Reforms of Alexander 2 (Great Reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century in the Russian Empire by Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of state life.

Prerequisites and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2

Russia remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom longer than any other state. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state had completely outlived its usefulness, and the conflict, which had been brewing since the 18th century, reached its peak. There was an urgent need to change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.

With the development of technology and the advent of industrial equipment, the need for manual labor increasingly disappeared, but landowners still actively used the labor of peasants, imposing huge taxes on them. As a result, the peasantry went bankrupt everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in serfdom and the income of landowners. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the bankrupt landowners, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.

The developing industry also suffered, since due to the widespread enslavement of peasants, there was not enough free labor that could service the machines in factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant revolts and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which completely undermined the confidence of citizens in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such a situation, conversations began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, at one of his speeches before the nobility, declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it will happen from below (revolution).

The era of great reforms has begun.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the main political reforms of Alexander 2 are:

Peasant reform (1861);

Financial reform (1863);

Educational reform (1863);

Zemstvo reform (1864);

Judicial reform (1864);

Reform of state self-government (1870);

Military reform (1874);

The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms was the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and bourgeoisie, was carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy himself an arable plot for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, open commercial and industrial enterprises, and apply for a transfer to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

Another reform of Alexander 2 was the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as openness and freedom of the press (relative) appeared; newspapers could discuss events carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. The Iron Curtain was also lifted, and people could leave the country more freely.

The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all classes and the principle of publicity and openness. The jury appeared, which allowed the judiciary to separate from the executive branch and make more independent decisions.

Zemstvo and city reforms created open local government bodies, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this significantly simplified the process of city self-government.

The military reform involved replacing Peter's conscription system with universal conscription. This allowed for the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at short notice when needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the general level of education in society began to grow rapidly.

Results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander 2

It is not for nothing that the political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander 2 are called great. Thanks to them, the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire was laid - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of class, as well as the opportunity for a fair and open trial. The press became freer, allowing citizens to be able to discuss and condemn government decisions.

The liberation of peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to emerge from the crisis and create conditions for further successful growth, taking into account new economic realities.

In general, the country has experienced significant changes that have helped it embark on a new path of development, more successful and modern.

Counter-reform policy of Alexander 3

Brief biography of Alexander III

On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich died at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya, and his second son Alexander ascended the throne. At first he was preparing for a military career, because... the heir to power was his elder brother Nikolai, but in 1865 he died.

In 1868, during a severe crop failure, Alexander Alexandrovich was appointed chairman of the committee for the collection and distribution of benefits to the hungry. Before he ascended the throne, he was the ataman of the Cossack troops and the chancellor of the University of Helsingfors. In 1877 he took part in the Russian-Turkish war as a detachment commander.

The historical portrait of Alexander III was more reminiscent of a mighty Russian peasant than the sovereign of an empire. He had heroic strength, but was not distinguished by mental abilities. Despite this characteristic, Alexander III was very fond of theater, music, painting, and studied Russian history.

In 1866 he married the Danish princess Dagmara, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. She was smart, educated, and in many ways complemented her husband. Alexander and Maria Feodorovna had 5 children.

Domestic policy of Alexander III

The beginning of the reign of Alexander III occurred during the period of struggle between two parties: liberal (wanting the reforms begun by Alexander II) and monarchical. Alexander III abolished the idea of ​​Russian constitutionality and set a course for strengthening autocracy.

On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law “Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace.” To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared.

Alexander III believed that all the troubles in the country came from the freethinking of his subjects and the excessive education of the lower class, which was caused by his father’s reforms. Therefore, he began a policy of counter-reforms.

Universities were considered the main source of terror. The new university charter of 1884 sharply limited their autonomy, student associations and the student court were banned, access to education for representatives of the lower classes and Jews was limited, and strict censorship was introduced in the country.

changes in zemstvo reform under Alexander III:

In April 1881, the Manifesto on the independence of the autocracy was published, compiled by K.M. Pobedonostsev. The rights of zemstvos were severely curtailed, and their work was brought under the strict control of governors. Merchants and officials sat in the City Dumas, and only rich local nobles sat in the zemstvos. Peasants lost the right to participate in elections.

Changes in judicial reform under Alexander III:

In 1890, a new regulation on zemstvos was adopted. Judges became dependent on the authorities, the competence of the jury was reduced, and magistrates' courts were practically eliminated.

Changes in peasant reform under Alexander III:

The poll tax and communal land use were abolished, compulsory land purchases were introduced, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasant Bank was established, designed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.

Changes in military reform under Alexander III:

The defense capability of border districts and fortresses was strengthened.

Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created and reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot.

To conduct combat in mountainous areas, mountain artillery batteries were created, mortar regiments and siege artillery battalions were formed. A special railway brigade was created to deliver troops and army reserves.

In 1892, river mine companies, fortress telegraphs, aeronautical detachments, and military dovecotes appeared.

Military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps, and non-commissioned officer training battalions were created for the first time to train junior commanders.

A new three-line rifle was adopted for service, and a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. The military uniform has been replaced with a more comfortable one. The procedure for appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.

Social policy of Alexander III

“Russia for Russians” is the emperor’s favorite slogan. Only the Orthodox Church is considered truly Russian; all other religions were officially defined as “other faiths.”

The policy of anti-Semitism was officially proclaimed, and the persecution of Jews began.

Foreign policy of Alexander III

The reign of Emperor Alexander III was the most peaceful. Only once did Russian troops clash with Afghan troops on the Kushka River. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname “Peacemaker.”

Economic policy of Alexander III

Under Alexander III, cities, factories and factories grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and construction of the great Siberian Railway began. In order to develop new lands, peasant families were resettled to Siberia and Central Asia.

At the end of the 80s, the state budget deficit was overcome; revenues exceeded expenses.

Results of the reign of Alexander III

Emperor Alexander III was called “the most Russian Tsar.” He defended the Russian population with all his might, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.

As a result of the measures taken in Russia, there was a rapid industrial boom, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble grew and strengthened, and the well-being of the population improved.

Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also gave birth to a revolutionary spirit in the Russians, which would break out under his son Nicholas II.

25In the Russian social movement of this period, three stages can be clearly distinguished: the 50s - 60s, the 70s - early 80s. and 80-90s. It is necessary to identify the characteristic features of these stages and give a brief analysis of the main requirements put forward at each of them.

First stage (50-60s): weakening of censorship after Alexander II came to power. The process of formation of the liberal-bourgeois and radical-democratic currents of social thought is underway: the participation of Westerners and Slavophiles in the development of peasant reform, the activities Free Russian printing house in London, publication by A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev of “The Polar Star” and “The Bell”, their influence on the radicalization of public opinion, the beginning of the emergence of populism, the activities of “Land and Freedom” in the 1860s.

Second stage (70s - early 80s): formation and flourishing populism. Main ideas: the theory of non-capitalist development of Russia, the idea of ​​the transition to socialism. The main goal is to rely on the peasant community to bypass capitalism and move directly to socialism.

The Populist movement went through four developments stage:

1) mid 60's- early 70s- stage of formation: the activities of disparate circles (attempt by D.V. Karakozov on Alexander II in 1866)

2) early 1870s- 1876- propaganda stage. Main event - "going to the people" with the aim of rousing the peasants to fight the autocracy. The reasons for the failure: the peasants’ lack of understanding of abstract ideas, their tsarist illusions;

3) 1876 -1879- rebellious stage. The movement was organized - a new “Land and Freedom” was created (1876);

4) 1879 -1881- conspiratorial, or heroic, stage. The split of “Land and Freedom” due to disagreements on the issue of methods of struggle into “Black Redistribution” (G.V. Plekhanov) and “People’s Will” (A.D. Mikhailov). The transition of the Narodnaya Volya to the tactics of individual terror. The goal was regicide and disorganization of the government, which was supposed to facilitate the seizure of power.

Key dates

April 1879- Narodnaya Volya assassination attempt on Alexander II

November 1879- an attempt to blow up a royal train near Moscow.

February 1880- explosion of the Winter Palace dining room, carried out by S. A. Khalturin.

Results: The tactics of conspiracy and terror did not justify themselves and led to the opposite result - the policy of counter-reforms of Alexander III. The Narodnaya Volya themselves spent all their energy organizing the regicide; they had no strength left to seize power. Moreover, they underestimated the power of the bureaucracy.

Third stage (80-90s): decline of the revolutionary struggle. Having spoken about the degeneration of populism, it is necessary to characterize the essence liberal populism and the views of the leader of this movement - N.K. Mikhailovsky: peaceful propaganda of socialist ideas.

There was also a process of distribution Marxism in Russia: the group “Emancipation of Labor” (1883-1893) by G. V. Plekhanov and his criticism of populism. Causes special popularity of Marxist ideas in Russia: the urgency of the labor issue, the low standard of living of the population, the logic and simplicity of Marxist constructs, their accessibility to the understanding of the common man, the peculiarities of the mentality of the Russian people - collectivism, mutual assistance, communalism, messianism.

It is also necessary to talk about liberal movement associated primarily with zemstvos, and conservative the flow of social thought (K.P. Pobedonostsev, M.N. Katkov), its influence on the development of the country’s internal political course.

Conclusion: social thought in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. It was distinguished by ideological diversity: all directions were represented - from reactionary-conservative to radical-democratic. Social thought developed in an atmosphere of lack of openness and minimal civil liberties, which led to the opposition of most social movements to the authorities.

The transformations carried out during the reign of Alexander II had important consequences for Russia at that time. Not only the descendants, but also the emperor’s contemporaries noted both the positive and negative significance of Alexander 2’s reforms for the development of statehood.

The inevitability of reforms

Immediately after ascending the throne in February 1855 - the day after the death of Emperor Nicholas 2's father - Alexander 2 made it clear to his subjects that he understood perfectly well at what time he would have to rule and in what condition the country would be handed to him. He stated this in his first speech as emperor to members of the State Council. The socio-political situation in Russia at that time was far from stable and progressively developing. It was necessary to quickly resolve a number of rather complex internal and external political issues in order to lead the country out of the crisis.

From the abolition of serfdom to the education of peasant children

Emperor Alexander 2 went down in history under the name “Liberator”. which was carried out under him, somewhat overshadowed the rest of the transformations of his reign, and there were many of them. The same reform of public education of Alexander 2 - Why is there no reason to give him the name “Enlightener”?

Among the intelligentsia, in addition to the women's issue, the consequences of the exodus of peasants from the landowners and their future fate were discussed. Ideas about the needs of organization for peasant children gave rise to virtually no controversy - the enlightened minds of the state recognized the need for their education unconditionally. Many cited the genius of Russian science Mikhail Lomonosov as an example, fate

which was so amazing and unique. Alexander II also had deep respect for him. Educational reforms were supposed to open the way to the world of knowledge for many peasant children. A great supporter of education among the people was I.S. Turgenev, who proposed his project for creating a literacy committee, which was approved by the emperor.

Historical significance of the reforms introduced during the reign of Alexander

In addition to accepting and signing new educational statutes and carrying out a complete educational reform, among his achievements there are other important transformations that affected the entire Russian society. In 1862-1863, changes in the management of the state's financial resources were adopted, and in 1865, the law on the press was adopted. Reforms - self-government, judicial, military - were accepted by society in different ways, but their necessity was recognized by everyone. Even if not everything was implemented as planned, it is difficult not to recognize the very fact of the transformations and the positive significance of the reforms of Alexander 2 for the further development of the state. Although some of them are given different assessments to this day, Russia became stronger both in the domestic and foreign policy arena in the era of Alexander 2.

Reforms of Alexander II (briefly)

Reforms of Alexander 2 (briefly)

The main essence of all the reforms of Alexander II was the general restructuring of the management system and society. Historians consider the abolition of serfdom, which occurred in 1861, to be one of the priority reforms. The reform itself was prepared for several years and, despite the ardent resistance of the bourgeoisie and nobility, it was nevertheless implemented.

As a result of the peasant reform, every peasant was freed from serfdom. In addition, along with personal freedom, he received a small plot of land completely free of charge. He could build a house and work on it. Also, the peasant had the right to purchase an arable plot for little money - this could significantly replenish the state treasury.

The peasant also received some civil rights. Thus, they could apply for a transition to another class, open industrial and commercial enterprises, and also make purchases and sales.

Another very important Alexander reform was the so-called printing reform. In the Russian Empire, such concepts as freedom of the press and openness (relative) appear. At the same time, newspapers were allowed to discuss various events carried out by the government and even sometimes criticize ministers, without, of course, affecting the Emperor himself.

The reforms also affected the judicial system. The previous type of court was replaced by a new one, proclaiming the general principle of unity for each class, as well as the principle of publicity and openness. The jury was formed, allowing legal proceedings to be completely separated from the exercise of executive power and make independent decisions.

City and zemstvo reforms created more open local governments. In large cities, courts appeared, as well as so-called local councils, which significantly simplified the processes of city management.

The military reform of Alexander the Second assumed the replacement of Peter's recruits with universal military service. This change made it possible to form a more extensive army, which can be assembled in the shortest possible time at the first danger. In addition, the level of military education has increased significantly. New academies and schools were built.

Along with the construction and development of military institutions, educational institutions of a different kind began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the level of education of the Russian people began to grow rapidly.

Russian Emperor Alexander II

Having ascended the throne in 1855, Alexander II received a difficult legacy: he had to resolve complex internal and external issues (Eastern, peasant, Polish, etc.); Russia's financial situation was upset by the unsuccessful Crimean War, as a result of which Russia found itself in international isolation.

Emperor Alexander II began to gradually carry out the reforms necessary for the state, including urban reforms.

Urban reform

It was a direct continuation of the zemstvo reform.
On June 16, 1870, the emperor issued the “City Regulations”, as a result of which elective self-government was introduced in 509 of the 1130 cities existing at that time - city ​​councils. The number of public members of the Duma was significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. There were much more vowel members in the capital's Dumas: in the Moscow Duma - 180, in the St. Petersburg Duma - 252.

They were elected for 4 years. The City Duma was administrative authority. She elected her permanent executive agency — city ​​government. The city government consisted of the mayor, who was also elected for 4 years, and several members.

Mayor was simultaneously the chairman of the city duma and the city government. City councils were controlled by government officials.

1870 Urban Reform Scheme

The right to vote and be elected to the City Duma

It was based on the bourgeois property qualification.

Only those residents who had property qualifications had this right (mainly owners of commercial and industrial establishments, houses, banks). The City Duma consisted of three electoral assemblies: the first included large taxpayers who contributed a third of city taxes, the second included smaller ones who paid the other third of taxes, and the third included everyone else. Various departments, institutions, companies, societies, churches, monasteries also enjoyed suffrage as a legal entity. Only men over 25 years of age were allowed to vote. Women could participate in elections only through their proxies. Salaried workers, who mostly did not own real estate, representatives of the intelligentsia (engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who often did not have their own houses, but rented apartments), were actually deprived of the right to vote.

The limitations of this reform are obvious: the bulk of urban residents were excluded from participation in city government.

Competence of city government

This competence was limited to solving purely economic issues: the establishment of hospitals, schools, urban improvement, care for the development of trade, urban taxation, fire safety measures, water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems. City councils were also supposed to take measures against beggary and promote the spread of public education (establish schools, museums, etc.).

The importance of urban reform

Russia's entry onto the path of capitalism was marked by the rapid development of cities, a change in the social structure of their population, which led to an increasing role of cities as centers of the economic, socio-political and cultural life of the country.

As a result, both clergy and nobles who owned real estate within the city limits, who until 1870 were excluded from work in self-government bodies as non-taxable classes, were attracted to participate in city government.

Alexander II did a lot for Russia. He did what other rulers were afraid to undertake: he freed the peasants from serfdom.

The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale to the reforms of Peter I. The Tsar-Reformer carried out truly grandiose transformations without a fratricidal war.

As a result of the abolition of serfdom and urban reform, commercial and industrial activity was revived, a flow of workers flowed into the cities, and new opportunities for entrepreneurship appeared.

D. Medvedev: “The reforms of Alexander II continue now”

D. Medvedev, speaking in St. Petersburg at the Mariinsky Palace on the occasion of the anniversary of the abolition of serfdom, noted that the reforms of Alexander II continue now: “Alexander II received a country with a powerful military-bureaucratic vertical of power. Behind its pomp - and we always knew how to show off - he saw the ineffectiveness of these institutions. He abandoned the traditional way of life and pointed the way to the future. This path turned out to be long and difficult. And it is still not completed to this day. In essence, we are continuing the course that was laid out a century and a half ago.”

City reform (reform of city self-government of 1870) is one of the main reforms of Alexander 2, designed to enable the population of cities to independently manage their own households and depend less on directives coming from the center.

Preparations for the reform began in 1862, but it was officially put into effect only in 1870, when the City Regulations were issued.

Prerequisites for urban reform

After the peasant reform and the abolition of serfdom, a new type of society and economy emerged, which required faster and more competent management of the country. Previously, life in cities was completely subordinate to decisions coming from the center, which made their development difficult and greatly slowed it down - directives took a long time to reach local authorities and did not always correspond to economic realities. In order to change the situation and make the life of the city more efficient, it was decided to transfer a number of management powers to them.

History of the reform of city government Alexandra 2

Preparations for urban reform began in 1862 with the creation of the project. For this purpose, more than 500 special commissions were created in provincial and district cities, which were supposed to develop a number of proposals to improve the situation. Many of the established commissions put forward a proposal to grant voting rights to representatives of all classes - according to the commissions, this would help take into account the interests of all segments of the population and create a more comprehensive approach to urban development. Unfortunately, this proposal did not suit the ruling class, so the development of the reform stalled.

In 1864, the “City Regulations” were nevertheless released, which contained a number of provisions developed by the created commissions. The project was led by P.A. Valuev. The regulation was sent for consideration to the State Council, where it remained for two years, since officials did not really want to carry out the reform. However, soon there was no choice anymore, as the situation became more complicated. Alexander 2 was forced to accept the principle of equal electoral rights for all classes, and the amended bill was adopted on June 16, 1870.

The new bill created city public administrations, which were supposed to deal with various economic issues: improvement of streets and buildings, provision of food to citizens, organization of holidays, development of city infrastructure (creation of road networks, ports, markets), security, organization of the city’s financial system and much more. .

The institutions of city government were the electoral assembly, the Duma and the city council. The electoral assembly was responsible for selecting members of the city assembly, who had a decisive vote in disputes. The remaining members were elected in open elections every 4 years. Any citizen who has voting rights could become a member of the Duma, but there were exceptions. In particular, the share of non-Christians should not exceed one third of the total number. The elected Duma was headed by the head.

The Duma was responsible for the appointment of elected officials, and also carried out other matters of public organization and city government. Simply put, the members of the Duma elected a manager and collected taxes for various city needs. The Duma reported directly to the governor, who could reverse its decision if necessary.

In turn, the Duma elected members of the city government (also once every 4 years). The city government was engaged in collecting information for the Duma, drawing up various city estimates, collecting funds from the population (the Duma only created regulations for collecting taxes) and other minor city affairs.

As proposed earlier, a citizen from any class could be elected to the Duma if he had no tax debts, was over 25 years old, had no criminal record, and had a number of other qualities.

Results and significance of the urban reform of Alexander 2

Like the zemstvo reform, the urban reform had a significant impact on the development of the regional economy. The city, which now managed its own economy, could invest more efficiently and respond to the needs of citizens in a timely manner. Urban industry and trade began to develop. In addition, the civic activity of ordinary townspeople increased, who now had the right to participate in councils and the Duma.

However, there were some downsides. In connection with the introduction of the new order, small towns experienced significant difficulties, since according to the law, most of the money was spent on maintaining government agencies (police, etc.). Some cities couldn't handle it.

Overall, the reform had a positive impact on the economic situation in Russia and made the economy less centralized.