create an incentive to improve the soil. That is, the freedom of the peasant was limited to the framework of the peasant community. In addition, the peasantry bore conscription duties, paid a poll tax and could be subject to corporal punishment.
The "Regulations" regulated allotment of land to peasants. The size of the plot received by each peasant depended on the fertility of the soil. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three stripes: black earth, non-black earth and steppe. In each of them, the highest and lowest sizes of the peasant field allotment were established. In different parts of the empire it ranged from 3 to 12 acres. And if at the time of liberation there was more land in peasant use, then the landowner had the right "cut off" surplus, while the best quality lands were selected. In the country as a whole, peasants lost in this way up to 20% of the land they cultivated before the reform.
Before the redemption of their land plots, peasants found themselves in the position temporarily obligated. They had to pay quitrent or serve corvée in favor of the landowner. The size of the allotment, redemption, as well as the duties that the peasant bore before the start of the redemption operation (two years were allotted for this) were determined with the consent of the landowner and the peasant community and recorded mediator in the charter. It should be noted that the law did not force the purchase of land; the purchase of the estate was mandatory. But it was forbidden to abandon the allotment until 1870, since the landowner was then losing his workforce. The plot was purchased either by voluntary agreement with the landowner, or at his request. Thus, the temporarily obliged state of the peasant could last for 9 years.
When receiving land, peasants were obliged to pay its cost. Size ransom the field allotment was determined in such a way that the landowner did not lose the money that he had previously received in the form of rent. The peasant had to immediately pay him 20-25% of the cost of the allotment. To enable the landowner to receive the redemption amount in a lump sum, the government paid him the remaining 75-80%. The peasant had to repay this debt to the state for 49 years with an accrual of 6% per annum. At the same time, settlements were carried out not with each individual, but with the peasant community. World mediators, as well as provincial presences for peasant affairs consisting of a governor, a government official, a prosecutor and a representative from local landowners, were supposed to monitor the implementation of the reform on the ground.
As a result, the reform of 1861 created a special peasant status. First of all, the law emphasized that the land owned by the peasant (yard, share of communal holdings) is not private property. This land could not be sold, bequeathed or inherited. But the peasant could not refuse the “right to land”. It was possible to refuse only practical use, for example, when going to the city. The passport was given to the peasant only for 5 years, and the community could claim it back. On the other hand, the peasant never lost his “right to the land”: upon returning, even after a very long absence, he could make a claim for his share of the land, and the world had to accept it.
The peasants' allotment land cost about 650 million rubles, the peasants paid about 900 million for it, and in total until 1905 they made more than 2 billion redemption payments with interest. Thus, the allocation of land and the redemption transaction were carried out exclusively in the interests of the nobility. Redemption payments took away all the savings in the peasant economy, prevented it from rebuilding and adapting to the market economy, and kept the Russian village in a state of poverty.
Of course, this was not the kind of reform the peasants expected. Having heard enough about the approaching “freedom,” they received the news with indignation that they had to serve corvée and quitrent. There was a rumor in the village that the “Manifesto” and “Regulations” were fake, that the landowners had hidden the “real will.” As a result, peasant riots took place in many provinces of the European part of Russia. Statistics confirm: in 1861-1863. Over 2 thousand peasant unrest occurred. The largest uprisings occurred in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province, and Kandeevka, Penza province. The riots were suppressed by troops, there were killed and wounded. Only from the end of 1863 did the peasant movement begin to decline.
There was no unity in the assessment of the Manifesto among the people considered advanced at that time. For example, A.I. Herzen wrote enthusiastically: “Alexander II did a lot, a lot: his name now stands above his predecessors... We greet him with the name “Liberator.” CM. Soloviev spoke in a diametrically opposite tone on this matter. “Transformations,” he wrote, “are carried out by Peter the Great; but it’s a disaster if Louis XVI and Alexandra II are mistaken for them.”
Significance of the 1861 reform
Without exaggeration, we can say that the abolition of serfdom was a turning point in the history of Russia. It gave freedom to millions of serfs, a powerful impetus for the economic and social progress of the country, and opened up the possibility of widespread development of market relations. The liberation of the peasants changed the moral climate in the country and influenced the development of social thought and culture as a whole. The reform largely prepared the conditions for subsequent transformations in Russian society and the state. At the same time, the reform showed that the interests of the state and landowners were taken into account more than the interests of the peasants. This predetermined the preservation of a number of remnants of serfdom, and the agrarian question itself retained its urgency throughout the pre-revolutionary history of Russia.
Concepts:
- Temporary peasants- after 1861, former landowner peasants who had not yet purchased their land from the landowner and were therefore temporarily obliged to perform certain duties or pay money for the use of the land.
- Redemption payments- a state credit operation carried out by the government in connection with the Peasant Reform of 1861. To purchase land plots from landowners, peasants were provided with a loan.
- World Mediator- an official from the nobility, appointed to approve charters and resolve disputes between peasants and landowners.
- Segments- part of the peasant lands that were in use, cut off after the reform of 1861 in favor of the landowners, if the peasant allotment exceeded the maximum norm established by the “Regulations”.
- Rescript- a letter from the monarch in the form of a specific instruction.
- Charter charters - documents establishing the amount of land provided by the landowner to the rural community for the permanent use of the temporarily obligated, and the amount of duties due to him for this.
To the begining
Bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century
Objectives of transformations and methods for carrying them out
Serfdom in Russia determined the structure of local administration, courts, and the army. Therefore, after the liberation of the peasants, it was necessary to rebuild all spheres of life of the Russian state. And for this, reforms were needed. They had to bring the judicial system, local governments, education, and armed forces into line with changing social and economic conditions. The reforms were supposed to provide favorable conditions for the accelerated development of domestic industry and capitalist relations. They were carried out to strengthen the state and military power of Russia, to return to it its lost position as a great power and its former international influence.
Transformations in the 60-70s. XIX century carried out gradually, peacefully, from above, i.e. relying not so much on society as on the bureaucracy and with the expectation of avoiding social and political upheavals.
Local government reform
The course of bourgeois reforms taken by the government of Alexander II required certain changes in the political superstructure. There is a strong opinion in society about the need to create representative non-estate bodies. The government had a number of projects to form such bodies both at the local and national levels. However, the autocracy did not dare to introduce all-Russian representation. As a result January 1, 1864 introduced in Russia “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”, which provided for the creation of elected zemstvos in counties and provinces. The reform of local self-government can be called the second most important after the peasant reform of 1861. Every three years, representatives of different classes elected a district zemstvo assembly (from 10 to 96 members - vowels), and it sent deputies to the provincial zemstvo assembly. District and zemstvo assemblies formed executive bodies - zemstvo councils. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of their activities. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax that was levied on real estate: land, houses, factories and commercial establishments.
The introduction of elections, self-government, independence from the administration and all-class status was great progress. But the government artificially created a preponderance of nobles in the zemstvos: in the 60s. they made up 42% of district and 74% of provincial vowels. The chairmen of zemstvo assemblies were the heads of class noble bodies - the leaders of the nobility. Self-government did not have its own coercive authorities. If necessary, one had to contact the governor. As a result, according to contemporaries, the zemstvo turned out to be “a building without a foundation or a roof”: it had no organs at the level below the county in the volost and at the all-Russian level. Zemstvos were introduced only in European Russia (34 provinces). Despite this, they played a special role in the development of education and health care. In addition, they became centers for the formation of the liberal noble opposition.
In 1870 following the example of the Zemstvo was carried out urban reform. Every four years, cities elected a city duma, which formed the city government. The city mayor led the Duma and the Council. Men who had reached the age of 25 enjoyed the right to elect members of the new governing bodies. All classes were allowed to participate in the elections, but the high property qualification greatly limited the circle of voters. Thus, in Moscow it included only 34% of the population. The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city council.
City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic cities not covered by the reform.
Thus, during the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. Only representative local bodies were created, in charge of cultural and economic issues and completely deprived of political functions. Nevertheless, these bodies played a significant role in the social development of post-reform Russia and the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving governance issues and forming the traditions of Russian parliamentarism.
Judicial reform
The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was judicial reform. It started with an introduction to 1864 new judicial statutes. Previously, the courts were class-based, the investigation was conducted by the police, who often intimidated and tortured the accused. The trial was carried out silently, in the absence of the accused deprived of protection, on the basis of clerical information about the case, often at the behest of superiors and under the influence of a bribe.
Judicial reform introduced new principles of legal proceedings and judicial organization. The court became classless. The investigation was conducted by a forensic investigator. The defendant was defended in the presence of the public by a lawyer - attorney at law, supported the accusation prosecutor, those. an oral, public and adversarial process was introduced. The decision on the guilt of the defendant - the “verdict” - was made jurors(representatives of society drawn by lot). In the whole country, except for the capitals, about 60% of the jurors were peasants, about 20% were bourgeois, so the reactionaries said that a “street court” had been introduced in Russia. The judges were given high salaries; they, like the investigators, were irremovable and independent of the administration.
According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general. Less important cases were referred to elected magistrates. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. The magistrate's court of second instance was the district congress of magistrates. The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Appeals against the district court's decision were filed with the trial chamber. She also considered cases of official misconduct. Decisions of all authorities could be appealed to the Senate, the highest court.
But in the judicial sphere there were also remnants: a volost court for the peasantry, special courts for the clergy, military and high officials. It was impossible to appeal the actions of officials in court. In some national regions, the implementation of judicial reform has been delayed for decades. In the so-called Western Territory, it began only in 1872, in the Baltic states - in 1877. Only at the end of the 19th century. it was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia, etc. Nevertheless, judicial reform contributed to the liberalization of public life and became a step towards a legal society. The judicial system in Russia has approached the standards of Western justice.
Military reform
For over ten years he carried out reforms in the army YES. Milyutin- Minister of War, brother of the author of the peasant reform. Troop control was centralized and streamlined. The country was divided into fifteen military districts, directly subordinate to the Minister of War. To train officers, military gymnasiums, specialized cadet schools and academies were created.
IN 1874 recruiting, which was on tax-paying estates, was replaced universal conscription. Every year, from all men who had reached the age of 20, the government selected by lot the required number of recruits (usually 20-30% of conscripts). They served in the army for six years and were in the reserves for nine years, in the navy for seven years and three years in the reserves. The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were exempt from service. Those exempt from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Not subject to conscription were clergy of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, peoples of the North, Central Asia, and some residents of the Caucasus and Siberia. Significant benefits were given taking into account education: a graduate of an elementary school served for four years, a secondary school for one and a half years, and a higher school for six months. Illiterate conscripts were trained during their service. This stimulated the growth of education in the country. Soldierly service was transformed from a class obligation into the fulfillment of a general civil duty; instead of the Nikolaev drill, they tried to instill a conscious attitude towards military affairs in the troops.
An important component of the military reform was the rearmament of the army and navy: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast iron and bronze guns with steel ones began, etc. The accelerated development of the military steam fleet was of particular importance. The combat training system has changed. A number of regulations and instructions were issued, the task of which was to teach soldiers what was necessary during the war. Reform in the army made it possible to reduce its number in peacetime and at the same time increase its combat effectiveness. The transition to universal conscription was a serious blow to the class organization of society.
Education reform
Changes in the economy, new courts, the army, and zemstvos placed a demand for educated people and demanded the development of science. Therefore, the reforms could not but affect the education system. The 1863 charter returned the universities taken from them under Nicholas I autonomy. The election of the rector, deans, and professors was introduced. The university council began to decide on its own all scientific, educational and administrative issues, and a representative of the government administration - the trustee of the educational district - only monitored its work. At the same time, students (unlike professors) did not receive corporate rights. This led to tension in universities and periodic student unrest.
Gymnasium charter 1864 introduced equality in secondary education of all classes and religions. Two types of gymnasiums were established. In classical gymnasiums, the humanities were studied more deeply, in real ones - natural and exact sciences. The period of study in them was initially seven years, and since 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. A secondary and higher school for women emerged. Regulations on primary schools (1864) entrusted public schools to the joint management of the state, society (zemstvos and cities), and the church. The duration of training in them did not, as a rule, exceed three years.
The press became freer. In 1865, preliminary censorship for books and the capital's press was abolished. Now they were punished for materials that had already been published (punitive censorship). For this, the Minister of Internal Affairs had a “stick”: either prosecution or administrative penalties - a warning (after three warnings the magazine or newspaper was closed), a fine, suspension of publication. For the provincial press and mass popular publications, censorship was maintained. A special spiritual censorship also remained.
Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. The government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, children of the clergy were allowed to enter gymnasiums, and in 1866 - to military schools. The Synod decided to eliminate the heredity of parishes and the right of admission to seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy.
Results and features of the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century
Thus, during the reign of Alexander II, reforms were carried out that dramatically changed the appearance of Russia. Contemporaries called the reforms of those years “Great”; historians now talk about “revolution from above.” They opened the way for the intensive development of capitalism in the Russian economy. At the same time, they significantly changed the social and partly political life of the country. Millions of former serfs, having received civil rights, were included in public life. An important step was taken towards equality of all classes, towards the establishment of civil society and the rule of law. In general, these changes were liberal in nature.
Carrying out reforms, the autocracy kept pace with the times. After all, 1860-1870. for many countries it was a time of modernization (the abolition of slavery and the civil war in the United States of America 1861-1865, the beginning of the Europeanization of Japan - the Meiji Revolution of 1867-1868, the completion of the unification of Italy in 1870 and Germany in 1871) . The administrative and social system of Russia, while retaining many remnants, has nevertheless become much more flexible, more dynamic, closer to the European way of life, to the requirements of the time.
In general, the reforms of Alexander II, which laid the foundation for the comprehensive modernization of the country, due to the inconsistency of the internal political course and the periodic retreats of the authorities from reforms, complicated the process of restructuring the socio-economic, political and spiritual structures, which was extremely painful for the masses.
Concepts:
- Military service - the legal obligation of the population to perform military service in the armed forces of their country. It was introduced in 1874 during the military reform.
- Vowels - elected members of governing bodies.
- Zemstvo- a system of local all-class self-government, which included elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvo assemblies, zemstvo councils. Introduced during the zemstvo reform of 1864.
- World judge - after the judicial reform of 1864 and until 1889, as well as in 1912-1917. a judge chosen or appointed to hear minor cases and render a decision alone.
- Constitutional state- a system in which the rule of law is ensured in all spheres of society, the protection of individual rights and the mutual responsibility of citizens and the state.
- Jurors - twelve electors who sit in court to determine the guilt or innocence of the defendant in criminal cases and take an oath “to cast the decisive vote according to the actual truth and conviction of conscience.”
- Attorney at Law- a lawyer, according to judicial reform, defended the defendant in the presence of the public.