Catherine II sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, Russia fell to her in difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, there was a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc.
Provincial reform (1775):
“Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” adopted on November 7 1775 of the year. Instead of the previous administrative division into provinces, provinces and districts, territories began to be divided into provinces and districts. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called viceroy. Each province was headed by a governor, appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, and the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The highest official of the district was the police captain. The centers of the counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received city status.
Judicial reform:
Each class had its own court. The nobles were tried by the zemstvo court, the townspeople by magistrates, and the peasants by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established, consisting of representatives of all three classes, which performed the function of a conciliation authority. All these courts were elective. More high authority there were judicial chambers whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.
Secularization reform (1764):
All monastic lands, as well as the peasants living on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took upon itself the content of monasticism, but from that moment it acquired the right to determine necessary for the empire number of monasteries and monks.
Senate Reform:
December 15, 1763 The manifesto of Catherine II “On the establishment of departments in the Senate, Justice, Patrimonial and Revision Boards, on the division of affairs in them” was published. The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second was in charge of judicial affairs in St. Petersburg, the third was in charge of transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth was in charge of military and land affairs. and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department. The heads of all departments, except the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.
Urban reform (1785):
The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the “Charter on the rights and benefits of cities of the Russian Empire,” which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elected institutions were introduced. The number of voters has increased. City residents were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merits to society and the state, namely: real city inhabitants - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of the three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in handicrafts and crafts in the city. Each rank had its own rights, responsibilities and privileges.
Police reform (1782):
The “Charter of Deanery or Police” was introduced. According to it, the deanery board became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, mayor and chief of police, as well as townspeople determined by elections. Court for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling etc., as well as unauthorized construction and bribes were carried out by the police authorities themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition, the prohibition of certain types of activities.
Education reform:
The creation of public schools in cities marked the beginning state system secondary schools in Russia. They were of two types: main schools in provincial cities and small schools in district ones. These educational institutions were supported by the treasury, and people of all classes could study there. School reform was held in 1782 year, and earlier in 1764 year, a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred noble maidens, then (at 1772 year) - commercial school.
Currency reform (1768):
The State Bank and Loan Bank were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was introduced into circulation.
Transformations of central institutions were also closely connected with the provincial reform of 1775. Their The general trend one is the liberation of central institutions from the affairs of current administration and the concentration of power in the hands of the empress. Back in 1763, the Senate finally lost its broad powers. Then it was divided into 6 departments, but only one of the six retained some kind of political significance(publication of laws).
The most important link government controlled became the Cabinet of Catherine II with its secretaries of state. The Cabinet now considered many issues of domestic policy (Senate affairs, industrial policy etc.). The most important figures were the secretaries of state of Catherine II, such as A.V. Olsufiev, A.V. Khrapovitsky, G.N. Teplov and others. Through them, Catherine II conducted the bulk of government affairs. Thus, the principle of individual management gradually arose, which subsequently resulted in the organization of ministries. Over time, the need was discovered to create a council under the empress from the closest and most influential dignitaries. Since 1769, the Imperial Council began to operate.
In connection with the transfer of most of the affairs of current management to the localities, to provincial institutions, the role of the boards sharply decreased and in the 80s there was a need to eliminate them. Of the collegiums, only three continued to maintain a strong position - Foreign Affairs, Military and Admiralty. The Synod also retained its position as one of the collegiums, but now the Synod was in complete subordination to secular power.
As a result of all these transformations, the autocratic power of the absolute monarch was strengthened, the dictatorship of the local nobility was also strengthened, and a strong police-bureaucratic system of institutions was created, which existed until the era of the fall of serfdom.
In addition to reforming state mechanism Catherine II paid great attention to management class politics. Enthroned noble guard Catherine relied on this class throughout her reign. In his interests, she carried out a number of important measures: this included permission to exile peasants to hard labor; and the transfer of lands and monastic peasants taken from the church into the ownership of the nobles, and the granting of more than 800 thousand state peasants to them, etc.
In April 1785 it was published main document in favor of the nobles - “Charter of Complaint to the Nobility”. It brought together and confirmed all the privileges given to the nobility after the death of Peter I. In addition, Catherine allowed the nobles to create noble societies in provinces and districts. Once every three years, noble assemblies met, at which district and provincial leaders nobility. The role of provincial and district leaders of the nobility became increasingly important over time. These were the patrons and defenders of the nobles, protecting their monopoly rights and privileges everywhere.
Simultaneously with the Charter of the nobility in 1785, it was approved “Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire”, which confirmed the previously given rights and privileges of the urban population (mainly its upper strata). Its most important provision was the division of all city residents into six groups or categories. All urban homeowners and landowners belonged to the first, highest group or category. The second group or category united the merchants of all three guilds. The third category of the urban population consisted of all artisans registered in guilds (masters, journeymen, apprentices). Fourth category - non-residents and foreigners living in this city. “Eminent citizens” were included in the fifth category of townspeople. They were the largest traders and entrepreneurs. Finally, about the sixth category. These are the bulk of the townspeople - simple “Posad people”. The most pressing issue of peasants who became actual residents of cities remained unresolved. All the previous obstacles to the transition of peasants to urban classes remained in effect.
Most interesting part legislation in cities - city self-government. The city magistrate, conscience court and town halls as the only bodies of self-government were now replaced by the “general city duma”, “six-voice duma” and “meeting of the city society”.
Senate reform
Reasons and goals:
- Catherine wanted to concentrate legislative power in her hands
- Allocation of specific departments of the Senate for specific tasks
By personal decree of Catherine II, the Senate was divided into six departments and lost its legislative function, which passed personally to the Empress and her trusted persons- State advisers. Five of the six departments were headed by chief prosecutors, the first was by the prosecutor general, who personally reported on important matters royal person.
Division of departmental functions:
- first - control of political and government affairs in the capital
- the second is a court in the capital
- the third - supervised everything related to education, art, medicine, science and transport
- fourth - was responsible for naval and military-land decisions
- fifth - control of political and government affairs in Moscow
- sixth - court in Moscow
Thus, the empress monopolized legislative power and prepared the way for subsequent reforms. Higher administrative and judicial functions continued to be exercised by the Senate.
Provincial reform
Reasons and goals:
- Increasing tax efficiency
- Preventing uprisings
- Introduction of election of some administrative and judicial bodies, division of their functions
Provincial reform of Catherine II - 1775
As a result of the signing by Catherine II of the document “Institutions for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire,” the principle of the administrative-territorial division of the provinces was changed. According to the new law, the provinces were divided based on the size of the population living and capable of paying taxes - tax-paying souls. In addition, a hierarchical system of institutions was built, between which the functions of management and court were divided.
Administrative part
General Government- consisted of several provinces
Province- contained 10-12 districts, numbered 350-400 thousand tax-paying souls.
County- unification of volosts ( rural areas), 10-20 thousand taxable souls.
City- administrative center of the county.
Governor General- led all the troops and governors stationed in the provinces assigned to him.
Governor- governed the province with the help of the provincial government and all lower institutions.
Mayor — chief official and the chief of police in the city, which became a separate administrative unit.
Police captain- presided over the lower zemstvo court and controlled the police in the district.
Treasury Chamber— was responsible for collecting taxes and distributing funds between institutions.
Order of public charity- led everyone social facilities. Hospitals, schools, shelters, art institutes were subordinate to this structure.
Judicial part
Senate- the highest judicial body, divided into civil and criminal chambers.
Upper Zemsky Court- the main judicial institution of the province, primarily dealt with the affairs of nobles, and considered complex cases of lower authorities.
Lower Zemsky Court- controlled the implementation of laws within the county, dealt with the affairs of the nobles.
Upper reprisal- judged peasants in the province, appeals from lower massacres.
Bottom reprisal- dealt with the affairs of peasants in the district
Provincial magistrate- considered appeals from city magistrates, judged citizens.
City Magistrate— considered the lawsuits of the townspeople
Conscientious court- was of all classes, served to reconcile those tried in minor and non-socially dangerous cases.
The changes assumed that, depending on who was being tried, those representatives were included in the assessors - Zemstvo courts were elected by the noble class, reprisals - by the peasants, magistrates - by the bourgeoisie (citizens). However, in fact, the higher nobility always interfered in the course of affairs that were of interest to them.
As a result of the transformations, the total number of the bureaucratic apparatus has increased significantly, as well as its costs. Compared to spending on the army, twice as much was allocated for the salaries of officials. The growth in the number of bureaucrats of all types and ranks, coupled with favoritism, numerous military expenditures and the backwardness of the economy, led to a systematic shortage of money in the budget, which could not be eliminated until the death of Catherine II
Judicial reform
Police reform
Date of: April 8, 1782
After the “Charter of deanery, or police” was signed, a new structure- Deanery Board, with its functions and positions.
Reasons and goals:
- The need to strengthen the vertical of power
- Defining the functions and hierarchy of police agencies in cities
- Formulation of the basics of police law
Police reform 1782
Functions of the Deanery Board:
- Maintaining order and lawfulness within cities
- Supervision of non-governmental organizations
- Investigation and search activities
- Execution of court decisions and other institutions
The city was divided into parts (200-700 households) and quarters (50-100 households), which were supposed to be monitored by private bailiffs and neighborhood supervisors. The only elected position was the quarter lieutenant, who was chosen for three years from among the residents of the quarter.
The head of the Administration was the mayor, chief of police (in the cities-centers of the provinces) or chief of police (in the capitals).
In addition to detective work and performing direct police functions, the councils supervised public service personnel - food delivery, ensuring the safety of roads, etc.
Urban reform
Economic reforms
Currency reform
The signing of the manifesto “on the establishment of Moscow and St. Petersburg banks” created a precedent for the use of paper banknotes on the territory of the Russian Empire.
Reasons and goals:
- Inconvenience of transporting large amounts of copper money within the country
- The need to stimulate the economy
- Striving to meet Western standards
Example of a banknote
Banks created in Moscow and St. Petersburg received 500 thousand rubles of capital each and were obliged to issue the corresponding amount in copper equivalent to the bearer of banknotes.
In 1786, these banks were united into a single structure - the State Assignment Bank, with the definition of its additional functions:
- Export of copper from the Russian Empire
- Import of gold and silver bars and coins.
- Creation of a mint in St. Petersburg and organization of coinage.
- Accounting for bills of exchange (receipts for the obligation to pay a certain amount)
50 rubles 1785
Manifesto for Free Enterprise
By “manifesto on freedom of enterprise”, it is customary to understand the publication of a document allowing the opening of any small handicraft production to all citizens of the Russian Empire - “Manifesto on the highest favors granted to different classes on the occasion of the conclusion of peace with the Ottoman Porte.” The Peasant War of 1773-1775, which frightened all the nobles, made it clear that without any concessions to the most numerous class, the emergence of new unrest was quite possible.
Causes:
- The need to stimulate the economy and develop small businesses
- Peasants' dissatisfaction with exploitative policies
Key points of the document:
- More than 30 different fees for trades (fur harvesting, poultry, fish) and processing industries (dairies, fat slaughterhouses, etc.) have been cancelled.
- Any citizen is allowed to open “all kinds of workshops and handicrafts” without any additional permitting documents.
- Exemption from the poll tax for merchants with a capital of more than 500 rubles. Instead it was introduced annual fee at 1% of capital.
Customs reforms
Customs tariffs were adjusted frequently - in 1766, 1767, 1776, 1782, 1786 and 1796. customs duties were changed, ensuring revenues to the treasury from the import of foreign goods, prohibiting the transportation of certain types of raw materials or easing the tax burden for certain categories of products. The foreign economy was actively developing, and the volume of previously unsupplied industrial and production products imported into the Russian Empire was growing.
Delivery of goods
A key element of customs policy was the signing on September 27, 1782 of the document “On the establishment of a special Customs Border Chain and guards to prevent the secret transportation of goods”
According to the innovations:
Positions were introduced border guards And customs inspectors, for each of the western border provinces - they were listed in the service of the Treasury Chamber. According to the instructions, they were required to be in places “convenient for the import of goods” and prevent smuggling. If it was impossible to stop the smugglers on their own, the border guards had to immediately arrive at the nearest populated area to receive assistance.
Social reforms
Estate reforms
Date of: 1785
Causes:
- The Empress relied on the nobles and wanted to increase their loyalty
- Strengthening the vertical of power
- It was necessary to determine the rights of two classes that were growing in number due to the development of the economy and cities, the merchants and the petty bourgeoisie (citizens)
Noble Ball
Key points:
- Nobles were exempt from paying taxes and public service
- The noble class received the inalienable right to own serfs, property, land and its subsoil
- Noble assemblies and family books were established to confirm origins
- The merchants gained access to administrative positions (general city and six-vote dumas) and were exempted from the poll tax.
- Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds were exempt from corporal punishment.
- A new class emerged and received rights - the townspeople
- Serfs finally turned into slaves
Educational (school) reform
It is impossible to single out a specific document or date that is key in the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. She consistently issued decrees and opened institutions aimed at increasing the level of knowledge and the accessibility of its acquisition. Mainly, educational services were provided to the nobility and townspeople, but homeless children and orphans were also not left without attention.
The main figures were I. I. Betskoy and F. I. Yankovic.
“Orphanages” were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg - it was necessary to solve the problem of street and abandoned children.
Institute of Noble Maidens
In 1764 a school for young men was founded at the Academy of Arts, and in 1765 a similar one was founded at the Academy of Sciences.
The Commercial School, opened in 1779, was designed to train qualified personnel in the field of trade.
Formed in 1782, the “Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools” by 1786 developed “the charter for public schools of the Russian Empire.” This document approved the class-lesson teaching system and provided for the opening of two types of cities educational institutions: small public schools and main public schools.
Small schools prepared applicants for two years - basic reading and writing skills, rules of behavior and related knowledge.
The main schools provided broader subject training - for five years, in addition to basic skills, languages, history, science and science were taught here. natural Sciences, architecture. Over time, it was from the main school that the teacher’s seminary, a center for training future teachers, was separated.
The teaching was based on a friendly attitude towards students, and physical punishment was strictly prohibited.
The peasantry remained outside educational reform- project of rural schools and compulsory primary education regardless of gender and class, it was envisioned by Catherine II, but was never implemented.
Secularization of the Church
Catherine II's reign for Orthodox Church It turned out to be not the best period. However, all conditions were made for other faiths. The Empress believed that all religious movements that do not oppose her power have the right to exist.
Causes:
- Excessive autonomy of the church
- The need to increase tax revenues and land use efficiency
Churchmen
As a result of the signing of a decree to the Senate on the division of spiritual estates, all lands and peasants belonging to the clergy came under the control of the state. A special body, the College of Economy, began to collect a poll tax from peasants and transfer part of the received amount to the maintenance of monasteries. So-called “states” of monasteries were established, the number of which was limited. Most of the monasteries were abolished, their inhabitants were distributed among the remaining churches and parishes. The era of “church feudalism” has ended
As a result:
- The clergy lost about 2 million monastic peasants
- Most of the lands (approximately 9 million hectares) of monasteries and churches came under the jurisdiction of the state
- 567 of 954 monasteries are closed.
- The autonomy of the clergy has been eliminated
Results, significance and results of internal reforms
Catherine 2 the Great
The reforms of Catherine II were aimed at creating a state European type, - i.e. to the logical conclusion of Peter’s reforms, which was carried out using the methods of enlightened absolutism based on the ideas of humanization of justice. Completed under Catherine II legal registration class structure of society; An attempt was made to involve the public in the reforms and transfer some of the management functions “to the localities.”
The policy towards the serf peasantry was somewhat contradictory, because, on the one hand, the power of the landowners was strengthened, and on the other, measures were taken that somewhat limited serfdom. In the economic sphere, state monopolies were eliminated, freedom of trade was proclaimed and industrial activity, the secularization of church lands was carried out, paper money was introduced into circulation, the State Assignation Bank was established, measures were taken to introduce state control over expenses.
At the same time, it is worth taking into account the negative results - the flourishing of favoritism and bribery, increased debt, currency depreciation and the dominance of foreigners in the scientific and cultural spheres.
Measures were taken to strengthen the nobility in the center and locally. For the first time in Russian legislation a document appeared that defined the activity local authorities public administration and courts. This system of local authorities lasted until the Great Reforms of the 60s of the XIX century. The administrative division of the country introduced by Catherine II remained until 1917.
On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. The country was divided into provinces, each of which was supposed to have a population of 300-400 thousand male souls. By the end of Catherine's reign, there were 50 provinces in Russia. At the head of the provinces were governors who reported directly to the empress, and their power was significantly expanded. The capitals and several other provinces were subordinate to governors general.
Under the governor, a provincial government was created, and the provincial prosecutor was subordinate to him. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged in land management. Schools, hospitals, almshouses were in charge of the Order of Public Charity (look after - look after, patronize, take care of); were first created government agencies with social functions.
The provinces were divided into districts of 20-30 thousand male souls in each. Since there were clearly not enough city centers for counties, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. The main authority of the county became the Lower Zemstvo Court, headed by a police captain elected by the local nobility. A district treasurer and a district surveyor were appointed to the districts, following the model of the provinces.
Using the theory of separation of powers and improving the management system, Catherine II separated the judiciary from the executive. All classes, except for the serfs (for them the landowner was the owner and judge), had to take part in local government. Each class received its own court. The landowner was judged by the Upper Zemstvo Court in the provinces and the district court in the counties. State peasants were judged by the Upper Judgment in the province and the Lower Jurisprudence in the district, the townspeople were judged by the city magistrate in the district and the provincial magistrate in the province. All these courts were elected, with the exception of the lower courts, which were appointed by the governor. The Senate became the highest judicial body in the country, and in the provinces - the chambers of criminal and civil court, whose members were appointed by the state. New for Russia was the Conscientious Court, designed to stop strife and reconcile those who were quarreling. He was classless. The separation of powers was not complete, since the governor could interfere in court affairs.
The city was allocated as a separate administrative unit. At its head was the mayor, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts, in turn, into quarters, which were controlled by a quarterly overseer.
After the provincial reform, all boards ceased to function, with the exception of Foreign board, Military and Admiralty. The functions of the boards were transferred to provincial bodies. In 1775, the Zaporozhye Sich was liquidated, and most of the Cossacks were resettled to Kuban.
The existing system of managing the territory of the country in the new conditions solved the problem of strengthening the power of the nobility locally, its goal was to prevent new popular uprisings. The fear of the rebels was so great that Catherine II ordered the Yaik River to be renamed the Ural, and the Yaik Cossacks to be renamed the Ural. The number of local officials has more than doubled.
Letters granted to the nobility and cities
On April 21, 1785, on the birthday of Catherine II, Letters of Grant to the nobility and cities were simultaneously issued. It is known that Catherine II also prepared a draft Charter for state (state) peasants, but it was not published due to fears of noble discontent.
By issuing two charters, Catherine II regulated the legislation on the rights and responsibilities of the estates. In accordance with the “Certificate of Rights, Liberties and Advantages of the Noble Russian nobility“It was exempt from compulsory service, personal taxes, and corporal punishment. The estates were declared the full property of the landowners, who, in addition, had the right to establish their own factories and factories. Nobles could only sue their peers and, without a noble court, could not be deprived of noble honor, life and property. The nobles of the province and district constituted the provincial and district corporations of the nobility, respectively, and elected their leaders, as well as local government officials. Provincial and district noble assemblies had the right to make representations to the government about their needs. The charter granted to the nobility consolidated and legally formalized the power of the nobility in Russia. The ruling class was given the name “noble”. The “Certificate of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire” determined the rights and responsibilities of the urban population and the management system in cities. All townspeople were registered in the City Book of Philistines and formed a “city society.” It was announced that “the townspeople or real city dwellers are those who have a house or other building, or place, or land in that city.” The urban population was divided into six categories. The first of them included the nobles and clergy living in the city; the second included merchants, divided into three guilds; in the third - guild artisans; the fourth category consisted of foreigners permanently living in the city; the fifth - eminent citizens, who included people with higher education and capitalists. The sixth are the townspeople who lived by crafts or work. Residents of the city elected a self-government body every three years - the General City Duma, the mayor and judges. The general city duma elected executive agency- a six-vote Duma, which included one representative from each category of the urban population. The City Duma decided on landscaping issues, public education, compliance with trade rules, etc. only with the knowledge of the mayor appointed by the government.
The charter placed all six categories of the urban population under state control. Real power in the city was in the hands of the mayor, the deanery and the governor.
Education reform
Catherine II gave great value education in the life of the country. In the 60-70s years XVIII V. she, together with the President of the Academy of Arts and the Director of the Land Noble Corps I. I. Betsky, made an attempt to create a system of closed estates educational institutions. Their structure was based on the idea of the priority of upbringing over education. Believing that “the root of all evil and good is education,” Catherine II and I. I. Betskoy decided to create a “new breed of people.” According to the plan of I. I. Betsky, Orphanages were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, Smolny Institute noble maidens with a department for bourgeois girls in St. Petersburg, the Commercial School in Moscow, the Cadet Corps was transformed.
The views of I. I. Betsky were progressive for their time, providing for the humane upbringing of children, the development of their natural talents, the prohibition of corporal punishment, and the organization of women's education. However, “greenhouse” conditions, isolation from real life, from the influence of family and society, of course, made I. I. Betsky’s attempts to form a “new man” utopian.
The general line of development of Russian education did not go through the utopian ideas of I. And Betsky, but along the path of creating a system secondary school. It was a start school reform 1782-1786 Big role The Serbian teacher F.I. Jankovic de Mirievo played a role in carrying out this reform. Two-year small public schools were established in district towns, and four-year main public schools in provincial towns. In the newly created schools, uniform start and end dates for classes were introduced, a class lesson system was introduced, and methods of teaching disciplines and educational literature, unified curricula.
New schools, together with closed gentry buildings, noble boarding schools and gymnasiums at Moscow University, formed the structure of secondary education in Russia. According to experts, in Russia by the end of the century there were 550 educational institutions with total number 60-70 thousand students, not counting home education. Education, like all other spheres of the country's life, was fundamentally class-based.
A. N. Radishchev
Peasant War, ideas of Russian and French enlighteners, Great French revolution and the War of Independence in North America (1775-1783), which led to the formation of the United States, the emergence of Russian anti-serfdom thought in the person of N.I. Novikov, and the leading deputies of the Legislative Commission influenced the formation of the views of Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802). In “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” in the ode “Liberty,” in “Conversation about the Son of the Fatherland,” A. N. Radishchev called for the “complete abolition of slavery” and the transfer of land to the peasants. He believed that “autocracy is the state most contrary to human nature,” and insisted on its revolutionary overthrow. A. N. Radishchev called the one who fights for the interests of the people, “for freedom - a priceless gift, the source of all great deeds,” a true patriot, a true son of the Fatherland. For the first time in Russia there was a call for a revolutionary overthrow of autocracy and serfdom.
“A rebel is worse than Pugachev,” this is how Catherine II assessed the first Russian revolutionary. By her order, the circulation of the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was confiscated, and its author was arrested and sentenced to death penalty, replaced by a ten-year exile in the Ilimsk prison in Siberia.
Paul I
The reign of Paul I (1796-1801) is called “unenlightened absolutism” by some historians, “military-police dictatorship” by others, still others consider Paul “the Russian Hamlet”, and others call him a “romantic emperor”. However, even those historians who find positive features in Paul’s reign admit that he equated autocracy with personal despotism.
Paul I ascended the throne after the death of his mother at the age of 42, already a mature, established man. Catherine II, having given her son Gatchina near St. Petersburg, removed him from the court. In Gatchina, Paul introduced strict rules based on iron discipline and asceticism, contrasting them with the luxury and wealth of the St. Petersburg court. Having become emperor, he tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. Pavel's characteristic features were harshness, instability and temper. He believed that everything in the country should be subordinated to the orders established by the tsar; he put diligence and accuracy in the first place, did not tolerate objections, sometimes reaching the point of tyranny.
In 1797, Paul issued the “Institution on the Imperial Family,” which canceled Peter’s decree on succession to the throne. The throne from now on had to pass strictly according to male line from father to son, and in the absence of sons - to the eldest of the brothers. To maintain the imperial house, a department of “appanages” was formed, which managed the lands that belonged to the imperial family and the peasants who lived on them. The procedure for the service of nobles was tightened, and the effect of the Letter of Grant to the nobility was limited. Prussian order was imposed in the army.
In 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was published. He forbade landowners from using peasants for field work on Sundays, recommending that corvée be limited to three days a week.
Paul I took the Order of Malta under his protection, and when Napoleon captured Malta in 1798, he declared war on France in an alliance with England and Austria. When England occupied Malta, winning it from the French, there followed a severance of relations with England and an alliance with France. By agreement with Napoleon, Paul sent 40 regiments Don Cossacks to conquer India to annoy the British.
Paul's continued stay in power was fraught with loss of political stability for the country. The emperor’s foreign policy also did not meet the interests of Russia. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander I, the last in the history of Russia was committed. palace coup. Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.
Catherine II, great empress, ruled our country for exactly 34 years. This is a huge period of history, during which many different events took place.
In the mass consciousness, this ruler is associated with a lady insatiable in love. Well, Catherine II is famous for her love affairs, In many historical novels you can read that the empress changed favorites constantly. But let's face the truth: has she really been busy exclusively with this for all 34 years? Surely not: all Russian historians consider the period of her reign to be the time of its heyday Russian literature, science and painting; It was then that Russian opera appeared and theatrical art developed at an unprecedented pace.
It was Catherine 2, whose reforms were thought out, balanced, and therefore cautious, who left a deep mark on the history of Russian diplomacy and legislation.
We should not forget about the brilliant military victories. While this autocrat occupied the throne, Russia did not suffer a single military defeat, unlike in previous periods. For example, in 1812 we defeated the French, although before that the victories on the battlefield belonged to them. Catherine’s time is characterized by the annexation of Crimea, as well as harsh “lessons” for Polish gentry. Finally, let us remember the famous reforms of Catherine 2.
Domestic policy
What was happening at this time inside the country? There were many events, since Catherine, unlike many of her predecessors, came to power with a ready-made program of action, which allowed her to pursue a truly effective policy. She positioned herself as “a faithful follower of the thinkers of the Enlightenment.” To her credit, Catherine knew how to understand which of their theories was suitable for real life and which was not so good.
So, in 1773, the famous Denis Diderot arrived in Russia on a visit, who was very interested in the management reforms of Catherine 2. He was surprised to find that the Empress listened to him attentively, listening to all his proposals, but... was in no hurry to implement any of them into life. When the somewhat stung philosopher asked why this was happening, Catherine said: “Paper can withstand anything, but I have to deal with people whose skin is much thinner than the paper web.”
Her second important thought concerned the fact that any initiative and reform should be carried out gradually, gradually preparing society for their acceptance. This distinguished Catherine favorably from both domestic rulers and European monarchs, who almost never took into account the interests of their subjects in such a matter.
So, what exactly did Empress Catherine 2 do? Reforms should begin to be described from the provincial level.
Provincial reform
She began to carry it out soon after the Pugachev rebellion, which shook the very pillars of the Empire and was a kind of harbinger of things to come. tragic events. Unlike Nicholas II, Catherine knew how to draw conclusions.
Firstly, the very name of this transformation is completely incorrect. The thing is that the essence of the reform was much deeper, representing the creation of an almost new management system “on the ground”.
A new division of the country was proposed. There were 50 provinces in total, and this division remained virtually unchanged until the collapse of the Empire in 1917. What does this mean? Simply put, several times more cities of “federal” significance were formed in the country than there were before. An appointed governor arrives in a specific locality, and a lot of energetic, educated people. As a result, the quiet and “musty” county town soon turned into a local center of social and political life.
Response to Pugachev's rebellion
Here an attentive reader may well ask the question: “And where is the influence of Pugachev’s rebellion?” It's simple: after these events, Catherine wanted most of local authorities were recruited from natives of the same area. Simply put, for the first time in the history of the House of Romanov, the people had the opportunity to independently choose those who would rule them. An unprecedented breakthrough for those times! This is what Catherine II became famous for. Her reforms allowed her to move away from the mossy social order the beginning of the 16th century and finally forced many industries to really develop.
Bodies of self-government arose that are familiar to our time, but were a curiosity for that era. Let’s make a reservation right away: all this theoretically existed before Catherine. But this was not done purposefully, but only because of the lack of capital officials who could be sent to all the cities and villages of the vast empire. All these bodies had no real powers, limited only to the right to collect taxes and other mechanical operations. If we draw parallels with nowadays, That internal reforms Catherine 2 were aimed at redistributing power.
All these transformations were a consequence of the empress’s conviction that all riots arise from the inability of appointed officials to quickly “get into” problems on the ground and solve them. In principle, such governors had no desire to do so: it was important for them to report on the achievements of the “people's five-year plan” and collect taxes. Nothing else was required of them, and initiative was always punishable.
It is important to note that after 1775, when this reform was carried out, there was not a single (!) repetition of the Pugachev rebellion. Local authorities, although they were sometimes distinguished by the same desire for bribery, they were still much more interested in improving the life of their native land. Simply put, government reforms Catherine 2 were really aimed at the good of the country.
The emergence of civic consciousness
Many historians agree that from then on, faint but still noticeable features began to appear civil society and self-awareness. So, it was precisely in those days that it constantly happened that residents of small county towns held meetings, collected voluntary donations and used these funds to build gymnasiums, libraries, churches and other objects of the social and spiritual sphere.
Until then, such coherence and unanimity could not even be imagined. How far was the mentioned Diderot from a real solution to social problems!
Senate reform
Of course, Catherine 2 (whose reforms we describe here) was far from being a “herald of democracy.” She could not even imagine limiting her power in any way and weakening the institution of state absolutism. So, seeing the increasing independence of the Senate, the empress decided to take it “under the strong government wing,” limiting in every possible way any real power of this important body.
At the end of 1763, the structure of the Senate was recognized as “not corresponding to reality.” The role of the prosecutor general, who was appointed by the empress herself, was extremely elevated.
A. A. Vyazemsky was nominated to this place. In general, he was a famous man: even his enemies respected him for his incorruptibility, honesty and zeal in serving the Fatherland. He reported daily to Catherine on the work of the Senate, subordinated all the provincial prosecutors to himself, and also single-handedly performed many functions that until then had been distributed in the Senate. Of course, the role of this body was constantly declining, although formally this was not the case.
All functions of the Senate were soon distributed among completely autonomous departments, which in fact were only puppets and could no longer pursue a coherent general policy.
Changing the structure of public administration
At the same time, the complete inconsistency of the old system of urban management with the new aspirations of the state began to become more and more apparent. The provincial reform of Catherine II, which we have already described, made each city an absolutely independent administrative unit. The mayor was responsible for managing it, whose status immediately grew disproportionately.
He was appointed from among those who had served military service nobles and had enormous power. This same official was responsible for police duties, and not just managerial functions, and therefore a person in this position had to be distinguished by enviable hard work. This reform of local government by Catherine II immediately contributed to the restoration of order locally.
On the contrary, town halls and magistrates immediately practically lost all their administrative significance, turning into judicial bodies for merchants and industrialists. A new magistrate was created, people were recruited on the recommendations of merchants and industrialists. This body was managed by the mayor. In addition, public and orphan courts operated in cities. From all this, city self-government was formed, the creation of which was aimed at many of the reforms of Catherine 2. Of course, it was under constant supervision from central government, but still it was also a breakthrough in the field of social and managerial spheres. However, the authorities had no other choice: cities grew rapidly, many enterprises, communities, educational and other institutions appeared. All this had to “lead to common denominator“, everything required adequate urban management, which only the provincial reform of Catherine II could implement in practice.
Catherine's judicial reform
All of the above leads to a very simple conclusion: such rapid development social sphere it would be impossible without normal judicial bodies that could correctly resolve the inevitably arising contradictions and disputes, both between individual members of society and between their entire groups.
It should also be emphasized that the judicial reform of Catherine 2 was based on a similar initiative of Peter I, only the empress was able to find a much more elegant solution, and therefore the program was not only implemented, but also gave very good results.
In 1775, the first set of official regulations was published. Many administrative courts were abolished and completely disbanded. Finally, two branches of government were clearly delineated: judicial and administrative, which had previously been merged together. Moreover, the administrative power retained its unity of command, while the judicial authorities were governed collectively.
Of course, this is not what made the reforms of Catherine 2 famous. Their main significance for the judicial system is briefly revealed below.
Important Note
Most importantly, civil and criminal lawsuits were finally separated. At one time, it was this “atavism” that interfered with the administration of normal justice, since it was difficult to adequately distinguish between guilt for administrative violations and truly serious acts. The lower authority was the district court. Small and insignificant matters were sorted out in him. This significantly reduced the load on judges who were doing something really important.
In general, the results of Catherine 2’s reforms in all areas are the same - a sharp increase in the efficiency of many industries. This still makes us respect the empress for her remarkable managerial talent. But let's get back to the courts.
The county authority was considering more serious applications. Unlike the zemstvo described above, in this court the assessors were recruited from landowners. Meetings were held exactly three times a year, and the work of this body was already supervised by the prosecutor, whose duties included the function of “internal police,” since he recorded all cases of violation of the laws by the judges themselves and reported them “to the top.”
At the provincial level, the main body in the hierarchy became the Higher Zemstvo Court, which could be located not only in the provincial, but also in the district city. From now on in every administrative center there could be several such organs at once. Each of them already had ten assessors. The chairmen were chosen exclusively by the Senate, and their approval was often carried out personally by the head of state.
But this was not the only thing that marked the reforms of Catherine II: in short, the courts became more specialized.
Structural division of courts
The Upper Zemsky Court was divided into criminal and purely administrative departments. This was an important authority for the “junior” authorities. In addition, its judges had the right to hear more complex cases. The fact is that even then a list of offenses was established by law, which representatives of the lower zemstvo and district courts, as well as members of the magistrate, could not consider. All this prevented the development of nepotism in the localities.
The Provincial Court also had a public and criminal chamber. Each had its own chairman, as well as a couple of advisers and assessors. They could also be elected exclusively by the Senate and confirmed by the Supreme Power. It was the highest court of those times, in which the most complex cases were considered, and all the most serious and dangerous crimes were dealt with.
In a word, the judicial reform of Catherine 2 was very, very complex.
Secularization reform
Catherine began her work in 1764. All monastery lands were now officially transferred to the management of the Economic Board. During this reform, Catherine followed in the footsteps of Peter I, who did not favor the clergy too much. On the one hand, from now on the state was obliged to support the Church... but at the same time secular power she herself already determined how many monasteries and clergy the country needed. The Collegium also had the right to alienate “excess” lands to the state fund.
Transformations in the educational sector
The education reform of Catherine II is also known. Its main task was the creation of educational homes, the pupils of which received monetary allowances, full content and education. As a result, the country replenished the ranks of its citizens big amount educated and intelligent young people who were devoted to the state and brought up in the necessary moral and ethical spirit.
Police reform
In 1782, the “Charter of the Deanery” was approved. The council began to officially manage the city police department. It included: bailiffs, a police chief and a mayor, as well as a commission of citizens, the composition of which was determined by voting. This body could impose a fine or censure, and also had the right to prohibit certain types of activities.
What other ones were there? important reforms Catherine 2? The table will give us the answer to this question, and will also somewhat complement the goals of the activities that have already been discussed in this article.
Name | Target | Meaning |
Management actions 1. Complete liquidation autonomy of the Cossacks and Zaporozhye Sich(until 1781) 2. Provincial reform (1775) | Abolition of overly free and potentially dangerous formations. Completely control all areas of the country, but do this not to the detriment of the population. | Reduction of Cossack rights. Centralized provincial government was also introduced in their territories. Formation of 50 provinces with approximately 300 thousand people. They were divided into districts of 30 thousand people. In some cases, provinces could be united. |
Economic reforms of Catherine 2 1. Freedom to organize undertakings (1775) 2. Official increase in wages for peasant labor (1779) | Management is increasingly centralized, but at the same time the economic freedoms of the population are increasing | The population could freely produce chintz and export grain outside the state. Anyone could organize anything industrial enterprise. Simply put, from now on the doors to the industrial class were open to everyone. |
Estate reforms Charters granted to the nobility and cities (1775) | For the first time, the rights and responsibilities of the nobility and the urban class were officially defined. | The nobles were completely exempted from compulsory service and many duties. Estates received the right to self-government. From now on, it was impossible to deprive their members of property and freedom without investigation and trial. |
Here are the other reforms of Catherine 2. The table reveals their essence in sufficient detail.
results
Without exaggeration, we can say that all the events carried out were truly fateful. What did the reforms of Catherine 2 contribute to? Briefly (the table reveals this point), they were aimed at achieving dual goals:
Strengthening autocracy.
Economic freedom of the population, the opportunity for capable people to rise from the lower classes.
During her reign, the threat of disobedience from Cossack freemen. What other consequences can be named of the reforms of Catherine 2? The church was finally subordinated to the will of the state, the judicial branch became more flexible. Citizens, one way or another, got the opportunity to participate in fate own city or even provinces.
This is what marked the reforms of Catherine 2. Briefly (the table will help you see this), society has become more conscious, free and socially protected.