The Slavs were not the only people who inhabited Ancient Rus'. Other, more ancient tribes were also “cooked” in her cauldron: Chud, Merya, Muroma. They left early, but left a deep mark on the Russian ethnos, language and folklore.

Chud

“Whatever you call the boat, that’s how it will float.” Mysterious people Chud fully lives up to its name. The popular version says that the Slavs dubbed certain tribes Chudya, because their language seemed strange and unusual to them. IN ancient Russian sources and folklore, there are many references to the “chud”, which “the Varangians from overseas imposed tribute on.” They took part in Prince Oleg’s campaign against Smolensk, Yaroslav the Wise fought against them: “and defeated them, and established the city of Yuryev,” legends were made about them, like the white-eyed miracle - ancient people, akin to European “fairies”. They left a huge mark on the toponymy of Russia, their name is Lake Peipsi, Peipsi coast, villages: “Front Chudi”, “Middle Chudi”, “Back Chudi”. From the north-west of present-day Russia to the Altai mountains, their mysterious “wonderful” trace can still be traced.

For a long time it was customary to associate them with the Finno-Ugric peoples, since they were mentioned in places where representatives of the Finno-Ugric peoples lived or still live. But the folklore of the latter also preserves legends about the mysterious ancient Chud people, whose representatives left their lands and went somewhere, not wanting to accept Christianity. There is especially a lot of talk about them in the Komi Republic. So they say that the ancient tract Vazhgort " Old village"in the Udora area was once a Chud settlement. From there they were allegedly driven out by Slavic newcomers.

In the Kama region you can learn a lot about miracles: local residents describe their appearance (dark-haired and dark-skinned), language, customs. They say that they lived in dugouts in the middle of the forests, where they buried themselves, refusing to submit to more successful invaders. There is even a legend that “the miracle went underground”: they say they dug big hole with an earthen roof on pillars, and they brought it down, preferring death to captivity. But not a single popular belief or chronicle mention can answer the questions: what kind of tribes were they, where did they go and whether their descendants are still alive. Some ethnographers attribute them to the Mansi peoples, others to representatives of the Komi people who chose to remain pagans. The boldest version, which appeared after the discovery of Arkaim and the “Land of Cities” of Sintashta, claims that the Chud are ancient arias. But for now one thing is clear, the Chud are one of the aborigines of ancient Rus' whom we have lost.

Merya

“Chud made a mistake, but Merya intended gates, roads and mileposts...” - these lines from a poem by Alexander Blok reflect the confusion of scientists of his time about two tribes that once lived next door to the Slavs. But, unlike the first, Mary had “more transparent history" This ancient Finno-Ugric tribe once lived in the territories of modern Moscow, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, Tver, Vladimir and Kostroma regions Russia. That is, in the very center of our country.

There are many references to them; merins are found in the Gothic historian Jordan, who in the 6th century called them tributaries of the Gothic king Germanaric. Like the Chud, they were in the troops of Prince Oleg when he went on campaigns against Smolensk, Kyiv and Lyubech, as recorded in the Tale of Bygone Years. True, according to some scientists, in particular Valentin Sedov, by that time ethnically they were no longer a Volga-Finnish tribe, but “half Slavs.” Final assimilation apparently occurred by the 16th century.

The name Merya is associated with one of the largest peasant uprisings Ancient Rus' 1024 years old. The reason was the great famine that gripped Suzdal land. Moreover, according to the chronicles, it was preceded by “immeasurable rains,” drought, premature frosts, and dry winds. For the Marys, most of whose representatives opposed Christianization, this obviously looked like “divine punishment.” The rebellion was led by the priests of the “old faith” - the Magi, who tried to use the chance to return to pre-Christian cults. However, it was unsuccessful. The rebellion was defeated by Yaroslav the Wise, the instigators were executed or sent into exile.

Despite the meager data that we know about the Merya people, scientists have managed to restore them ancient language, which in Russian linguistics is called “Meryansky”. It was reconstructed on the basis of the dialect of the Yaroslavl-Kostroma Volga region and the Finno-Ugric languages. A number of words were restored thanks to geographical names. It turned out that the endings “-gda” in Central Russian toponymy: Vologda, Sudogda, Shogda are the heritage of the Meryan people.

Despite the fact that mentions of the Merya completely disappeared in sources back in the pre-Petrine era, today there are people who consider themselves to be their descendants. These are mainly residents of the Upper Volga region. They claim that the Merians did not dissolve over the centuries, but formed the substrate (underlying basis) of the northern Great Russian people, switched to Russian, and their descendants call themselves Russians. However, there is no evidence of this.

Muroma

As the Tale of Bygone Years says: in 862 the Slovenes lived in Novgorod, the Krivichi in Polotsk, the Merya in Rostov, and the Murom in Murom. The chronicle, like the Merians, classifies the latter as non-Slavic peoples. Their name translates as “an elevated place by the water,” which corresponds to the position of the city of Murom, which for a long time was their center.

Today based archaeological finds, discovered in large burial grounds of the tribe (located between the left tributaries of the Oka, Ushna, Unzha and right Tesha), it is almost impossible to determine which ethnic group they belonged. According to domestic archaeologists, they could be either another Finno-Ugric tribe or part of the Meri, or the Mordovians. Only one thing is known, they were friendly neighbors with a highly developed culture. Their weapons were one of the best in the surrounding areas in terms of workmanship, and Jewelry, which were found in abundance in burials, are distinguished by the ingenuity of their forms and the care of their manufacture. Murom was characterized by arched head decorations woven from horsehair and strips of leather, which were spirally braided with bronze wire. Interestingly, there are no analogues among other Finno-Ugric tribes.

Sources show that the Slavic colonization of Murom was peaceful and occurred mainly due to strong and economic trade relations. However, the result of this peaceful coexistence was that the Muroma were one of the very first assimilated tribes to disappear from the pages of history. TO XII century they are no longer mentioned in the chronicles.

On the same topic:

Chud and other peoples who lived on the territory of Rus' before the arrival of the Slavs Murom and other peoples who lived on the territory of Rus' before the arrival of the Slavs

What peoples lived in our territories before the arrival of the Slavs?

The absence of any written sources complicates the answer to the question “Who lived on the territory of Russia before the arrival of the Slavs.” These peoples were forced out or exterminated. After all, when the Slavs settled, the territory was populated.

Territory of Russia before the Slavs

Much has been written on this topic scientific works. Scientists are still arguing where the Slavs came from and whose lands they occupied. There are two conflicting views on this in the literature. The German Schletser suggested that before the arrival of the Varangians, there were impenetrable forests in the territories from Novgorod to Kyiv. And if there were people there, they were wild. Karamzin and Pogodin were of the same opinion.

The following hypothesis began to be written in books of the 19th century, by professors Belyaev and Zabelin. In their works, scientists revealed a long historical process, from clan unions to tribes.

Writers from Rome and Greece knew about Russia from merchants who brought news from the colonies that were then located along the shores of the Black Sea. Lived here nomadic peoples Asia, then the Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians. Some peoples young Russia was a temporary stop, for others it was the other way around. They left behind numerous mounds and burial mounds here.

Cimmerians

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Let's figure out who the Cimmerians, Scythians and Sarmatians are?

The first were the most ancient people who inhabited southern Russia from 1600 to 1000. BC. They were engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture. These peoples were of the Indo-European (Aryan) type. These tribes are mentioned even in the Bible (Genesis: 10.2). They must have been a powerful people. Archaeologists have discovered large cluster settlements in the region of Kharkov, Orel, Samara.

On large areas Russia also notes the influence of the Scythians. If you trace, many burial mounds are located in Ukraine and in southern Russia. According to Herodotus, it was the Scythians who ousted the Cimmerians from the Black Sea coast.

Sarmatians - came in the 1st century BC. These were nomads who were under pressure from the Turks. They lived from the Don to Turkmenistan. Later they had to push back the Scythians.

Despite his fierce appearance, his gaze was kind. This is evidenced by the records of the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellini.

The Sarmatian horde had a large, formidable army. They were well armed, so it was not difficult for them to oust the Scythians.

The historian Zabelin believes that Greek and Roman writers called the Slavs Sarmatians. If so, where are we from?

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Many residents of our city sincerely believe that the Slavs are an indigenous people who have lived on the banks of the Moscow River from time immemorial. However, it is not. The Slavs are just as alien here as the representatives of other ethnic groups inhabiting Moscow. But who lived here before them is a real mystery.

The constant Slavic presence on the banks of the Moscow River, according to archaeological data, can be reliably traced from the end of the first millennium AD. And people have lived here since the Stone Age. So who was it, who has the right to call themselves the ancestors of native Muscovites?

Nomads with axes

On the one side, early life our region has been well studied by archaeologists, on the other - scientific knowledge about the characteristics of each of the archaeological cultures can tell us very little about ethnic composition population. For example, we know that the first Indo-Europeans on our land were representatives of the Fatyanovo culture. About five thousand years ago, during the era Bronze Age, they roamed our lands, raised livestock, hunted and, perhaps, even learned the basics of agriculture, as indicated by the finds of hoes. Quite a few mounds of that era with burials of warriors have reached us, and the most characteristic finds - a kind of symbols of this culture - are considered to be battle axes. By the way, one of the archaeological cultures related to Fatyanovo is called “the culture of battle axes.”

We know that representatives of the Fatyanovo culture were in difficult relationships with the Indo-Iranian (Abashevo culture) and Finno-Ugric (Dyakovo culture) tribes moving from the east, who eventually pushed them to the west, apparently to the regions of Belarus and the Baltic states. These proto-Balts did not leave peacefully: in the later burial grounds there are many people with injuries and wounds from arrows and spears

Since the Fatyanovo people buried their dead in the ground, scientists were able to fairly accurately restore their appearance. They were tall slim people North European type.

Should we consider the Fatyanovo people our ancestors? Only indirectly. Apparently, they participated in the formation of the ethnic substrate from which all Eastern European peoples would subsequently emerge, primarily the Slavs and Balts. But it is almost impossible to trace this relationship. We know that representatives of the Fatyanovo culture were in difficult relations with the Indo-Iranian (Abashevo culture) and Finno-Ugric (Dyakovo culture) tribes moving from the east, who eventually pushed them to the west, apparently to the regions of Belarus and the Baltic states. These proto-Balts did not leave peacefully: in the later burial grounds there are many people with injuries and wounds from arrows and spears.

Builders of "long houses"

Reconstruction of the view of a pre-Slavic settlement in the first millennium AD

Drawing: N.S. Safonova / collection of the Moscow History Museum / www.merjamaa.ru

The first inhabitants of our lands who lived here settled and made a tangible contribution to the history of our city today were representatives of the Dyakovo archaeological culture. In any textbook on the history of Moscow you will find information that they lived here from approximately the 8th century BC until approximately the 5th-7th centuries AD, that is, before the Slavs appeared here. Fifty Dyakovo settlements are known along the banks of the Moscow River: in the Kremlin (on Borovitsky Hill), in the Luzhnetskaya Bend, in Kuntsevo, Fili, Setun, Khimki, Tushino, Nizhniye Kotly, Kapotnya and other places. This is only within the capital; there are many more of them in the region.

The culture received its name in honor of the first well-explored Dyakovo settlement in Kolomenskoye, and Zorean Dolenga-Khodakovsky is considered to be its discoverer. In 1819, in the journal “Bulletin of Europe”, he published an article entitled “Research on Russian History,” where he first spoke about the ancient settlements of Moscow and the surrounding area. True, the author considered them ancient Slavic, but one must take into account the level of development of science at that time. Most importantly, he was the first to not only find and describe ancient settlements, but also conduct excavations at such monuments. well and general characteristics culture was first formulated by Alexander Spitsyn in 1905.

The very name of the city and the river, as well as such names as Yauza, Yakhroma, Iksha, Lama, Istra, Shosha, Ruza, Nara and many others clearly had no Slavic origin

It is worth noting here that by the 20s of the 19th century Russian Empire serious interest has awakened in early history countries. Partly due to the development of written language historical tradition- just then Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin’s “History of the Russian State” was published, and partly, on the wave of patriotic upsurge caused by the triumph in the War of 1812. But in the traditional historical narrative there were a lot of gaps that were scarce written sources couldn't clarify.

Dyakovskoye settlement in Kolomenskoye, our days. Our predecessors lived large families in gated communities on low hills above the river

Photo: Elena Solodovnikova / Lori Photobank

One of these obvious “dark spots” turned out to be incomprehensible names on the map of primordially Russian lands, for example, around Moscow. The very name of the city and the river, as well as such names as Yauza, Yakhroma, Iksha, Lama, Istra, Shosha, Ruza, Nara and many others clearly were not of Slavic origin. At the same time, there were a lot of understandable toponyms and hydronyms nearby - Neglinka, Kamenka, Pesochnya...

To illustrate the interest that has arisen, we present another publication from the journal “Bulletin of Europe”. It talks about the etymology of the name of the Yakhroma River, which is explained in the following way- it seems like the wife of Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, accompanying her husband on a hunt, stumbled while crossing the river and exclaimed: “I’m lame!” Hence the name...

Such a hypothesis cannot be called anything other than an “anecdote,” but there were more serious people who tried to find the truth. Hence the interest in material culture, which could complement written sources.

Now we know quite a lot about the Dyakovites, although often the information seems chaotic and fragmentary. Representatives of this archaeological culture settled along the shores large rivers, on peninsulas or bends, which were conveniently fenced off with a rampart and a ditch. The settlements were small, apparently, a separate clan lived in them.

The Dyakovites lived in rectangular houses up to fifteen meters long and three to four meters wide. They are usually called “long houses”. They were partitioned and divided into warm parts (heated by open clay fires) and cold parts. The frame was made of logs driven into the ground, the walls were wicker, possibly coated with clay and insulated with hides or turf. The gable roof was supported by wooden pillars. The floor was covered with sand, covered in places with clay and covered with plant material, like mats. Nothing is known about the furniture - if there was any, it was wooden, and it has not survived to us.

Among the finds at the settlements there are many bones of beavers - apparently, at that time they were extremely numerous in our area

The main occupation was primitive agriculture, hunting and fishing. Naturally, livestock was also raised. Iron objects in layers of early time (before the turn new era) slightly, wooden and bone tools prevailed, and dishes and vessels were made of clay. The processing of ceramics is quite primitive - “textile” (the workpiece was wrapped in fabric, which left imprints of a “mesh” on the clay) with a characteristic “comb” ornament.

Archaeological excavations of the Dyakovo settlement under the leadership of the director of the Kolomenskoye Museum Konstantin Vinogradov, 1935

Photo: I.F.Borshchevsky / poznamka.com.tw

Judging by the fact that approximately half of the bones found belong to wild animals, hunting played important role in people’s lives, and finds of arrows with blunt tips indicate fishing fur-bearing animal. True, to whom the hunters sold the obtained skins remains a mystery - neighboring peoples There seemed to be no problems with this good thing. Perhaps there was indirect trade with more distant countries, as evidenced by isolated finds associated with the Roman circle of things. It is curious that among the finds at the settlements there are many bones of beavers - apparently, at that time they were extremely numerous in our area.

The appearance of the Dyakovites remains a mystery - they burned their dead. There are only a few isolated finds, but this is not enough. Judging by the typology of tools, ceramics and names of hydronyms, the Dyakovo tribes belonged to the Finno-Ugrians. Accordingly, they spoke the language of this group. Most likely, it was a variety of Moksha, Meshchera or Murom language. Hence the difficulties in the accurate interpretation of some Finno-Ugric hydronyms - the origin and roots are obvious, but it is not possible to give an exact decoding and translation. It is known that the root “va” present in the word “Moscow” is associated with water, but it is difficult to say anything more precisely. By the way, only hydronyms - names of rivers - have reached us, but we do not know Ugric toponyms - names of areas.

Big break and new mysteries

So, by the middle of the last century, a completely obvious picture had formed in historical science: the Slavs came to the Moscow region at the turn of the first and second millennium AD and peacefully assimilated the more backward and smaller local Finno-Ugric population. And the presence of Finnish hydronyms became easily explained - with peaceful coexistence, the aliens accepted local names. And the lack of destruction and fires at the Dyakovo settlements is also understandable. However, everything turned out to be not so simple.

As the subject was studied and science developed in general, more and more questions became available, and by the last quarter of the twentieth century, the established picture no longer satisfied scientists at all. Firstly, linguists have proven that a significant part of hydronyms are not of Finno-Ugric, but of Baltic origin. Here we cannot fail to mention the works of the outstanding philologist and linguist Vladimir Nikolaevich Toporov.

Secondly, archaeologists were able to identify at least two (or even three) stages of development of the Dyakovo culture, which are fundamentally different from each other. This became possible thanks to comprehensive research last decades, which continues to this day. But some experts are already ready to raise the question of dividing the Dyakovo culture into two independent archaeological cultures, and not without reason.

These changes are revolutionary, and it is no coincidence that more and more scientists are inclined to believe that they are not associated with unexpected progress, but with a change in population - complete or partial. Moreover, most likely, we can talk about the return of bearers of the Baltic culture and language to our territory with the simultaneous displacement of Finno-Ugric tribes to the east or their partial assimilation

Apparently, the “turning point” came at the turn of a new era. At this time, the “long houses” disappear and are replaced by small, square log half-dugouts. The floor, as before, was sand or clay, covered with vegetable “insulation,” and there was a fireplace in the middle of the house. Bone and wooden tools are inferior to iron ones, and metallurgy immediately makes a qualitative leap forward. Finds appear related to complex metallurgical production, metal smelting, and some of them include jewelry.

Objects of Dyakovo culture and ancient Russian times

A specific set of women's jewelry stands out, previously not typical in this area. The type of ceramics is changing - the primitive smooth “comb” is replaced by polished, that is, rubbed to a shine, as if polished. Conditional fortifications of settlements (rather to limit their own livestock and protect them from predators) are replaced by real defensive ditches and ramparts. New artifacts appear in the finds, for example, the “Dyakovo” type Georgian, which from that time became business card culture. The role of agriculture is increasing, which is apparently becoming the main source of food. It's connected with qualitative change tools, primarily the appearance of iron axes for cutting wood and more complex agricultural implements.

These changes are revolutionary, and it is no coincidence that more and more scientists are inclined to believe that they are not associated with unexpected progress, but with a change in population - complete or partial. Moreover, most likely, we can talk about the return of the bearers of the Baltic culture and language to our territory with the simultaneous displacement of the Finno-Ugric tribes to the east or their partial assimilation. In any case, there are more and more scientists who adhere to this point of view. Almost all changes in the material culture of the Dyakovites of the late period (ceramics, metallurgy, jewelry) have Western roots. If we talk about the reasons for such shifts, it is worth remembering that we're talking about about the Great Migration of Peoples. IN last centuries Before the birth of Christ, migration waves began in the European northeast, from which, like ripples on water, the movements of other peoples began. After some time, a similar situation will lead to the resettlement of the Slavs to our lands.

Next to the Baltic rivers Ruza, Yauza, Nara, Istra, Dubnaya flow the Ugric Vorya, Yakhroma, Iksha, Molokcha. Until now, scientists argue about the Finno-Ugric or Baltic origin of the names Lovat, Pola, Tosna, Tsna, Narva (or Narova), Peypus, Vashka, Veyna and even, scary to think, Moscow and Volga, the great Russian river

A new look changes the generally accepted attitude towards ethnic origin indigenous people of our region. It is possible that on the territory of Moscow the Slavs did not have direct contact with the Ugrians; this connection was indirect - through the Balts. By the way, this is confirmed archaeologically, because between the last traces of the Dyakovites and the first finds of undeniably Slavic artifacts there are several centuries, which scientists call the “dark ages.” This has always confused researchers, but they had to make allowances for the lack of knowledge of the material. The “Baltic” trace clarifies a lot.

In the popular memory of the Moscow region, the Ugrians and Balts were preserved approximately equally. Next to the Baltic rivers Ruza, Yauza, Nara, Istra, Dubnaya flow the Ugric Vorya, Yakhroma, Iksha, Molokcha. Until now, scientists argue about the Finno-Ugric or Baltic origin of the names Lovat, Pola, Tosna, Tsna, Narva (or Narova), Peypus, Vashka, Veyna and even, scary to think, Moscow and Volga, the great Russian river.

Georgy Oltarzhevsky

On this topic There are many theories. According to the most common of them, ancient Rus' before the arrival of the Slavs, it was inhabited by various tribes.

Chud

The Chud were considered one of the most numerous and mysterious tribes that lived in Rus' before the arrival of the Slavs. This nation left behind many place names as a legacy. For example, Lake Peipsi, Zadnie Chudi, and so on. Historians still argue to this day who the representatives of this tribe were. Some classify them as Finno-Ugric, while others call them Aryans.

The Chud were considered one of the most numerous and mysterious tribes that lived in Rus' before the arrival of the Slavs // Photo: tainyurala.ru

Unlike other tribes living in Rus', the Chud stubbornly did not want to assimilate with the Slavs. Representatives of this nationality lived for a long time side by side with newcomers, remaining indifferent to their culture. The Slavs and the Chud maintained good neighborly relations. Representatives of this tribe often joined the army of Kyiv, Novgorod and other princes. Perhaps the peaceful coexistence of the Chuds and the Slavs would have continued to this day, but the Christianization of Rus' prevented this. They almost flatly did not want to accept the new faith, and simply went north. Historians are still arguing whether the descendants of the Chud survived and where exactly the tribe lived last days its history.

Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians

Meanwhile, the Cimmerians were actively settling on the Black Sea coast. This is a nomadic tribe that did not leave a clear mark in the history of Rus'. The Cimmerians were supplanted by the similar Scythians, whose burial mounds and gold jewelry every schoolchild knows about. You can read about the Scythians in the works of Greek historians. As you know, the Greeks actively colonized Crimea and often traded and sometimes conflicted with the nomadic tribes living in the neighborhood.

The Scythians suffered the fate of the Cimmerians; they were also supplanted by the younger and more aggressive Sarmatian tribe // Photo: ukhtoma.ru

It was from Greek historians that we learned that the Scythians suffered the fate of the Cimmerians. They were also displaced by the younger and more aggressive Sarmatian tribe. The Sarmatians were not too different from the Scythians. They were also nomads and pagans. Researchers learn about their way of life, beliefs, and the like through the study of mounds.

The culture of the Sarmatians, like the tribe itself, gradually fell into decline. This time, it was not another tribe that was to blame, but the gradual transition of humanity from cattle breeding, which was mainly practiced by nomadic tribes, to agriculture. Since farming in the steppe conditions was extremely inconvenient, the Sarmatians gradually spread to more suitable territories and assimilated with the Slavs.

Muroma

The Murom tribe, perhaps, managed to maintain its identity for the longest time in the neighborhood of the Slavs. There is a mention of him in The Tale of Bygone Years. According to one version, the name of the tribe literally means “an elevated place near the water.” This is precisely the location of the city of Murom - the center ancient tribe.

The Murom tribe, perhaps, managed to preserve its identity for the longest time in the neighborhood of the Slavs // Photo: politus.ru

Representatives of Murom were also found in the troops of the Kyiv princes. In addition, the tribe was famous for its unusual weapons. Just like the Chud, the Muroma disappeared without a trace. Most likely, the Slavs gradually assimilated them.

Merya

A number of researchers are confident that the Slavs owe endings like -gda in toponyms to the Merya tribe. According to the most common version, the Merya belonged to the Finno-Ugrians and lived in the territories of modern Kostroma, Tver, Yaroslavl and a number of other regions of the Russian Federation.

Merya also did not want to assimilate with the Slavs for a very long time. It is mentioned in the chronicles major uprising of this tribe, which occurred in 1024 and was brutally suppressed prince of Kyiv Yaroslav the Wise. Subsequently, the Merya, like the Murom, assimilated with the Slavs.

Undoubtedly, the lands of Rus' were not empty before the Slavs arrived here. Due to its mild climate and fertile soils, these territories have always been of interest to people. I would like to believe that in the future historians will be able to find new data and still find out who inhabited Kievan Rus before the arrival of the Slavs and what exactly contemporaries inherited from the first settlers.

CHANGING THE ANGLE OF VIEW ON ANCIENT HISTORY

A fairly old concept, which belonged to Bruson and, in general, developed before him, says the following:

Entire territory of Eastern Europe during the Valdai glaciation, which was supposed to last about 7-8 thousand years, it was covered with a powerful glacier, which finally melted in the 8th millennium BC, and it was during this period that the expansion of the first pioneers from beyond the Urals occurred here , where, due to the relative overpopulation of the Finno-Ugric peoples, in general, the situation was not favorable enough for life and, with the discovery of new lands, with the opportunity to move to new lands, the Finno-Ugric peoples passed through the Middle Urals and the Subpolar and Northern Urals, thus gradually populating the territories of northeastern Europe, and somewhere already at the turn of the first millennium AD, the expansion of Slavic tribes into these territories began.

As a result of the symbiosis of the Slavs and Finno-Ugric peoples, what we call Northern Russians appears, with a characteristic culture, art, etc. corresponding to the region.

There were sufficient grounds for such conclusions, since it was difficult to assume that in these territories, which had just been freed from the glacier, covered, naturally, with tundra, another ethnic group, standing at a higher stage of development, who was engaged not only in gathering, hunting and fishing. Moreover, the biomass of the tundra zone was so insignificant that it could only feed small groups of hunters, gatherers, and fishermen.

But literally in Lately, in the 80s, scientists in Europe, throughout Europe, both Western and Eastern, put together, as it were, all the data that they received as a result of excavation, as a result of obtaining cores (deep layers of soil), which relate specifically to ice age, and a very interesting situation emerged.

First of all, the glacial Valdai lasted not 7-8, but only 2 thousand years. The peak of Valdai falls on 18-20 thousand years ago, that is, 16-18 millennium BC. Already in the 13th millennium eastern border The glacier was located on the border of modern Karelia and Finland. At the peak of the glacier, its eastern end was in the Mologo-Shekninsky region, that is, it practically did not affect the eastern territories. As for the glacier of the Pechora or Barents-White Sea basin, it underwent very strange changes and somewhere in the 14th millennium BC. split as a result of geoprocesses, that is, from earthquakes.

The entire territory of Eastern Europe, practically not occupied by the glacier, was a very interesting region.

If we go deeper in time... this is the territory of Europe in the 70th millennium BC. during the so-called Mikulin interglacial.

During the Mikulin glaciation, summer temperatures were on average 10-11 degrees Celsius higher than now. That is, the territory where we are located had approximately the same regime as the Kharkov region today, taking into account the fact that the forest hora. Naturally, a person could live in such a zone; we will not say whether it was homo sapiens or some other formation. The fact remains: on Middle Pechora already in the 40th millennium BC. inhabited by people who leave behind the products of their vital activity. This is, after all, the Middle Paleolithic, not yet the Upper. At this time, human groups already live in this region.

What happens next? After the 70th millennium, there is a gradual change in climate. The idea that the glacier was lightning fast, very fast, does not correspond to reality: there were periods of rise and fall in temperature. And only 18-20 thousand years ago the glacial Valdai came, which created a very unique situation in Europe in general and in Eastern Europe in particular.

Please note what happens: a huge glacier covers the territories of England and Scandinavia, but where we are, as you can see, there is no glacier. But besides this glacier, there are also the Alpine and Pyrenees, which greatly influence the climate Western Europe. As a result, on the territory of England, where it is now warm, there was arctic tundra, while the territory of Western Europe consists of low-growing birch forests and arctic tundra meadows.

Now imagine where it is easier for a person to live - in the Arctic tundra or in mixed forests, especially with such bald spots of broad-leaved trees?

And if people settled here 40 thousand years before you and me, then naturally they should continue to live in these territories for more late period, and could not migrate in any way. This territory, optimal now, did not have any optimal conditions then, that is, on the territory of Western Europe the climate was worse than on the territory of Eastern Europe.

And since they add up here optimal conditions, then the population must increase. With an increase in biomass, with changes in climatic conditions, the population is sure to grow, this is natural natural process, unless epidemics occur and no destructive wars occur. But since all this is not recorded, we can only assume that the population was quite large. And if the population grows, then it cannot use the old economic and cultural type, that is, to be only gatherers, only hunters, only fishermen. And some of the most daring experts, in particular Matyushkin, believe that already at the turn of the 7-6 millennia in these territories there was a large number of pets. In particular, in the territory of the Middle Urals, in one of the settlements - Dovlikanovo - about 30% of the bones of domestic cattle were found in the bone material. Here at this time domestic horses, goats and sheep are already found.

FORMATION OF THE FINNO-UGRIAN ETHNOSE

From the above, we can only conclude that either the Finno-Ugric population of these territories then quickly degraded and lost all their cultural acquisitions, or they did not yet live in this territory.

Anthropologists answered this question quite clearly: already in the Mesolithic, in the bulk of burials, exclusively Caucasoid types were found.

According to Oshibkina... and Gokman, one of our largest anthropologists, did and checked all the chronological material. He came to the conclusion that in the Mesolithic Oleneostrovsky burial ground - 8-7 millennium BC. – the burials were absolutely Caucasian, without any Mongoloid features. Oshibkina’s Caucasian identity was even more clearly visible at the burials at Sukhoni. What does this indicate?

During the Mesolithic era, racial trunks were formed and the Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid races were identified.

As for the Finno-Ugric peoples, at this time they acquired what is called Yukator Mongoloidity.

All Finno-Ugric peoples today, be it Finns, Estonians, Mari, Mordovians, not to mention the Khanty, Mansi, Evenks, Evens, Selkups, all of them, to one degree or another, have Yukator Mongoloidity - a low facial mask, in contrast to Caucasians, who, that is, have a very long and profiled facial mask, and it is in these territories that the longest-faced people in Europe are found.

That is, they are more Caucasian than southern Caucasians: with well-profiled noses and very long faces.

If Finno-Ugrians lived here, then, naturally, there should have been Yukator Mongoloidity. Moreover, the so-called lopanoid type, which Bryusov associated with the Finno-Ugric, turns out to be a Paleo-European periglacial type. That is, the population that formed at the very borders of the glacier.

With all the preamble, I would like to dwell on the following, perhaps unexpected: Finno-Ugric peoples in the territories Northern Europe are not an autochthonous population.

Otherwise, the level of their development should have been colossally high. The economic and cultural type should be so high that it would not be the Slavs who would later civilize the Finno-Ugrians, but vice versa.

What was the lifestyle and culture like? ancient population northwest Europe?

CULTURE OF THE PALEOLITHIC ERA

In these optimal territories, where there was a huge amount of biomass, there was a bison, a kulan, and a saiga - an inhabitant of the steppes; mammoths lived here in large numbers during the glacier period, which our ancestors ate very well. But we must keep in mind that the mammoth also needs something to eat. ...And, indeed, modern paleomaps provide a huge forest zone literally to the coast of the White Sea.

It follows from this that the people who lived here had to accumulate cultural potential; they were not in supernatural conditions, which we now assume.

Imagine the situation that develops in the upper Sumgir burial place, this is 25-23 millennia BC. A man aged 60-odd years is buried here, that is, our ideas that the unfortunate primitives died at the age of 20-30 are not corresponds to reality. He was healthy, and we don’t know what he died from. This is a huge, broad-shouldered man, next to whom a boy and a girl are buried. The man was wearing, as they found out from the organic remains, which are, of course, dust, he was wearing a very peculiar suit: a huge suede jacket with fur inside, and suede boots were fastened to it. The entire jacket is trimmed with a huge number of beads carved from mammoth tusks. IN total the three buried contained 11 thousand beads. Must have free time to practice this craft, and so as not to regret giving the beads to the earth, to the deceased. It is believed that on average it took from 45 minutes to 2 hours to make one bead. Multiply by 11 thousand and you get labor costs. Next to the boy and girl lay two spears made from straightened mammoth tusks. There is still no clear idea of ​​how the tusks were straightened, since they are bent. One spear is 2m 80cm long, the other is 3m. This is the 23rd-25th millennium BC, the Valdai glaciation, although not the glacial Valdai yet, but the level of culture...

23rd millennium BC. Chernihiv region. Mizenskaya site, where on the bracelets, as our scientist Frolov and the American Marshak found out convergently, that is, almost simultaneously they came to the conclusion that the lunar year was recorded on the bracelet, solar year, that is moon calendar, solar calendar, change lunar cycles, changes in vegetation phases and plus some points related to the functioning of the female body. It is there that the most archaic typology of ornament is found, which will later become Indian, Hellenistic and others like it.

It was here, in the 23rd millennium BC. musical percussion instruments are made from mammoth bones; tried to use them, really got it whole line generally melodic sounds, and it all looked quite harmonious. We don’t know, of course, how they played them, what sounds they made, what kind of sound series they were, but the very presence of such instruments testifies to a fairly high culture.

So, the Mesolithic is no more than ten thousand years distant from the Upper Paleolithic, and we cannot assume that culture systematically declined and reached some final limit. This means that these territories were inhabited by people who had quite significant cultural potential. They lived in territories that had optimal climatic conditions, and there was one more very important factor, which practically does not exist anywhere else: long summer daylight hours.

What is for human body long daylight hours?

Due to the enormous insulation, not only biomass is accumulated, but living organisms are intensively developing. Example: the gray goose, which lays eggs in the Volga delta a month earlier than in the Northern Dvina delta, and hatches its chicks at the same time. That is, in the Northern Dvina delta, the development of the embryo in the egg occurs a month faster. Moreover, when we compared the growing season of plants such as flax, oats, barley, rye, wheat, we found out that on average the growing season is northern latitudes is 82−83 days, while in the south of our country in the black earth zone it is 112−118 days. Calculate the difference. It is natural to expect significant cultural potential from the people living in this territory.

Abundance of fish. We only have to guess about it. Abundance of game. Even at the end of the 19th century, they wrote that there was such an abundance of birds on Novaya Zemlya that they did not know what to do with them. You can pick up a bird with almost bare hands, for the reason that they cannot stay in the water for a long time - they freeze and cannot take off. An abundance of meat, fish, forests, and the optimal conditions that the forest zone provides. People did not settle in the steppe in ancient times. The steppe is scary place, where everything depends on the rains: if there are 2-3 rains, there will be a harvest, if there is no rain, there will not be.

Look at the migration of the Mongols: the migration process increases sharply when the steppe turns green, when there is something to feed horses and livestock, but it’s scary in the steppe when there’s a drought. And the forest has always provided the opportunity to conserve water, so life in the forest zone was naturally optimal.

When in our history departments they say that the Slavs brought farming skills here, it is so strange, because living in an area where there is a huge amount of forest-like loams, and forest-like loams are identical to the Ukrainian and South Russian loess, Central Asian and Huanghe loess, that is, the richest soils, and that people did not use these soils - this, of course, is ridiculous.

Let me give you a sacramental example: in the 18th century, when Academician Lepekhin examined the Kamensk tundra, he discovered a large amount of wild rye, flax, and peas there. For the last 2 thousand years, as far as I know, no one has cultivated these cereals in the Kamensk tundra. The birds could not tolerate it in their stomachs, because grains dissolve in the stomach, which is why the birds feed on them. We can only think that this is a relic that has adapted to new conditions of existence. This rye was partially harvested in 1857, and it was at an exhibition in Arkhangelsk, where bread and flour made from it were also presented. Everyone could try, and there was nothing surprising. It is surprising that the Samoyeds who lived in the Kamensk tundra used only wild peas. They did not know wild flax and rye. But someone had to cultivate them there. It remains to be assumed that this is a remnant of a time when there was no tundra as such, and in this place there were huge grass steppes.

It can be assumed that rye, barley, and oats could be autochthons of the North, especially since these plants, which Academician Berg not by chance called “plants of long daylight hours,” require conditions that do not exist in the south. Fiber flax does not grow in the south; there flax is grown only for oil; its stem is short. In order for flax to grow long, it is necessary, as for rye, several conditions: 1) long daylight hours; 2) no overheating from direct sunlight; 3) a large amount of scattered ultraviolet radiation; 4) abundance of moisture in the soil. And all these conditions exist in the North.

We have become accustomed to such a generally flawed term - “non-black earth region”, forgetting that before the re-annexation of Ukraine, Russia was fed by a non-black earth region; there was no steppe then. When at the beginning of the 20th century famous explorer, who died during these studies, Andrei Zhuravsky wrote that ordinary people imagine the North as a completely wild desert, and the northerners extremely contribute to this, because they have become extremely lazy

You just need to feel what the Russian North is: the breadbasket of Russia, the richest region, and the region where a certain genotype, a certain character, a certain cultural system has been preserved, practically not blurred.

The beauty is that the population of the Vologda part Arkhangelsk region and still causes surprise among anthropologists. Their faces turned out to be longer than those of the Ukrainians. And who, according to their anthropological indicators, turned out to be siblings medieval population Chernigov, Kyiv, Lyubich and are surprisingly close to the famous glades, which our other anthropologist, Tatyana Ivanovna Alekseeva, his wife, considers to be the direct descendants of the forest-steppe Scythians, about whom Greek and Roman historians tell us.

The fact remains that already in the Mesolithic, and possibly also in the Paleolithic, many of the structures with which we are dealing in the folk art of the Russian North took shape. turn of XIX-XX centuries. In the ornamentation, in the structure of the ritual, in the mass of all kinds of details, we trace what has developed in these territories over the past 20 thousand years. A kind of layer cake.

The north of Eastern Europe, apparently, was not only the region where a significant part of the Indo-Europeans were formed, it was the region where such ancient monuments of Indo-European culture as the Vedas and its most ancient part, the Rig Veda, were born.

Excerpt from the course of lectures by Zharnikova S.V. “HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE EASTERN SLAVS”