Catherine II began her reign in 1762 with promises to improve state laws and the position of various classes, and promised to improve education and schools. For this purpose, I.I. was involved. Betskoy (1704-1795), who spent many years in France, met with French educators, and became acquainted with educational institutions. In 1763, on his initiative, an educational home with a hospital for women in childbirth was opened in Moscow. Later, the St. Petersburg educational home and educational homes in provincial cities were created.
I.I. Betskoy presented Catherine with a report on the general reorganization of the education of children in Russia. The report was published in 1764 under the title “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth” and received the force of law. It spoke of the need to educate in Russia a “new breed of people” from all classes by organizing closed educational institutions in which children should stay from 5-6 years old until the age of 18. All this time they must be isolated from the surrounding life so as not to be subject to the “corrupting” influence of ordinary people. “Therefore, it is clear that the root of all evil and good is education: to achieve the latter with success and with firm fulfillment is possible only by choosing direct and thorough means to achieve this. “Adhering to this indisputable rule, the only remedy remains, that is, to first produce, by means of education, a new breed, so to speak, or new fathers and mothers who could instill in their children the same direct and thorough upbringing rules in the hearts that they themselves received, and from them the children would pass the packs on to their children; and so following from generation to generation into future centuries.”¹
Betskoy, a supporter of female education, admitted important role women in raising children, especially at an early age, spoke about the need to create respect in society for women as mothers and educators.
The beginning of the public education of women in Russia is considered to be 1764, when the Educational Society for Noble Maidens was founded in St. Petersburg according to the project of I.I. Betsky.
At the same time, it was ordered to open privileged educational institutions for children of the nobility in all provincial cities. In small public schools created under the charter of 1786, girls were allowed to study, however, the number of girls in them was much less than boys (in 1800, in 315 schools there were 18,128 boys and only 1,787 girls, and 2/3 of them were in the capital public school). The school reform of 1804, despite the liberalism shown, passed over in silence the issue of female education, which continued to develop outside the general system of public education.²
1.4 Women's education in the 19th century
After the establishment of Catherine's school, public education became a force that state power could use to serve its goals. The history of school and education in the 19th century is a clear example of this. Four times during the four reigns of the 19th century, Russian higher and secondary schools underwent radical restructuring.
Since 1843, diocesan schools began to be created - secondary educational institutions for the daughters of the clergy. In 1844, local authorities were ordered to open special girls' schools in those areas where there were at least 25 girls of the appropriate age. However, in the conditions of serf Russia, these schools could not attract a significant number of students. The development of women's education in Russia, especially in the first half of the 19th century, was characterized by the desire to establish a class-based organization of women's schools.
Under the influence of the social movement in Russia in the 60s of the 19th century, the network of women's educational institutions expanded somewhat, and the opportunity for girls to receive a general education in coeducational schools increased. By the mid-60s of the 19th century, Russia was in first place in Europe in the development of secondary female education.
In the 60s of the 19th century, the issue of the need to educate girls from the people in primary school was increasingly discussed. In 1861, a special body was established to study the problem of co-education in schools for boys and girls. Girls began to be taught in free Sunday schools together with boys, but very few girls were still enrolled in schools. So in 1863, 708,018 boys and 157,833 girls studied in all lower educational institutions.
Under pressure from the demands of the democratic public, the Ministry of Public Education was forced to recognize the need to open, at least in provincial cities, women's educational institutions that would be close in nature and level of education to ordinary gymnasiums. In 1856, when starting to prepare school reform, the tsarist government invited the trustees of educational districts to present their views on this issue.
Reform of women's education met resistance from conservatives who believed that the old system of closed class educational institutions provided parents with "confidence that their daughters would meet their peers at school and that special attention would be paid to their achievements, techniques, behavior and manners "¹.
On May 30, 1858, the “Regulations on women's schools of the Ministry of Public Education” were approved, according to which these educational institutions were to be maintained primarily at the expense of the public, charitable organizations and individuals, receiving cash subsidies from the government only in certain cases.
Women's schools were intended mainly for girls of the urban classes of “middle income”. According to the "Regulations", women's schools were divided into two categories - six-year and three-year. In first-class schools, the law of God, the Russian language, arithmetic, the basics of geometry, geography, general information from natural history and physics, world and Russian history. Those who wished, in addition, were taught penmanship, drawing and needlework for an additional fee, foreign languages(French and German), dancing, music, singing. In second-class schools, pupils were taught the law of God, a brief grammar of the Russian language, an abbreviated Russian history, geography, basic arithmetic, calligraphy and handicrafts. Schools of both categories pursued the same goal: “to impart to students the religious, moral and mental education that should be required from every woman, especially from the future mother of the family.”
After the publication of the “Regulations” on May 30, 1858, women's schools were opened in many cities - Vologda, Totma, Ust-Sysolsk, Tver, Samara, Morshansk, Rzhev, Chernigov, Tula, Smolensk, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. The initiative to open them belonged to local societies . By 1865, there were already 176 women’s schools in Russia.
In 1870, the “Regulations on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education” were approved, according to which women's schools of the first category were renamed into women's gymnasiums, and of the second category - into women's pro-gymnasiums. Both were maintained mainly at the expense of zemstvos and city societies. Government subsidies did not exceed 1/10 of their entire budget.
The protective policy of the tsarist government led to the fact that women's gymnasiums turned into privileged educational institutions in which mainly children of the propertied classes could study. The department of institutions of Empress Maria also, contrary to its declarations about the all-class status of gymnasiums, took all measures to reduce the number of “persons of the lowest and poorest strata of society” in them. To this end, tuition fees were constantly increased. By 1879, in the capital's Mariinsky gymnasiums it increased from 25 to 65-70 rubles, in the provincial ones - to 40 rubles per year. By 1887, tuition fees had already reached 100 rubles per year.
In the second half of the 19th century, private women's gymnasiums appeared, their course of study corresponding to a men's high school. So in 1872, the Fisher women's gymnasium was opened in Moscow with a full course of men's classical gymnasium. Speshneva's comprehensive women's school, opened in 1868, gave graduates a certificate that allowed them to enroll in medical and other higher courses. The curriculum of the Obolenskaya gymnasium (opened in 1870), where outstanding teachers A.Ya.Gerd and A.N. Strannolyubsky, coincided with the curriculum of men's real gymnasiums.
In general, female secondary education in the 60-90s of the 19th century, in terms of its content and the rights it gave to those who graduated from high school, still did not correspond to either the needs for female education or the general level of secondary education in Russia.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF
FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"NABEREZHNOCHELNYI INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL-EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES AND RESOURCES"
FACULTY OF PEDAGOGY AND METHODS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY NAMED AFTER Z.T. SHARAFUTDINOVA
Yarova Elmira Kamilovna
Catherine II's views on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia
Final qualifying work
Specialty 050708.65
“Pedagogy and methods of primary education”
Scientific director
Doctor of Science, Prof. A. G. Mukhametshin
"___" ______________ 20___
Allowed for protection
Head of the department
pedagogy and psychology
them. Z.T. Sharafutdinova
Candidate of Psychology, Associate Professor I. N. Fedekin
"___" ________________20__
Naberezhnye Chelny
2012
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………......3
Chapter 1. Socio-historical conditions for the formation of the pedagogical views of Catherine II…………………………………………………………..6
1.1. The coming to power of Catherine II.……………………………………………...6
1.2. State policy in the field of education in Russia in the era of Catherine II…………………………………………………………………………………11
1.3. Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II……………….. 16
Chapter 2. Catherine II’s views on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia………………………………………………………………………………20
2.1. Pedagogical views of Catherine II……………………………………………………….20
2.2. Questions of methods of education and training in the pedagogical views of Catherine II ……………………………………………………………………..25
2.3. Organization of primary (public) education in Russia…………...29
2.4. The first experience of creating a primary education system in Russia, unrestricted by class barriers……………………………………………………….34
2.5. Expansion of public schools…………………………………………….42
Conclusions….………………………………………………………………………………………..49
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………. 50 Bibliography… …………………………………………………………………52
Introduction
“Without the past there is no future,” says the popular proverb. And indeed, people always, especially during critical periods in the life of mankind, in the gigantic laboratory of the world social experience trying to find answers to the burning questions of our time. The assimilation of historical experience, knowledge and methods of thinking developed by previous generations makes it possible, on this basis, to direct all practical activities present. Our past is our intellectual property, which must be treated with the same care as material property.
Pedagogy and school are a mirror of social life, and periods of transformation, targeted reforms and natural upheavals are usually accompanied by profound changes in the field of education and upbringing. The most important conditions for knowing pedagogical truth are an objective assessment of historical reality and the inextricable connection between the history of pedagogy and modernity.
The history of pedagogy includes the history of pedagogical ideas, pedagogical systems, socialization processes. Consequently, when studying the history of pedagogy, special attention should be paid to the study of an individual personality in the unity of all its social manifestations.
For us special interest represents the second half of the 18th century. This is the century of reforms in primary education, which is called the Age of Enlightenment or the era of Catherine II.
Recently, interest in the personality of Catherine II and her activities as an “enlightened monarch” has increased significantly. A number of articles were published devoted to the influence of Catherine II on the state of education in Russia in the 18th century and her pedagogical views. In the historical and pedagogical literature of the post-Soviet period, the attention of individual researchers to the problems of organizing the primary (folk) school of Catherine’s time has noticeably increased. There is an undoubted fact of growing public interest both in the Catherine era and in Catherine II herself, as evidenced by a significant increase in the number of popular science works.
Evidence of Catherine II's constant attention to pedagogical problems and issues of school reform are legislative acts aimed at reforms in the field of education, approved or even personally compiled by the empress, Catherine II's writings on issues of education and enlightenment, published in various publications and collected works; her correspondence, the content of materials published in collections, as well as individual pages of the memoirs of Catherine II.
It is no coincidence that in modern conditions various types of educational institutions, including primary schools, are reopening. However, it is impossible to build a new school by discarding everything old created by the wisdom of the people. Without knowledge of how the old school lived, what forces it had, what ideals it bequeathed, it is impossible to understand what it should carry within itself now.
Thus, the relevance of my topic thesis, is caused by the fact that the richest historical experience in the development public education, including various types primary schools, has practical significance today.
So, the topic of my qualifying work: “Pedagogical views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia.”
The goal is to analyze the educational and pedagogical ideas and views of Catherine II, her activities as the organizer of the process of reforming the Russian school, and to identify the problems of organizing primary education in Russia during the reign of Catherine II.
Object – primary education in Russia in the second half of the 8th century.
The subject is the pedagogical views of Catherine II and their implementation in the practice of reforming primary schools in the 2nd half of the 18th century.
In accordance with the purpose, object and subject, the following tasks were set:
1. Identify the social and historical conditions for the formation of Catherine II’s pedagogical views.
2. Reveal the content of Catherine II’s pedagogical views in education and upbringing, carry out their generalization and systematization.
3. To study ways to implement the main pedagogical ideas of Catherine II on the creation of primary schools in Russia.
4.Identify problems in the organization of primary education in Russia during the reign of Catherine II.
Hypothesis: Catherine II’s pedagogical views on the problems of organizing primary education had a social orientation, were morally oriented, and imbued with the idea of priority of upbringing over education.
Methods: theoretical analysis of philosophical, pedagogical, historical and literary sources, documentary materials, historical and logical analysis and generalization of information borrowed from various sources,identifying trends and patterns of development of primary schools.
The methodological basis of the study was the works of such authors as Andreev, A. Yu., Brickner, A. G., Denis Diderot, Novikova N. I., John Locke, J.-J. Russo et al.
The practical significance lies in the possibility of using this work by primary school teachers and history teachers in secondary schools.
Structure of the work: this work consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusions, a conclusion and a bibliography.
Chapter 1. Social and historical conditions for the formation of the pedagogical views of Catherine II
1.1. The rise to power of Catherine II
After Peter I, Catherine II reigned in Russia. The full name of Empress Catherine II before her arrival in Russia and adoption of Orthodoxy was Sophia - Frederica - Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst. Catherine was born on April 21, 1729. Her father, Prince Christian - August of Anhalt-Zerbst, was younger brother German sovereign prince. Prince Christian Augustus was very poor and had to serve. The Prussian king Frederick the Great gave him the position of governor of Pomerania. The wife of Prince Christian was born Joanna - Elizabeth Goldstein of Gottorp. The prince loved his wife and daughter dearly, was an exemplary family man, ruled the Pomeranian province and commanded the Anhalt-Zerbst infantry regiment. The parents of the future empress lived poorly, in an ordinary house, and not in a palace. In later times, Empress Catherine eagerly recalled and spoke in a joking tone about the relatively modest circumstances in which she, the former princess, was born.
It is known from Catherine’s notes that her parents gave her an education. As a child, she had a governess, a Frenchwoman, Cardel, and two teachers, chaplain Perot and penmanship teacher Laurent. They also taught her music - the German Relig gave her lessons on the harpsichord. Thanks to her governess, Catherine II met Racine, Corneille, and Moliere. German teacher Vater tried to instill in her a love of German literature.
There is no doubt that Catherine's mother cared little about her upbringing. This is what Catherine says, mentioning the arrival of Count Gyllenborg in Hamburg: Gyllenborg, seeing that my mother was little or almost not at all concerned with me, he told her that she was in vain not paying attention to me, that I was a child above my years and that I philosophical disposition of mind.
It is not surprising that even in childhood, if, of course, you believe folklore, the little princess heard from some wandering monk a prediction that, in the end, she would “put on her head the crown of a great empire, which is currently ruled by a woman.” . It seems that in fact this prediction was about Russia, which at that time was ruled by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna.
The beauty of the German princess, sharp and lively mind, attracted the attention of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. In 1744, Catherine and her mother were summoned to Russia by the Empress, baptized according to Orthodox custom under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III), whom she married in 1745.
From Catherine’s notes it is clear that, at that time she was no more than fifteen years old, from the very first minute of her stay at the Russian court, despite all the difficulties, she behaved cautiously, acted prudently and constantly dreamed of her future greatness. Various clashes occurred, sometimes with the mother, who was distinguished by her ambition and did not always pay enough attention to her daughter’s interests. She discovered a lack of tact on the part of the Empress, who soon began to show some distrust of the young princess, of a groom who seemed very unlikely to love and respect the bride appointed for him. Despite all these difficulties, Catherine made a firm decision not to stop at any obstacle, to overcome all the obstacles that prevented her from achieving her desired goals, to use all possible means to create an advantageous position for herself. A cold calculation is noticeable in her actions, a calm consideration of all circumstances is visible. She tried to formulate for herself a precise idea of what course of action should be considered appropriate. At all costs, she wanted to wear the Russian crown promised to her by fate.
Shining at the Russian court with her beauty and intelligence, Catherine spent all her leisure time on self-education. From the very first days of her marriage, Catherine was patient. To an outside observer, her life might even seem pleasant: she attended performances, balls, and had fun. But all these court trips and celebrations did not fill the entire life of the Grand Duchess: when returning home, the young princess did not find anything to do or do, and therefore was bored. Out of boredom, Catherine took up reading and began reading novels. She came across letters from Sevigne Marie de Rabutin - Chantal, Marquise de, French writer; author of letters that she wrote to her daughter and friends for many years. In them she talked about the life of Paris and Versailles, about political events, about literary and theatrical novelties. Not without wit, Sevigne criticized the policies of the Jesuits, the hypocrisy of the court, and the wars that were burdensome for the country. I saw my era through the eyes of an intelligent, but not devoid of prejudices, aristocrat. In relation to peasant unrest, she took an irreconcilably hostile position. Sevigne's letters are an example of elegant and precise prose of classicism. Catherine directly “devoured” them, encountering in them many notes that were in tune with her spiritual mood. In 1746, Catherine began to read the works of Voltaire, which greatly contributed to the education and enlightenment of her mind and head; she became more selective in her reading and then wrote to Voltaire, as well as others, that Voltaire was her teacher.
Then Catherine turned to historical reading, read the history of Henry IV, the history of Germany by Bar, the memoirs of Brantome, the works of Plato, “The Spirit of the Laws” by Montesquieu and historical works Tacita. Reading had a powerful influence on Catherine’s spiritual life, on her concepts and feelings. She knew how to appreciate the benefits of reading serious books. At first she read out of boredom, then she became more and more accustomed to hard work. Many issues are raised in the notes of the Grand Duchess. It talks about female education, and about legal proceedings in relation to insolvent debtors, about the importance of the nobility in society, about how the loss of military capabilities can be helped during peace, about the causes of extreme mortality in Russia, about questions of technology, about the imprudence of torturing people , whose guilt has not been proven, about the affairs of Courland and Holstein, about oyster farming, about the connections of the Caspian Sea with the Black Sea, and so on.
She studied the works of remarkable French educators and received a lot of varied information in law and economics. These books shaped her worldview. There was hardly a woman more educated than her in all of Russia. Catherine became a consistent supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. At the same time, Catherine adopted the customs and spirit of the Russian people, and she learned the Russian language so much that she knew all the sayings, wrote essays, and wrote quotes. Here are some of them related to education:
For those who have not studied in their youth, old age can be boring.
Those who are accustomed to work have their work made easier.
A reasonable person can always find an exercise.
A reasonable person does not consider it a shame to learn even at an advanced age what he did not complete in his youth.
Teaching adorns a person in happiness, but serves as a refuge in misfortune.
The coup on June 28, 1762 fulfilled Catherine's dream, which she had cherished for 17 years - it made her an autocratic Russian empress. Thus began the women's reign, which lasted 34 years and differed from previous women's reigns in that during it a whole line important reforms in the field of state and public life in Russia. She was famous for her art of governing the state and choosing her close associates. In business, she took Peter the Great as a model and constantly asked herself, “What would Peter do in this case?”
Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent judge of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist and knew how to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at catching every sensible thought and using it for her own purposes.
During the entire reign of Catherine there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles were disgraced, exiled, much less executed. Therefore, there was an idea of Catherine’s reign as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world. In order to preserve it, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.
Thus, Catherine, considering it possible that sooner or later she would be destined to rule Russia, tried to prepare for such an activity. In connection with the desire to become capable of doing business, she wanted to gain popularity, to be loved and respected by everyone. The following remark in Catherine’s notes dates back to the time before the wedding: “More than ever, I tried to gain the favor of everyone in general, big and small. No one was forgotten by me, and I made it a rule to think that I need everyone, and to acquire common love in every possible way, which I managed to do.”
Catherine especially carefully tried to ingratiate herself with the empress, and was guided by the advice of the women around her. Catherine knew how to appreciate the importance that general opinion had for her, and quite skillfully, not without some pettiness, not without some cold-blooded calculation, she chose the means to build a good reputation for herself.
From Catherine’s notes: “I wish and want only good for the country to which the Lord brought me. Her glory makes me famous. This is my rule, and I will be happy if my thoughts can contribute to this.”
1.2. State policy in the field of education in Russia during the reign of Catherine II
More than once or twice in Russian history, rulers have placed a large, albeit not a priority, emphasis on the education of the population. And we know how beneficially this had a positive effect on the progress of the country, but only in cases where the aspirations and capabilities were met by verified and systematically prepared projects. Today, when once again the state has decisively taken up the sphere of education, it is necessary to recall the history of the first such plans, those projects when educational ideas of the possibility of achieving human progress through reason, and therefore through the organization of upbringing and education, dominated in the minds of intellectuals. In Russia, such a period was the time of Catherine, when the Russian Empress, who continued Peter’s line of Europeanization of the country, put on the agenda the issues of organizing the country’s educational institutions for different segments of the population. Before that, Russia had not yet known secular education on a national scale. It is quite natural that Catherine II, as is typical for many Russian rulers, decided to approach the problem with the help of the most advanced and advanced developments of her era in order to create better system education. The ideas of European enlightenment received special attention from the Russian Empress. Ekaterina sought to use the achievements of European pedagogical thought when implementing her projects.
Society needed an enlightened person who combined broad general education with professional training. This idea matured in Catherine II not without the influence of the ideas of Western European enlighteners, in particular Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke.
Historian S. M. Solovyov noted that “The motives that forced Catherine II to get closer to the most prominent philosophers” were that “sensitive in strong degree to the highest interests of man, she passionately followed the mental movement of the century... and wanted to apply its results to the structure of people's life."
John Locke's pedagogical treatise “Thoughts on Education” in Russian translation became her reference book at the beginning of her reign. I think, wrote John Locke, that a child's soul is as easily led one way or another as river water; but although this is the main task of education and should concern itself mainly with inside man, however, the mortal coil should not be ignored. I will therefore begin with the latter and, first of all, consider issues relating to the health of the body. .
He spoke out sharply against traditional classical education, defending real education that equips with useful knowledge. He believed that learning should be based on the interest and curiosity of children, which contributes to the development of their independent thinking. Punishment should not be used during training. His pupil had to not only be prepared to successfully conduct practical affairs, but also be aware of his civic responsibility, be adapted to a “virtuous life”, and show interest in studying what he could be very useful to his country.
The idea of creating a “new breed of people” was borrowed by Catherine II from Jean-Jacques Rousseau, although in general she had a negative attitude towards his democratic pedagogical views. From him she adopted the idea of the need to isolate children from a society spoiled by harmful traditions.Education, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed, is given to a person by nature, people and the things around him. Education received from nature is the internal development of human abilities and organs; the education received from people is learning how to use this development; education from things is an acquisition by man own experience regarding objects that give him perception. All these three factors should, according to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, act in concert.
But Jean-Jacques Rousseau rejected the thesis about the predominance of “natural education”; they considered public education to be a priority.
Having conceived the reform school system, Catherine II invited Denis Diderot, a French writer, philosopher and educator who founded an encyclopedia or explanatory dictionary of sciences, arts, and crafts, to Russia. At the same time, she set similar tasks for a specially created commission, as well as for the curator of Moscow University I. I. Shuvalov. We can say that the empress approached the issue comprehensively and on a grand scale. And although the plans ultimately remained unrealized, they are of some interest. Having spent no more than six months in Russia, Diderot was constantly with the empress, conducting daily conversations with her. Diderot was for universal, free primary education “from the first minister to the last peasant,” so that everyone could read, write and count. He also believed that “opinions rule the world,” and linked the possibility of reorganizing society with the issuance of wise laws and the spread of education and correct upbringing.
Diderot rejected the statement of Helvetius, who considered education to be the only source of difference between people and spoke of the absence of individual natural differences in people. According to Diderot, education is one of the main sources. .
Or another example, from Diderot’s polemic with Claude Helvetius:
Helvetius: All people with an ordinary normal organization have the same mental abilities.
Diderot: Mr. Helvetius, answer a small question. Here are five hundred newly born children. They are ready to be given to you to be raised according to your system. Tell me, how many of them will you make into genius people? Why not all five hundred?
Like other French materialist philosophers, Diderot attached great importance to enlightenment. “Education,” he wrote, “gives a person dignity, and the slave begins to realize that he was not born for slavery.”
Denis Diderot's thoughts on public education are set out in the “Plan for a University or School of Public Teaching of Sciences for the Russian Government,” drawn up in 1775 at the request of Catherine II. In his work “Public Schools” (1773-1774), Diderot designed a state system of public education, defended the principles of universal free primary education and classlessness of education. He proposed removing schools from the jurisdiction of the church and transferring them into the hands of the state.
In an effort to ensure the actual accessibility of school, Diderot considered it necessary to organize material assistance from the state for children of the poor (free textbooks and meals in primary school, scholarships in secondary and higher schools). Diderot rebelled against the education system prevailing throughout Europe at that time with its classicism.
He brought physical, mathematical and natural sciences to the fore, advocating the real focus of education and its connection with the needs of life. Diderot sought to build a secondary school curriculum in accordance with the system of scientific knowledge, taking into account the interdependence of the sciences, highlighting the main subject in each year of study. Denis Diderot advised concentrating education in each academic year on a specific section of the school curriculum: mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, natural science and physics, chemistry and anatomy, logic and grammar, ancient languages and literature. In parallel, three blocks of education were envisaged:
1. Philosophy, morality, history, geography.
2. Drawing and beginnings of architecture.
3.Music, fencing, dancing, horse riding, swimming.
Taking into account the views of Catherine II, he included religion in the curriculum. Denis Diderot wrote about the importance of compiling good textbooks and proposed involving prominent scientists in this matter. In order to improve the level of knowledge, he proposed holding public examinations in secondary schools 4 times a year and weeding out careless or incapable students. To better select teachers, he advised announcing competitions.
Being the son of a simple artisan, Diderot correctly argued that all people, and not just a select few, are endowed with favorable inclinations by nature. Moreover, he said that people from the people are much more likely to be bearers of genius and talents than representatives of the nobility: “The number of huts and other private dwellings relates to the number of palaces as ten thousand to one, and accordingly with this we have ten thousand chances against one for the fact that genius, talent and virtue are more likely to come out of the walls of a hut than from the walls of a palace.”
Catherine believed that the organization of education in the matter of correcting serfdom should be aimed at removing the student from the appropriate social environment and immersing him in the artificial conditions of educational institutions. Thus, she hoped to educate a new generation of statesmen corresponding to the ideals of the enlightened age. However, Diderot proceeded from a more balanced assessment of the role of education and upbringing, placing them on the same causal list with internal inclinations, also believing that the circumstances of his socialization, in modern language, do not form the entire personality, but only significantly influence its formation. In this sense, he was concerned with ways to identify human natural abilities and means of their development. At the same time, he did not lose attention to the Russian specifics associated with the almost complete absence of institutional foundations for the system of national secular education. He was attracted by the very challenge of helping to create a completely new system for a completely new, as he imagined, society. Diderot writes that in Russia “there is not a trace of the old institutions that could interfere with the implementation of the views of Catherine II; in front of her is a vast field, free space on which she can build according to her own desire.”
Diderot offers a detailed program of reforms of the entire education system, from educating children to training specialists. It's about about all forms and levels of national education. Diderot acted, for his time, as an innovator, proposing the universality of education in Russia. Primary education was supposed to cover the entire population: “From the first minister to the last peasant, it is useful that everyone knows how to read, write and count.” Schools were not only supposed to be accessible, but compulsory for all children. At the same time, Diderot still believes that they should be free, and even demands that students be paid from the state treasury: “to be fed and provided with textbooks.”
Unfortunately, the project did not receive any practical application and was put aside by Catherine II due, as she believed, to its unsuitability for the existing social conditions in Russia.
1.3. Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II
The reign of Catherine II turned out to be a period highest development school affairs in Russia. (1762-1796).
The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century was to satisfy the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy theater and other arts. Special military educational institutions - the Land and Naval Cadet Corps - made noticeable progress.
The Charter of 1766 divided the training program into three groups of sciences:
Items required for civilian rank;
Useful and artistic science subjects: physics, astronomy, geography, navigation;
Subjects leading to the knowledge of other arts: logic, mathematics, eloquence, Latin and French.
In the second half of the 18th century, private educational institutions with public school programs developed, since the nobles did not want to educate their children along with the peasants.
In 1763, Catherine appointed Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704 - 1795) as her chief adviser on educational issues. His name is associated with the establishment in 1763 of the first Orphanage in Russia.
In the House, children from fourteen to fifteen years old were taught various crafts. When leaving home, the pupils received full uniforms and the rights of free people. It was proposed to organize similar houses in all major cities, which were supported by donations. I.I. Betskoy accepted the ideas of European enlighteners and tried to implement them in Russia. His activities, first of all, were associated with the drafting of bills concerning the training and education of Russian youth. He comes to the need for closed educational institutions for children from 6 to 20 years old, to create a “special breed of people” free from vices modern society. True education is about instilling self-respect. According to Betsky’s reports and charters, the following were opened:
Orphanage in Moscow (1764);
Orphanage in St. Petersburg (1772);
School for boys at the Academy of Arts (1764) and at the Academy of Sciences (1765);
Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg (1764);
Commercial school (1772).
All of these were strictly class closed educational institutions. Education in them was considered from four sides:
Physical (a healthy mind in a healthy body);
Physically - morally (Idleness is the mother of all vices, and hard work is the father of all virtues);
Moral (removing the student from anything that may have a shadow of vice);
Exercises (development of mental powers as a means of getting a piece of bread).
The Orphanage in St. Petersburg accepted “motherless babies and children.”
The treasury allocated an insignificant amount for the maintenance of the house, which did not cover expenses. Then the need for charity was announced, and money was collected. I.I. Betskoy imagined raising children in this house like this:
Up to 2 years of age, children are in the care of wet nurses and nannies;
From 3 to 7 years old, boys and girls live together and are accustomed to light work;
From 7 to 11 years old, they go to school together for one hour every day, learn to read, and comprehend the basics of faith; during these same years, boys learn to knit caps and nets, and girls practice spinning, knitting, and weaving;
From 11 to 14 years old, boys and girls learn writing, numbers, arithmetic, geography, drawing, and engage in household work and crafts; girls sew, cook, iron; boys get used to gardening and yard work;
At the age of 14-15, education ends, and students begin to engage in the craft that they themselves chose.
The students were divided into three groups according to their natural talents:
1. People capable of sciences and arts.
2. People capable only of crafts and needlework.
3. People capable of only the simplest work.
The main principle of teaching: lead children playfully and pleasantly. Leading place was assigned to moral education - removing the child from all vice. With good upbringing, punishments are unnecessary, since they make children feigned, vindictive, and gloomy, but if necessary, punishment can be: deprivation of a walk, standing in one place. You should never hit a child. The purpose of education: the creation of “a special breed of people free from the vices of society.”
There was a hospital at the Orphanage for poor mothers in labor. Those born in this hospital were transferred to the Orphanage, later this order was canceled - only those babies were given away that were abandoned by their mothers. The child’s admission to the Orphanage was not accompanied by any paperwork. The most distinguished students continued their studies in the capital's gymnasiums, but in 1837 this order was abolished.
Projects of 1760 about low village schools and a public education system remained unfulfilled. The education of agricultural children in parish schools should have contained only such teaching that would make the villagers knowledgeable in the Christian law, virtuous and hardworking. But lower educational institutions for peasants were not financed from the treasury, and their existence depended entirely on the will and desire of local landowners and rural communities, who, in turn, simply did not allocate money. The nobility led the local government, because almost half of the local population - the serf peasantry - was in its hands, living on its land.
Chapter 2. Catherine the Second’s views on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia
2.1. Pedagogical views of Catherine II
As soon as Catherine II came to power, she began to show interest in educational issues. "La manie de cette année est d" ecri - re sur l "education." “This year there is a predilection for writing about education,” she wrote in 1762.
An analysis of the pedagogical views of Catherine II suggests that she was close to the idea of educational and developmental education, which became established in pedagogical consciousness only in the next century. Education is a means of education: this view of Catherine II on the purpose of education is clearly expressed in the following words: “let learning, or knowledge, be the only aversion from idleness and a way to understand the natural abilities of students and so that they become accustomed to work and diligence.” .
Catherine II assigned teaching the role of a means of mental education.
These views of Catherine II were convincingly expressed by her like-minded person and associate I.I. Betskoy: “Experience proves that a mind adorned and enlightened by sciences alone does not make a good and upright citizen; on the contrary, it often becomes harmful for someone who has not had virtue rooted in his heart from a young age.”
At the end of the 18th century, the main theories of education began to take shape. One of them was the theory of formal education, which considered learning only as a means of developing the abilities and cognitive interests of students. In the pedagogical heritage of Catherine II there is no specific indication that she knew about the existence of this theory. But in her recommendations for selecting the content of educational material for students, she considered it necessary to emphasize the importance of the developmental function of teaching along with its other functions. In general, she identifies three functions that must be realized in the learning process: educational (“education of the mind”), educational (“education of the heart”) and developmental - the formation of skills (“verbal expression”), as well as for awakening the development and improvement of the sense of truth , goodness and beauty. These functions, according to Catherine II, should be included in the content of educational books, including books for initial training. Since in Russia at that time there were very few books suitable for children's reading, Catherine II herself compiled a number of textbooks and other books. The textbooks or “manuals” she wrote were modeled on contemporary German books for children’s reading. Taking these books as a model, Catherine II strove to make the children's book “folk,” a collection of rich thoughts and observations of a folklore nature, presented in an attractive form. The study of reading material should, in her opinion, be carried out in a certain sequence: 1) fairy tales; 2) “Conversations and stories” and “Elective Russian proverbs”; 3) “Civilian elementary teaching” and “Continuation of elementary teaching”; 4) “Notes of the first part.” .
The content of fairy tales composed by Catherine II, as educational material, contains interest that can attract the attention of children and arouse their moral feelings, since moral instructions constitute almost the entire main content of fairy tales. Fairy tales depict the ideal of a young prince, brought up in the rules of virtue and, despite all obstacles, walking the straight road to the goal indicated to him. The same moralizing character can be traced in the content of the “Elementary Civil Teaching” and in the “Continuation of the Primary Teaching.” This - short stories from ancient history, which describe the properties and qualities of outstanding personalities of classical antiquity (stories about Cyrus, Alexander the Great, Caesar, the Spartans). Most of the stories tell about the lives of monarchs. This is apparently explained by the fact that they were intended, first of all, for specific children - future rulers.
Material for children's reading from “Notes of the first part.” has a special content. The main goals of this work: 1) to impart positive knowledge to students, expand their horizons and views on real world in general, and on the Russian world in particular; 2) continue moral education, “strengthen children in virtue.” The information that Catherine II conveys to students in this work is quite diverse: it is knowledge in the field of geography, ethnography, history, language, trade, and industry. The focus of all information reported is Russia and materials about it. At the beginning of each chapter, information is provided about a region, a city, or a people. What follows is a cautionary tale with the express purpose of edification, for example, about what a child must be like to be considered good. The expression “being smart” here is equivalent to the expression “doing everything well.” Being obedient means “doing whatever your mother says.” All the other stories in “Notes of the first part,” in addition to the instructive ones, provide a lot of so-called “real information,” mainly from Siberian nature.
There is no exact information in Catherine II’s statements about the age for which the books she wrote were intended. But an analysis of their content and their inherent style of presentation suggests that they were intended for initial training. But this stage of training was not limited to just studying these books. In the part of the “Instructions” that talks about teaching, Catherine II clearly defines the range of subjects to be studied at this age stage. Among them, the first place is occupied by the Law of God. This is both a tribute to the tradition of that time and the deep conviction of Empress Catherine II in the educational value of this subject.
WITH to a large extent The “Instructions” talk about languages in detail, with more attention paid to the Russian language: “ Russian letter and the language should be tried to be known as best as possible.”
To do this, Catherine II suggests “reading and speaking Russian with children.”
Along with Russian, foreign languages should also be taught: “there is no other way to teach languages than by speaking them, but so that they do not forget their Russian language.” At the same time, Catherine II prescribes studying various subjects at different languages: “Mineralogy in Latin, growth in German, animals in French, Gospels in different languages, comparing them with Russian.”
Catherine II believed that in addition to the indicated languages, the Grand Dukes should also be taught the Greek language, which she called “the most important and most useful.” At the same time with practical training Languages should be taught in reading, writing, drawing and arithmetic, as well as calligraphy. After the subjects of initial training, it was prescribed to begin the study of geography, astronomy, mathematics, history, moral teaching, “rules of civil law,” chronology and genealogy. Other subjects of study are mentioned only by name: natural history in practical application, as well as information necessary for knowledge of man, the “arts,” antiquity and mythology, physics, all parts of military, land, equestrian and naval service.
Among the subjects of the aesthetic cycle, the main place has always been given to the theater. Catherine II attached high educational importance to the theater, but this consciousness in her time was only theoretical; in fact, the theater remained a well-behaved entertainment in which ballets, operas and dramatic performances played exactly the same role. Catherine II spoke negatively regarding teaching the art of poetry. This attitude towards poetry and music can be explained by the fact that Catherine II herself was never particularly capable of either music or versification
In her pedagogical works, Catherine II paid considerable attention to the physical education of the younger generation. Under Catherine II, “the system of physical education of French noble youth had a decisive influence.” The main goal of physical education is the strength of the body, accustomed to labor and hardship. A special article “On the soap house and bathhouse”, included in the “Instructions”, emphasizes big role baths for health. Some places in “The Tale of Prince Fevey” are devoted to questions of hardening, where the “reasonable” educators of the baby “did not swaddle, did not wrap”, and when he grew up, he “took him to Fresh air in summer and winter at any time when this did not harm his health.”
Thus, the Empress expressed a very definite conviction in the need to educate not only the spirit and mind, but also the body, which was important in the formation of a “new breed of people” whom she wanted to raise to serve Russia. She, being a person who loves to learn and understands the value of knowledge, in her works repeatedly pointed out the importance and significance of education, both for a specific individual and for society as a whole. The positive significance of Catherine II’s statements on the problems of education is that they contributed to the complete elimination of the influence of the harmful prejudices that prevailed at that time (“We don’t need this science... the cabbies will take you there”).
Based on the main goal of her educational policy - to form a virtuous personality, Catherine II in her pedagogical works emphasizes the need for the educational nature of education, promoting the close connection of mental and moral education. Thus, despite the somewhat eclectic views of Catherine II on the problems of the content of education and training, we consider their existence to be an important contribution to the development of pedagogical theory and practice of the 18th century.
2.2. Questions of methods of education and training in the pedagogical views of Catherine II
It would be a mistake to limit the analysis of the pedagogical views of Catherine II only to issues of the content of education and training. In her works we also find many interesting thoughts about the methods and techniques of education and training, about the role of the teacher and parents in the pedagogical process, that is, everything that in modern pedagogical terminology is called the technology of the pedagogical process.
In the pedagogical works of Catherine II there is no clear distinction between different pedagogical concepts. In particular, the forms, methods, and means of education and training are not considered separately. This is explained by the general level of pedagogical knowledge characteristic of the 18th century. However, the need for scientific knowledge and adequate interpretation of the pedagogical views of Catherine II obliges us to consider them from the standpoint of the classification of these concepts accepted in modern pedagogy.
The statements of Catherine II, touching on issues of teaching and upbringing methods, are addressed mainly to the educators of her grandchildren - the future heirs to the throne. This does not mean, however, that these statements of hers do not have a general pedagogical meaning and significance, that in matters of raising and teaching other categories of children she held different views. A study of her pedagogical heritage gives no reason to accuse her of pedagogical classicism. The only exception is her belief in the need to respect the class principle in educational policy. But this does not apply to the methodological aspects of her pedagogical views.
As a precondition for organizing the educational process, Ekaterina considers it necessary to keep in mind three fundamentally important points:
1) education must be organized so that it covers all aspects of a person, that is, the directions of educational work must concern all aspects of the individual (moral, civil, mental, physical education);
2) the level of education must be correlated with “depending on... to whom it is given”;
3) the organization of education should be based on taking into account the age characteristics of the pupils.
The first of these provisions was discussed in the previous paragraph in connection with the analysis of the views of Catherine II on the content of education and training. The second carries the idea that education should not be the same for representatives of different classes.
The generally progressive nature of the pedagogical views of the Russian Empress, which were based on the ideals of the Enlightenment, objectively came into conflict with the realities of Russian reality. This was especially clearly manifested in a question that had acute social implications. In the 18th century, class and the associated inequality of subjects of the Russian Empire, depending on their origin, formed the basis of the social system and state policy. Catherine II could not help but take this into account. Moreover, she accepted these regulations and extended them to the field of education. This is evidenced by her statement: “...we think that every good education should be established, depending on the one to whom it is given.”
In matters of organizing the learning process, Catherine II assigns an important role to the equipment of the classroom, the child’s work and rest schedule. The duration of each type of lesson was determined by her within half an hour, and subject to the goodwill and desire of the pupils themselves for these classes. In the article “On Education,” she repeatedly mentions that “children, alternating physical exercises with mental exercises, will spend time pleasantly, deserving, in addition, praise.”
The question of the educator occupies a special place in the pedagogical works of Catherine II. It is up to the teacher to establish such relationships with the student that will contribute to the success of education and training. The role of the bailiff was not limited by Catherine II to performing the functions of a source of information. Much attention was paid to character value orientations. Catherine II noted as necessary requirements the ability of the supervisor to establish relationships with students, the ability to develop the right approach to students, based on their personal characteristics and relationships with them: pedagogical tact, knowledge of the psychological characteristics of students. In “Instructions for supervisors regarding their behavior with pupils”, in the “Instructions”, Catherine names the personality qualities that educators should have: caution, abstinence, moderation, tender love for children, common sense, courtesy, good will. Their responsibilities are to set an example for their students by their behavior.
Officers who did not meet these requirements were mercilessly removed. In relation to pupils, supervisors must show tolerance, moderation, courtesy, love, and good will. According to Catherine II, without love, trust and respect for children, the correct and fruitful influence of educators on children is impossible. You can not pay special attention to children's pranks and mistakes that are characteristic of age and do not have strong stereotypes of behavior. But firmness of will, based on justice, is necessary if the situation requires the intervention of a teacher. Educators must recognize the interests and inclinations of students and act in accordance with these observations.
According to Catherine II, there should be no confrontation in the relationship between educators and students; moreover, the guidance and management of children’s actions by educators should, if possible, go unnoticed by children. This is possible when their relationship is built on mutual respect, trust in each other, and pedagogical tact.
Thus, having considered the views of Catherine II on the issues of methods of education and training, we can make the following conclusions. Catherine II, quite in the spirit of the Enlightenment, recommended the use of soft, non-violent methods and techniques in education and training. She believed that it was in this way that a new person could be raised, devoid of the shortcomings of the old era. The requirements for the educator that she formed highlight provisions that essentially define the concept of “pedagogical tact,” which did not exist previously in pedagogy. It is also important that Catherine II recognized that parents had not only rights to their children, but also responsibilities for their upbringing. She adhered to the concept of early education and consistency in teaching, and emphasized the importance of taking into account the age characteristics of children.
So, having examined the sources of formation and the essence of the pedagogical views of Catherine II, we came to the conclusion that, at their core, these views went back to the teachings of European teachers and enlighteners of the 18th century and previous times. However, almost all of these ideas were creatively rethought, adapted and transformed by Catherine II on Russian soil, which is her main merit to Russian pedagogy. The pedagogical views of Catherine II had a pronounced social orientation and were an important tool in her social policy. The Empress sought to lead and direct the development of new processes in Russian society, and for these purposes she was largely guided by her pedagogical views.
On issues of the content of education and training, Catherine II had her own original views. Central to the pedagogical views of Catherine II were the ideas about the primacy of the moral principle in man and the need to subordinate the entire process of education to this, the importance of civil and patriotic education in the formation of a “new man”.
Catherine II's understanding of true citizenship is in many ways modern and relevant. Catherine II knew the value of knowledge, and more than once pointed out the importance and significance of education, both for a specific individual and for society as a whole.
On questions of methods of education and training, Catherine II also had original views related to her social objectives formation of a “new man”. To get rid of the shortcomings of the previous era, new personality had to be “grown” by soft, non-violent methods. Educational influences and training on the part of educators and teachers must be complemented by intensive self-education throughout a person’s life. Catherine II’s call for parents to be responsible to the state and society for raising their children is important. This marked a departure from the typical Russian “domostroevsky” tradition.
2.3. Organization of primary (public) education in Russia
The reign of Catherine II is called the era of “enlightened absolutism.” The meaning of “enlightened absolutism” is the policy of following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in carrying out reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions (and sometimes took a step towards bourgeois development) .
The idea of a state with an enlightened monarch capable of transforming social life on new, reasonable principles, became widespread in the 18th century. TO important results The activities of the government of “enlightened absolutism” include the measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education. Since Peter I, education in Russia has been of a practical nature - the acquisition of knowledge for the needs of active service to the state and directly for application in life and everyday life. Throughout her reign, Catherine II showed a passionate interest in education, firmly believing that it could transform human nature.
The enlightenment of the people always poses some danger to autocratic power. It liberates the will and mind of people, strengthens their faith in their own strength. Catherine II apparently understood this, but was not afraid of it, but, on the contrary, tried in every possible way to speed up this process. This idea was clearly expressed by her in one of the empress’s letters: “I will never be forced to fear enlightened peoples, but someday the peoples will be enlightened?” The ending of the quoted statement is especially significant. It contains both regret that it is impossible to quickly achieve the results of enlightenment, and at the same time, a passionate desire to speed up this process if possible.
When she came to power, primary schools - where they existed - were run mainly by parish priests.
In cities, simple churchmen sometimes took on disciples or ran boarding houses as best they could. Sometimes merchant wives or retired non-commissioned officers did the same. It happened that landowners opened schools on their estates. In some palace estates there were also primary schools, where peasants were taught literacy and basic management skills on estates. Traditional literacy training for the Russian people was initially still associated with home schooling. Small informal schools have been common in peasant villages for many centuries. Children often learned at home, from their fathers and relatives.
Catherine II in her “Instructions” was the first to talk about the educational significance of education and began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions. In order to educate Russian society, Catherine considered the best way to “first produce, so to speak, a new breed or new fathers and mothers,” morally perfect, by means of education. This “breed of people” had to grow up in educational schools under the supervision of experienced teachers, in complete separation from family and society.
The plans were implemented extremely slowly, the school network was poorly funded and practically did not develop.
Thus, Catherine II, carried away by the desire to enlighten the people, conceived a whole system of public education, which was supposed to not only teach, but also educate. The transfer of education from family to school was associated with a change in the pedagogical ideal. The evangelical ideal, when the Church traditionally took care of orphans and abandoned children, was replaced by the humanistic ideal that emerged in Europe during the Renaissance. The idea of making citizens useful for the state out of the expected children, and in accordance with the requirements of this state and under its control, an idea undoubtedly rationalistic in spirit, could only arise in an era favorable to it, in the era of Enlightenment, which came in Russia at period of the reign of Catherine II.
The talk was about the education of virtues, through the education and development of natural, natural inclinations of a person. And the method of such upbringing consisted in the desire to protect the child from all influences environment, so educational institutions were planned closed type. Such an educational school was, first of all, the educational home in Moscow of I. I. Betsky, whichin all its pedagogical plans and plans was influenced by Western writers and teachers. And after much thought, he came to the idea of transferring their views to Russian soil:to create a special world out of young children, removing from them all influence of family and society, raising them according to known rules, forming, so to speak, a new breed of fathers and mothers. The most important of Betsky’s affairs was the establishment of educational homes in Moscow and St. Petersburg, for whose benefit he himself made huge donations.
The rules of the House stated that “all those raised in this house of both sexes, and their children and descendants will remain free. Betskoy himself carefully ensured that children transferred to be raised in villages did not fall into serfdom. Education at the Moscow Orphanage was financed by members of the imperial family and nobles.The house brought profit from taverns, forges, mills that were rented out, as well as private houses located on its territory, breweries, taverns, baths, transportation and a pier on the Moscow River. The House's income included more than just money. For example, the House was given a wonderful history cabinet; From the storerooms of the Kremlin Palace and the Academy of Arts, paintings, sculptures, icons, and books were transferred to the museum and library of the Orphanage.
For children raised in peasant families, the House organized literacy and arithmetic training. If they fell ill, they were sent to hospitals at home for treatment. Only childless state peasants were allowed to adopt children if they had a certificate of good behavior and could keep a pet. The condition was stipulated in advance that if natural children appeared in the family, the adopted child should have equal rights with them.
Children returned from the villages to the House for training in crafts, from the age of eight, were sent to be raised by the best craftsmen - boys at sixteen, and girls at twelve. Students became gardeners, foresters, and paramedics. Those who received technical specialties worked in the capital's factories.
When the educational House was founded in Moscow in 1763, it was given stone buildings left after the fire of the former imperial Slobodsky Palace in Moscow. Later they were rebuilt and placed there vocational school with a six-year period of study, where various subjects were taught, in particular algebra, trigonometry, practical mechanics, physics, chemistry and drawing. After completing all training and three years of practice, graduates of the educational house received certificates of learned masters, masters or apprentices. Betsky's educational home in Moscow subsequently had a huge impact on the development various industries Russian industry.
In addition to the pupils of the House, who became peasants and masters of enterprises, a group of children who had great abilities in the sciences and arts stood out. After studying at the House, they became home teachers, accountants or clerks. The most capable children entered universities or the Medical-Surgical Academy to continue their education.
In the House itself, institutes for men and women were established for the upbringing and education of orphans of officials and military personnel. Later, the men's institute was transformed into the Orphan Cadet Corps, and the women's institute into the Aleksandrovsky. Later, the Alexander Corps was transformed into the Nikolaev Orphan Institute. Home tutors were trained here. Graduates received diplomas from Moscow University, as well as home teachers with the right to teach the basics of sciences, languages, arts and teaching at the gymnasium. Graduates of the educational home who began to work continued to receive benefits from it for another six years. The foster home guaranteed its pets care and support throughout their lives. Having lost their job, fallen ill or found themselves on the verge of a lonely old age, former pupils had the right to return to the House, be supported there and have a separate room.
Among the educational institutions created by Betsky, one was of particular importance in the history of Russian school and education - the Society of Noble Maidens (Smolny Monastery, or Smolny Institute). It marked the beginning of female secondary education in Russia. The pupils were divided into four ages: 6-9, 9-12, 12-15, 15-18 years. Dresses of their own color corresponded to each age:brown, blue, grayish and white. Admission to first grade was carried out every three years. The curriculum included Russian, foreign languages, arithmetic, geography, history, poetry, heraldry, architecture, drawing, music and dancing. The girls were also given some knowledge in the field of home economics.
However, the educational and educational institutions created according to Betsky’s project covered too few children. But alsothe people, however, did not accept the state’s new educational policy, which provided for “the complete elimination of the clergy from the religious and moral education of the people.” Therefore, children more willingly went to the sexton and sexton schools to study, whereas in the public school it was necessary to resort to the assistance of the police in order to collect the children who were scattering from it.
In Catherine’s “Instructions,” issues of public education are touched upon very briefly. The document simply states that it is necessary and expresses some general principles of pedagogy, but not the organization of the education system itself. Catherine recognized that the state was not able to provide general education to a large population in houses specially established for this purpose.
2.4. The first experience of creating a primary education system in Russia, unlimited by class barriers
The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational reforms can be considered the first experience of creating in Russia a system of general primary education, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about creating an all-Russian educational school system.But one of the “private” commissions of the Statutory Commission was given the task of developing a plan for the public education system. Catherine sent special instructions to the members of this “Private Commission on Schools and Charities Demanding”, in which she indicated that, since home education entrusted to the attention of another “private” commission, their task is to deal with the system of organizing primary, secondary and higher education, designed to prepare children for the responsibilities of future members of society. The instructions provided for the opening of primary schools in cities and villages, which would provide elementary education, and in particular, teach children to read and write “alternately from church books and from those books that contain legislation.”
First of all, the “Private Commission on Schools” was instructed to combine and compare everything related to education in deputy orders from various classes and institutions. There were few such references, but where they were, a gloomy picture of the state of affairs with education in the province emerged from the pages of the orders. Many orders sounded a warning: the nobles would not be able to serve the state if it did not take care of their education. The nobility complained that the illiterate children of poor nobles, unable to pay for the education of their sons in the capital's schools, were forced to enroll in the army as ordinary soldiers. The townspeople also complained about the lack of schools, but it seems they were not so sure that it was the state that should establish them. Less was said about education for peasants, although several local government institutions, several nobles, a bishop and some peasant deputies proposed opening parish schools for peasant children aged 5-12 at least for the winter. The "private" commission began work in May 1768 and addressed, for example, English universities, the Prussian public education system and the "Irish schools". She also studied various projects of the first Catherine's commission on education. However, by the time the work of this subcommittee finally died down in 1771, it had not drawn up any document suitable for presentation to the empress as a completed project. But if for ten years the search for a model of an educational system did not bear fruit, then Catherine made some progress in developing the principles of education, and also established several educational institutions and reorganized others where these principles could be applied in practice.
In the second half of the 18th century, two trends in education can be traced: the expansion of the network of educational institutions and the strengthening of the principle of class.From the point of view of class concepts and interests of the second half of the 18th century, each class should have had a certain range of general education associated with certain professional elements, in accordance with the material interests of a given class: the education of the peasantry should not have gone beyond the narrow framework of elementary education; The philistines and commoners were given predominantly lower and secondary education, but access to higher education in some of its branches was not closed.
Consequently, the system of class education did not imply the absolute isolation of the nobility, philistinism and peasantry. But all classes were, as it were, distributed into separate levels of a single general education. The lower levels were recognized as equally accessible to all classes; at the middle levels there was no longer a place for the peasantry; at the higher levels, the dominant position belonged only to the nobility.
The idea of creating a system of estate schools, which belonged to G.N. Teplov, was to divide all educational institutions into “schools for learned people", military schools, civilian schools, merchant schools, "lower schools" and "schools for non-believers".
As for the organization of education in the village, the commission proposed introducing compulsory education for the entire male population from 8 to 12 years of age. The training must take place for 8 months a year according to a specially compiled manual. The church and civil alphabet, some prayers, a short catechism and a statement of the duties of peasants were recommended for study. At the request of their parents, girls could also study at school.
Deacons and sextons were appointed as teachers, and secular teachers were also allowed. Supervision over the activities of schools was entrusted to priests, and the main administration was provided to the bishop together with the governor, and locally - to nobles chosen by the district nobility. In every village and large villages a school must be built in such a way that there is one school for every 100-250 families. The construction of school houses and the maintenance of the school were the responsibility of the parishioners.
Lower city schools should have been organized in approximately the same way. It also provided for compulsory education for girls. Boys should learn to read and write, and girls only reading. For cities that did not have secondary schools, it was found necessary to establish arithmetic schools. As for the infidels, the commission found it necessary to establish special schools for settled infidels, in which teaching would be conducted in a special way, taking into account their customs and beliefs, and where the teachers would be exclusively their fellow tribesmen. The projects of the school commission remained unfulfilled.
Apparently they did not satisfy Catherine II since none of the projects were implemented.
The proposed system clearly reflected the tendency towards the development of heterogeneity in the educational ideal of a person, characteristic of Russia after Peter’s reforms. For all classes, educational goals were determined in accordance with their social purpose and position.
In terms of school education, the Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as the basis. It was supposed to establish three types of secondary schools - small, medium and main.
In fact, in lower schools - schools organized by secular authorities and the church in parishes, in practice it was envisaged to implement the previous patriarchal-Orthodox approach: “The book according to which agricultural children are obliged to study in parish schools should contain only such teaching that did the villagers would be knowledgeable in the Christian law, virtuous and hardworking. Consequently, it should contain the following parts: 1) the Russian alphabet with the warehouses of church and civil seals, moreover, calculation in letters and numbers; 2) short morning and evening prayers and prayers before dinner; catechism; 4) Christian virtues, consisting of being subjects of the sovereign, unquestioning obedience to state instructions, honoring and obedience to one’s masters and others established authorities and in office towards oneself and one’s neighbor.”
In 1775, reform activities began. By decree of November 7, Empress Catherine II approves “Institutions for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire,” where Article 384 first defines the status of public schools: “In the context of public schools, the Order of Public Charity has the duty to try to ensure that these are established in the first place. In all cities, and then in those populous villages that are under the jurisdiction of the Verkhnyaya Rasprava, for all those who voluntarily wish to study in them (in which, however, do not force anyone, but leave it to the will of the parents to send their children to school, or leave them at home ); 2. So that the poor can study without paying, and the haves for a reasonable fee; 3. Teaching in public schools primarily consists of teaching youth literacy, drawing, writing, arithmetic, while teaching children of the Greco-Russian confession the catechism, to learn the foundations of the Orthodox faith, the interpretation of the Ten Commandments of God, to inculcate universal moral teaching;.4. in every school there must be supervision so that the upper rooms are clean and swept out every day, and the air in them is changed by opening the windows all day in the summer, and in the winter every day for a short time, so that the children do not suffer damage to their health from the stuffiness in the upper rooms. The teaching should be done every day, excluding Sundays and time days, but no more than two hours in a row in the morning, and two hours in a row after lunch for some children, only science, but on Wednesdays and Saturdays after lunch, rest is given. 6. Teachers are prohibited from corporal punishment. 7. The Order of Public Charity has diligent care so that teachers and schools everywhere receive everything required regularly, and, upon consideration of complaints, replaces careless and faulty teachers and appoints them to be diligent and efficient.”
Thus, it should be noted that public schools are the subject of the jurisdiction of a secular authority, the Order of Public Charity. A new trend in pedagogy is emerging, which is characterized by an individual attitude towards each child, his uniqueness, the desire for the comprehensive development of a person in an atmosphere of respect, self-esteem, and courtesy.
The formation of a new system of educational institutions was based on the Austrian model. This charter, approved on December 6, 1775, set out the foundations of the new system. Public schools were divided into elementary and secondary, in which, in addition to the primary subjects, they taught Latin language, drawing, land surveying, foundations of agriculture, geography, history. A new method of teaching was introduced in all schools: simultaneous classes with all students in the class and catechesis; Some disgraceful and harmful punishments were expelled from disciplinary rules. Private education had to conform to the method adopted in government schools. “Home” teachers were obliged to take an exam at a teacher’s seminary or main school. Each school was governed by its own trustee or overseer, and several schools by a chief trustee. The main administration of primary public education was concentrated in Vienna in the institution at which the main teachers' seminary was located.
In 1782, Catherine appointed the “Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools” headed by Senator P.V. Zavadovsky. In the same year, the Commission proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the “Charter of Public Schools of the Russian Empire” (1786). Primary or public schools have as their task the communication of the basic initial knowledge necessary for everyone, as a person and a member of the community. Such schools are called “popular” because they mean meeting the needs of the people. It was argued that education should begin from childhood. In April 1782, Article 83 of the Charter of the Deanery ordered the city authorities in each part of the city to have a “monetary public school.” Public schools were provided for children of both sexes, but the majority of students - over 90% - were boys.
The small number of students in public schools was explained by traditions, according to which for women - future mothers and housewives - education seemed an unnecessary luxury. However, it was at the end of the 18th century that these stereotypes began to be broken.
A prominent figure in the Russian state pedagogy Fyodor Ivanovich Yankovic de Marievo (1741 -1814), who worked in Russia in the field of public education for more than 20 years.
The commission was instructed to: compile educational books, create a plan for public schools and their structure, establish schools throughout the empire, starting with the St. Petersburg province, and train capable teachers. According to the curriculum developed by Yankovic and adopted by the commission, all public schools were divided into 3 categories: small, with 2 classes, medium, with 3 classes, and main, with 4 classes and 5 years of study. In small schools it was supposed to teach the Law of God, reading, writing, rudiments of grammar, drawing, arithmetic and read the book: “On the duties of man and citizen.” In secondary schools, the first 2 classes constituted a small school, and in the third they taught: a lengthy catechism, sacred history, Christian moral teaching, explanation of the Gospel, arithmetic, grammar, general Russian history and brief geography. In the main schools, geometry, architecture, mechanics, physics, natural history and German. The main theoretical foundations were set out in the “Manual for teachers of the first and second grades of public schools of the Russian Empire” (1783). The manual was compiled according to the Austrian model and contained the following recommendations: it is necessary to teach everyone collectively, that is, everyone together at the same time, the same thing. To do this, students need to be divided into classes and taught not each one separately, but the whole class. When a student reads or answers, the whole class follows him. Everyone should have the same books. Combined instruction and reading reformed schooling. Previously, each student studied on his own, he was given special tasks, each had different books. Now the teacher learned the lesson with the class, read himself and the students read, wrote on the board, and the students wrote, and when answering, the class carefully followed the answer. Methods were developed for teaching arithmetic, which should be studied only after mastering reading. It was recommended that the teacher solve an example problem on the board himself, then the best student solves the problem at the board, then all the students solve the problem. A teacher must have a number of virtues: to be peace-loving, to be decent, to have constant cheerfulness of spirit and body, to be patient and attentive, to be fair. Physical punishment prohibited, punishments in the form of deprivation of pleasant things are allowed. A new trend in pedagogy is emerging, which is characterized by an individual attitude towards each child, his uniqueness, the desire for the comprehensive development of a person in an atmosphere of respect, self-esteem, and courtesy.
But this system was used to a limited extent, since there was no teaching staff. The training of teaching staff was entrusted to the main schools. The teachers' seminary trained a total of 420 teachers who worked in various educational institutions. Often they were poorly prepared and, as a result, invited foreigners. Unfortunately, foreigners influenced not only the introduction of scientific knowledge accumulated in Europe, but also the spiritual life of Russians. Their impact on the cultural development of Russia has become negative character.
2.5. Expansion of public schools
During the reign of Catherine II, especially since the formation of the “Commission on the Establishment of Public Schools” in 1782, many cities were provided with schools. The so-called main four-year public schools were created in provincial cities, and small two-year schools were created in district cities. In villages, it was only in the first half of this century that public schools began to be established, and primarily in the villages of state peasants, through the efforts of the Ministry of State Property.
In the Manifesto on the Granting of Liberty Russian nobility Catherine II wrote about the state's hopes for spreading education among the younger generation of the nobility.
The commission studied the state of affairs in estate schools and came to the need for reforms. In addition to noblewomen, the first women’s educational institution in Russia began to admit “philistine girls.”
A gymnasium and a Noble boarding school were opened for male noble children. The most talented graduates of the Corps of Pages were sent to continue their studies abroad. But Catherine II became disillusioned with this practice: students of the prestigious corps were recruited abroad for freedom-loving Western ideas.
The result of the Commission’s work in relation to privileged class schools was a number of proposals for the organization educational process. These recommendations formed the basis of the principles of training in educational institutions in Russia. Firstly, in accordance with pan-European experience, it was proposed to overcome multidisciplinary educational programs. Secondly, teachers were given guidelines combine lecture forms of work with surveys of students in order to determine the quality of studying the material. Thirdly, they approved more or less permanent curricula by year of study, and introduced a system of general and private examinations. Finally, lesson schedules appeared in educational institutions, the duration of the lesson was clearly defined in accordance with age psychological characteristics students.
It was at the end of the 18th century that a fairly harmonious structure of schools of an all-class national character arose. In addition to these schools, educational institutions of an elite nature, varied in form and purpose, were opened, which made it possible to implement intellectual needs and social needs of representatives of the nobility. The presence of such schools increased interest in education, the receipt of which became prestigious. Public schools were subordinate to the Government Senate, and P.V. Zavadovsky was appointed their chief director. The general management of public education in the provinces was entrusted to the Orders of Public Charity; direct management of the issues of disseminating education and opening schools in the provinces was entrusted to the directors of public schools. Directors had to monitor the selection of personnel and regularly visit district schools - each at least once a year. In district towns, caretakers were elected to supervise schools. Schools were to be supported by local funds from city societies, interest on the capital of Public Charity Orders and other non-state sources of income. Almost complete absence own scientific and teaching staff objectively forced Russia to use foreign specialists. Unfortunately, foreigners influenced not only the introduction of scientific knowledge accumulated in Europe, but also the spiritual life of Russians. Their impact on the cultural development of Russia became negative. In the organization of general education institutions, advanced foreign experience was used, but not copied, but flexibly adapted. Gradually, an attitude towards education as the most important tool for educating the younger generation was formed. All educational institutions, in addition to general educational tasks, were obliged to solve the problems of instilling patriotism in the spirit of devotion to the Sovereign and service to the Fatherland.
Thus, the success of the reform was undoubted. If in 1782 there were only 8 public schools in the country, with 518 students, then at the end of the century there were 288 schools, with 22,220 students. The main public schools, opened in 25 provincial cities, small schools, along with estate schools, a university and gymnasiums, formed the education system in Russia at the end of the 18th century. In total, there were 550 educational institutions in the country with a student population of 60-70 thousand.
Already in 1786, according to the Charter of public schools adopted on August 5, 1786, the main four-year schools with a five-year course of study began to be created in each provincial city. They were similar in type to a secondary school; in district towns they were small two-grade schools. The director was one of the authors of the project for the public school system, teacher F.I. Yankovic de Mirievo.
The charter spelled out rules for students of public schools, guidelines for teachers of the first and second category of public schools of the Russian Empire.
About the classes of the main public schools.
1. In each provincial city there should have been one main four-year public school, where young men should study the following academic subjects:
2. In the first grade, teach reading, writing, the original foundations of the Christian law and good morals. Starting with the knowledge of letters, teach to add and then read the primer, rules for students, the abbreviated catechism and sacred history. Those learning to read in this way, at the beginning of the second half of the first year, are forced to write from copybooks, pronounce and write numbers, church and Roman numerals, and, moreover, teach them the initial rules of grammar contained in the table on the knowledge of letters, which is in the book entitled: “Guide to teachers Classes I and II."
3. The books by which youth should be taught the above-mentioned subjects of this class are the following, published by order of E. I. c.: 1) an alphabet table, 2) a table for warehouses, 3) a Russian primer, 4) rules for students, 5) an abbreviated catechism, 6) sacred history, 7) copybooks and 8) a guide to penmanship.
4. In the second grade, or grade, observing the same subjects of Christian law and good morals, begin to read a lengthy catechism without evidence from the Holy Scriptures, a book about the duties of man and citizen, and the first part of arithmetic; repeat the sacred story, continue penmanship and teaching grammatical rules. In this regard, we also begin to teach drawing to young people.
5. The books from which young people are taught in this class are the following, published by the highest command of Catherine II: 1) a lengthy catechism, 2) sacred history, 3) a book about the duties of a person and a citizen, 4) a guide to penmanship, 5) copybooks and 6) the first part of arithmetic.
6. In the third grade, one should continue the art of drawing, reading explanations of the Gospels, repeating a lengthy catechism with proof of the Holy Scriptures, teaching the second part of arithmetic and the first part of universal history, introduction to universal European geography, and then begins a land description of the Russian state and Russian grammar with spelling exercises.
7. The books from which to teach in this category are the following, published by the highest command of Catherine II: 1) a lengthy catechism, 2) explanations of the gospels, 3) the second part of arithmetic, 4) the first part of universal history, 5) general and Russian geography states, 6) general drawings of the globe, Europe, Asia, Africa, America and the Russian state, 7) globe or globe, 8) Russian grammar.
8. In the IV category, repeat Russian geography, continue drawing, general history, Russian grammar, while training the youth in written common essays in the hostel, such as letters, bills, receipts and the like. Teach Russian history, general geography and mathematics with problems on the globe; also the foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture; Considering from the mathematical sciences in the first year geometry and architecture, and in the second - mechanics and physics with the continuation of architecture.
9. The books that young people should be taught in this class are the following, published by the highest command of Catherine II, such as: 1) Russian grammar, 2) Russian geography, 3) universal geography, which contains an introduction to the mathematical knowledge of the globe , 4) Russian history, 5) general history, second part, 6) general drawings of the globe, Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Russia, 7) globe or globe, 8) geometry, 9) architecture, 10) mechanics, 11 ) physics, 12) outline of natural history.
For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced in schools, and teaching methods were developed. Continuity in education was achieved by the commonality of the curricula of small schools and the first two classes of main schools.
The small public school was supposed to teach the same subjects as in the 1st and 2nd grades of the main public school (with the exception of foreign languages).
Attention was also paid to the attitude of teachers towards teaching. In particular, it was indicated “... an order from public charity to have diligent care, so that teachers and schools everywhere receive everything they need regularly, and careless and faulty teachers, upon consideration of complaints, are replaced and replaced by their good and serviceable ones...”.
The main public school was supposed to have 6 teachers, and the small one - 2 teachers. Teachers had to try their best to ensure that students understood their subject; use the books specified in the charter; set an example of courtesy, good manners, friendliness, and piety by your behavior; help each other with deeds, advice; showed due respect to each other in front of the students. The directors of public schools were chosen and appointed by the governor general. The director had to love science, order, and know the value of education. He sat on the Order of Public Charity on matters relating to schools. The director observed that those working in the school knew the way of teaching and learning, especially in grades 1 and 2. The director must inspect public schools in the provincial city once a week, and district schools once a year. In district schools, a superintendent was elected from among the citizens of the city. All public and home schools depended on the Main Government of Schools in the Russian Empire, which was directly under the authority of Her Imperial Majesty and reported on the affairs of the schools to the Empress herself.
The introductory part of the Charter of Public Schools justified the role of education as “the main support of the general state welfare.” The state treasury annually spent from 600 to 800 thousand rubles on “support”, which amounted to only 1.3–1.6% of the empire’s total expenses; each student cost the budget 38–48 rubles.
Public schools were provided for children of both sexes, but the majority were boys. However, by the middle of the next century the situation with female education had changed, especially in cities. During the same period, another tradition began to collapse: in small and main public schools, along with the children of the free classes, children of serfs were educated. According to A. N. Ryzhov, the share of serfs in public schools was about 50%, and in some regions, for example in the Moscow province - 70%.
Peasant children also studied in parish schools, and on the initiative of some enlightened landowners, special primary schools were created,
schools for the education of children of serfs and courtyard people.
Having emerged in the era of Catherine, the idea of classless education was not accepted by various categories of Russian society. Most likely, this was impossible under the conditions of the formation and development of class self-government in 1785.
So, public schools, which began to be created in the provinces from 1786, differed from traditional forms of education not only in the range of subjects, but also in the possibility of simultaneous, fast and high-quality training large groups students on the basis of the class-lesson system, first introduced into Russian pedagogical practice. This required efforts and expenses on the part of the state not only for preparation professional teachers, but also to create unified textbooks and teaching aids.
Gradually, an attitude towards education as the most important tool for educating the younger generation was formed.
All educational institutions, in addition to general educational tasks, were obliged to solve the problems of instilling patriotism in the spirit of devotion to the Sovereign and service to the Fatherland.
Conclusion
Based on the work carried out, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Among the main factors determining the social and morally oriented orientation is the desire of Catherine II to educate the nation that she was supposed to govern. Catherine II knew that it would take a long time to wait for results, but she hoped that they would come.
2. Analysis of pedagogical works, reforms, laws, acts adopted during the reign of Catherine II were aimed at creating a “new breed of people.” The main goal is to educate a spiritual and moral personality who knows how to apply the acquired knowledge in life. Particular attention had to be paid to the individual abilities of children in order to further continue the development of these abilities.
3. At the proposal of the Commission on the establishment of public schools, the Russian Empire adopted a law providing all the people of the country, including serfs, with the entire spectrum of education: from primary to higher education. Education was supposed to be classless and free.
4. Problems, organization of primary educationwere associated with funding, the mentality of parents, the lack of teaching staff, and the reluctance of children to study.
The hypothesis of my work was basically confirmed. It can be argued that Catherine’s pedagogical viewsII on the problems of organizing primary education had a social orientation, were morally oriented, imbued with the idea of priority of upbringing over training, which is still relevant today.
Conclusion
Thus, in this work, the views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary (public) education in Russia were studied.
Such schools are called “popular” because they mean meeting the needs of the people.The primary school acquired a truly mass national character and became the basis for the spread of not only literacy, but also the gradual involvement of various segments of the population in the civil, sociocultural and political life.
The school reform of 1780 was the first attempt to create a state system of public education. The new school was based on the principles of universal class and free education.
Educational reform has generally achieved its goals. Local reasons interfered, such as distrust of the population or even an aggressively negative attitude of the population towards the government’s attempt to provide education to their children in a centralized, compulsory manner. The reason for the major failures of the reform was the lack of funds in the provinces. Public contribution to the development of the public education system was uneven and largely depended on the position of local governors.
However, subsequently the funding of the school was entrusted entirely to the city society. Fees were collected from wealthy parents, which were to be used to educate the “poor”, and “poor” petty-bourgeois children were to study for free. In addition, an additional amount for school needs was allocated from city revenues. The school kept receipt and expenditure books, which were regularly checked and then had to be stored in its archive.
Society did not extend its concern to the education of serf children, but cared about the education of girls. Many nobles did not want to send their children to public schools, where everyone studied, without division into classes. This served as an incentive for the development of private education; More and more private boarding houses opened in Russia.
If the nobility and the most enlightened part of the city residents made quite generous donations to schools, the majority of the merchants and philistines considered teaching classical languages and literature completely useless. The main motive for the reluctance to teach their children was that the townspeople did not fully understand practical value public education. There was an acute shortage of trained teachers and officials.
By the end of the 18th century, historical conditions for the formation of a state system of public education as a phenomenon of world culture with pronounced features of national identity had developed in Russia.
Attempts were made in the field of education of non-Russian peoples. In the mid-1980s, Catherine II ordered the creation of dictionaries of small Russian ethnic groups. These plans were not fully implemented, but were aimed at strengthening a single autocratic, centralized state on a multinational basis, taking into account the diversity of religious conditions in different regions.
Being an empress, the ruler of a huge state, Catherine could not help but correlate her pedagogical views with the needs and requirements of the state. Therefore, her pedagogical views, unlike those of practical teachers, were directly continued in state educational policy.
Thus, the goal of our work has been achieved, the problems have been solved, and the conditions put forward in the hypothesis have been confirmed.
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Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II
Zemlyannaya Tatyana Borisovna,
INIM RAO, zemlyanaya@
Pavlycheva Olga Nikolaevna,
INIM RAO, olganik78@
annotation
The article examines the main trends in educational policy during the reign of Catherine II, including the creation of a system of closed educational institutions of a class nature. Based on the study of historical documents, an analysis of state policy in the field of education and enlightenment was carried out.
The article is intended for lawyers, historians, as well as anyone involved in the study and preparation of scientific literature on the history of education.
Keywords: education, school, upbringing, state policy in the field of education, training, literacy, enlightenment, library, college, book, textbook, secular school, spiritual education, class education, gymnasium, Betsky system.
Abstract
The basic tendencies of the educational policy of times of board of Catherine II, including creation of system of the closed teaching and educational establishments of character class are considered in the article. The state policy analysis in the spheres of education and enlightenment is carried out on the basis of studying of the historical documents.
The article is meant for lawyers, historians, and also on all who are engaged in studying and preparation of the scientific literature on history of education.
Keywords: education, school, upbringing, the state policy in the spheres of education, training, literacy, enlightenment, library, school, book, textbook, secular school, spiritual formation, class formation, grammar school, Betsky’s system.
The reign of Catherine II, as well as the time of Peter I, brought with it new trends in the broad formulation of the problem of public education and new means for solving it: during this period, a number of new projects appeared to create an integral educational system, especially since Catherine II was interested in the best ways to educate Russia.
Catherine II, brought up on the ideas of the European Enlightenment, on the works of Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Locke, Montesquieu, Montaigne, thought a lot about enlightenment. In her correspondence with Voltaire, she repeatedly emphasized her desire to end ignorance and to contribute in every possible way to the development of education in her country. About Austrian system education, she asked for the opinions of Grimm, Dahlberg, Epinus 1.
In the 60s-70s. century, an attempt was made to create a system of educational institutions, the main goal of which was to educate a “new breed of people” - educated and virtuous.
The act that formed the basis for the formation of new legislation on education in the era of Catherine II was the General Institution for the Education of Youth of Both Sexes, approved by the Empress on March 12, 1764 (Report of the Academy of Arts, Chief Director, Lieutenant General I.I. Betsky, “On the Education of Youth of Both Sexes” ) 2 .
The essence of the Report represents the basic principles of the new education system. The Report points out the importance of education: “Rarely do great Sovereigns have extreme care for such matters, whose fruits are slow, and who, the greater the promise of benefit for the future and posterity, the more work and inexhaustible generosity they require... 3 Overcome the superstition of centuries, give to your people a new education and, so to speak, a new generation, is a matter coupled with incredible labor, and the direct benefits of these remain all for posterity. arts; but there will be little or nothing at all, nouns from the fruits collected "... "Analyzing the direct reasons for this, we cannot complain about Providence and the small Russian people ability for sciences and arts; but it can be undeniably proven that to achieve this, not only the straight paths were chosen, but what was completely lacking was not even thought of at all. but in many cases it is even more detrimental if someone from the tenderest years of his youth was not brought up in virtues, and they are not firmly rooted in his heart, but through his neglect and daily bad examples he gets used to extravagance, delicacy and disobedience. With such a deficiency, we can safely say that to expect direct success in the sciences and arts, and the third rank of people in the state, is to caress oneself in vain... The root of all evil and good is education; to achieve the latter with success and firm implementation is no other way than to choose direct and thorough means to achieve this. Adhering to this indisputable rule, the only remedy remains, that is: to first produce, by means of education, a new breed, so to speak, or new fathers and mothers, who could instill in their children the same direct and thorough upbringing rules in the hearts that they received. themselves, and from them the children would betray the packs to their children; and so following from generation to generation, into future centuries. There is no other way to fulfill this great intention than to establish educational schools for both sexes of children, who are admitted no older than in the fifth and sixth year... In these educational institutions, the first effort must be made to instill in the youth the fear of God, to strengthen the heart in commendable inclinations, and to accustom them to solid and proper rules, to arouse in them a desire for hard work, and to fear idleness as the source of all evil and error; teach them decent behavior in their deeds and conversations, courtesy, decency, condolences for the poor, unhappy and aversion from all insolence; teach them house-building in all its details, and how much useful there is in it; especially to instill in them their own inclination towards neatness and cleanliness, both in themselves and in those belonging to them, in a word, all those virtues and qualities that belong to a good education and by which in due time they can be direct citizens, useful to society members, and serve as its decoration” 4 .
There is no doubt that Betskoy, in all his pedagogical plans and plans, was influenced by Western writers and teachers, especially the school of philanthropists. And after much thought, he came to the idea of transferring their views to Russian soil: creating a special world out of young children, removing from them all influence of family and society, raising them according to well-known rules, forming, so to speak, a new breed of fathers and mothers. The most important of Betsky's affairs was the establishment of educational homes in Moscow and St. Petersburg, for whose benefit he himself made huge donations 5 .
Catherine II accepted the theory of education proposed by Betsky, and in her orders regarding education and upbringing in Russia she adhered to this theory.
However, Betsky's system, which promised a lot in theory, turned out to be of little use in practice for many reasons. “Children, at a very tender age, cut off from their families,” says A. Voronov, cannot develop in themselves the holy feelings of family love for their parents and their blood relatives, and become cold and dry at heart. Without any contact with society, they remain ignorant of all social conditions, and therefore acquire a view of their relationship to society that is often disastrous for themselves. Smart and loving educators, with whom he thought to replace Betskoy’s family, even with best qualities mind and heart and with complete love for children, it is still not the same as parents: their love, not flowing from blood relations, is cold and is not capable of warming the tender hearts of children” 6.
As S.V. rightly points out. Rozhdestvensky: the immediate circumstances, among which the General Institution of March 12, 1764 took shape, and its connection with the establishment of an orphanage have already partly determined the nature of the further movement of educational reform. “Now legislation is trying to approach this reform from a completely different angle than before in the first half of the 18th century. The question of the primary comprehensive school is now brought to the forefront, and the purpose of the school is not stated to be preparation professional worker, but in the education of a perfect person and citizen” 7.
The implementation of the General Institution involved a lot of legislative work, which was divided into two parts: Betsky was entrusted with creating two new schools at the Academy of Arts and the Smolny Monastery for noble girls, as well as drawing up detailed regulations and instructions for educational schools, which could be used in all provinces of the Russian Federation. Empire.
Betsky focused on fulfilling the first point, and already during the 1760s a number of new educational institutions arose, the charters of which were drawn up by Betsky.
Thus, an educational school was formed at the Academy of Arts, the management of which was entrusted to Betsky.
These separate, private experiments in educational reform followed in the following order: on May 5, 1764, the charter of the educational society of noble maidens appeared, on November 4 of the same year, the charter of the educational school at the Academy of Arts, on the model of which the educational department at the Academy of Sciences was established in 1765, 31 January 1765, the charter of the school at the Resurrection branch of the Academy of Sciences, January 31, 1765, the charter of the school at the Resurrection Novodevichy Convent for the education of bourgeois girls, September 11, 1766, the new charter of the Land Noble Corps, August 13, 1767, the 2nd and 3rd parts of the Moscow educational home. However, all of the listed schools, the structure of which was now subordinated to the new pedagogical principles, were only separate, private experiments in general educational reform, which should have been fully expressed in the widespread establishment of “educational schools” 8. All these institutions, in accordance with the General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth of March 12, 1764, had the goal of making their students first virtuous and then enlightened.
Subsequently, however, Betskoy was removed from the further implementation of this project for an unknown reason. Development detailed plan universal establishment of educational schools, initially entrusted to Betsky, was then transferred to other persons, and only certain charitable and educational institutions created by him remained under the care of Betsky.
Thus, the master plan was not implemented. As noted by S.V. Rozhdestvensky, “one can assume that the Empress postponed this or that decision on this issue before the development of the foundations of educational reform in the legislative commission, as part of which, in May 1768, it began to operate special commission about schools" 9.
Also worthy of attention is the plan for educational reform, developed in November 1764 single-handedly by Professor Philippe Dilthey - “Plan for the establishment of various schools for the dissemination of sciences and the correction of morals” 10.
The reform proposed by Dilley covered the entire system of public education and consisted of 4 parts: 1st - “On slave schools, as the first basis of good education”, 2nd on trivial schools, 3rd on gymnasiums and 4th - about universities. What is interesting about this project is, first of all, the slave schools – schools for serfs. Only two of them were supposed to be created: in Moscow and St. Petersburg, with a set of students of 100 people in each; in Moscow the school is led by the university, in St. Petersburg - by the Academy of Sciences.
The educational system itself, according to Dilthey’s plan, consists of schools of three levels: trivial schools, gymnasiums and universities. Trivial schools were supposed to be created with the aim of teaching elementary education, as well as “good living rules” to both nobles and merchants “and other children of low fortune.” Trivial schools prepare youth for gymnasiums, consisting of 4 classes, with a one-year course for each, and also open to youth of all conditions except serfs. Trivial schools and gymnasiums are administered by universities, or under the special patronage of governors. Dilthey proposed creating 21 trivial schools and 9 gymnasiums throughout Russia. Three universities were supposed to be created. As a basis internal structure Universities were asked to take the experience of organizing universities in Germany, which included 4 faculties: philosophy, law, medicine and theology, and only after completing a two-year course at the Faculty of Philosophy, access to special faculties was opened. This plan was also not accepted.
From the point of view of class concepts and interests of the second half of the 18th century. each estate should have had a certain range of general education associated with certain professional elements, in accordance with the material interests of a given estate: the education of the peasantry should not go beyond the narrow framework of elementary education; The philistines and commoners were given predominantly lower and secondary education, but access to higher education in some of its branches was not closed.
Consequently, the system of class education did not imply the absolute isolation of the nobility, philistinism and peasantry. But all classes were, as it were, distributed into separate levels of a single general education. The lower levels were recognized as equally accessible to all classes; at the middle levels there was no longer a place for the peasantry, at the higher levels the dominant position belonged to the nobility 11.
As noted in scientific literature, no later than 1767, Catherine II was presented with a detailed and motivated plan for “children’s educational academies” or “ state gymnasiums" However, neither in the text of the plan itself, nor in the two reports accompanying it, the names of the compilers were indicated. But on the wrapper in which this plan is stored in the St. Petersburg State Archive, as stated by S.V. Rozhdestvensky, there is an inscription stating that the plan was drawn up by Philip Dilthey, Gerard Miller, Timofey Klingstaet and Grigory Teplov 12.
It is also a known fact that in 1768, a private commission on schools, collecting various materials for its work, demanded from the Directorate Commission the delivery of a plan for state gymnasiums drawn up by Philip Dilthey, Gerard Miller, Timofey Klingshtet and Grigory Teplov. 13
The plan for educational academies or state gymnasiums was accompanied by two reports from the commission: a collective one on behalf of all members and an individual one, the author of which is unknown. “In the first report we read: Your Majesty “highly deigned to command us that we present to Your Imperial Majesty a plan for the establishment in all provinces and noble provinces of the Empire of such children's educational academies in which, with the training of sciences and arts from their very youth, children would be brought up in fear God and the teaching of His law, in the knowledge of direct virtues, such as: love of one’s neighbor, compassion for the needy, polite and honest behavior in society, mercy, hospitality, love of truth and aversion to all vices. ..." Another report indicated that the compilers of educational schools were guided by the instructions of the empress herself: “Your Imperial Majesty, the author of this report wrote, was not content to accept such a glorious intention and give his highest orders about it; but just as the first thought of this noble enterprise came from your own person, so you yourself deigned to give wise orders to the entire establishment of this matter” 14.
It should be noted that the formation of the new system of educational institutions was based on the Austrian model.
This system, which originated in Prussia, was strengthened and developed by the abbot of the Sagan Augustinian monastery in Silesia, Felbiger. Empress Maria Theresa, concerned about the establishment of public education in Austria, invited Filbiger to Vienna in 1774, appointed him director of the teachers' seminary and instructed him to draw up the Regulations on primary public education. These Regulations or Charter, approved on December 6, 1775, set out the foundations of the new system. Public schools were divided into elementary, secondary, in which, in addition to the primary subjects, Latin, drawing, land surveying, the principles of agriculture, geography, history and normal were taught, i.e. model schools or teachers' seminaries. A new method of teaching was introduced in all schools: simultaneous classes with all students in the class and catechesis; Some disgraceful and harmful punishments were expelled from disciplinary rules. Private education had to follow the method adopted in government schools: “home teachers were obliged to take an exam at a teacher’s seminary or main school. Each school was governed by its own trustee or overseer, and several schools by a chief trustee. In each province, an educational commission was established with the participation of the director of a normal school or teachers' seminary. The main administration of primary public education was concentrated in Vienna in an institution that housed the main teachers' seminary 15.
The state gymnasiums developed by the master plan were a rather original type of educational institutions that combined the tasks of lower, secondary and high school. Open to all Russian citizens, except serfs, gymnasiums accept students aged 5-6 years and graduate at 18 years of age. The gymnasium course consists of 3 classes, four years of study in each. The division into classes is based on the ranks and intentions of the students: 1) schools for learned people, 2) military, 3) civilian, 4) merchant. The course for the lower two classes is the same for schools of all four categories, and the courses for the senior, third class are specialized.
For the management of state gymnasiums, it was planned to create a special department headed by a protector or chief trustee, a “most noble person” awarded a special power of attorney supreme power and always having free access to the imperial throne. The immediate head of each gymnasium is the rector, a thoroughly learned and well-behaved person.
However, despite the fact that gymnasiums were intended for children of all classes, except for serfs, as S.V. writes. Rozhdestvensky, they couldn't serve educational needs masses of the population: in each provincial city it was planned to establish only one school from the four above categories, “depending on what rank of residents in the province is greater in number.” The comparative small number of state gymnasiums prompted the drafters of the master plan to “think a little about the simple and poorest middle-class children living in towns and towns, how to extract them from their rough ignorance and give them a way to learn as much as their nature deserves and needs.” For this purpose, it was planned to establish elementary “public schools for the common people” in all cities and towns, in which the children of all residents, “of whatever rank, not excluding servants and workers,” aged 6 to 14 years, would be required to study. The care of these schools was entrusted to local magistrates and the clergy, the latter also had to bear teaching duties.
These assumptions about elementary public education were developed in a project that complemented the master plan for gymnasiums “The most comprehensive presentation of the plan, how in all Russian cities and in towns to establish schools for the common people without any government spending and people's burdens" 16.
As the isolation of the clergy developed, as the author further notes, the isolation of the theological school also developed later during the reign of Paul I, therefore the spiritual authorities did not like it when students of theological schools sought to leave them for secular service. Meanwhile, during the reign of Catherine, when the government needed people to fill newly opened vacancies both in the civil service and in secular educational institutions, these calls became more frequent. After the opening of the governorship, a huge number of young people were needed to fill new government positions. The first candidates for new clerical positions were graduates of seminaries and academies. Then many students went to universities at the Academy of Sciences and Moscow. Since 1780, graduates of religious educational institutions began to be sent to teaching positions in public schools 17.
From the outside, the history of public education after Catherine II seems more or less prosperous: the number of schools of all types, the number of students and teachers is gradually increasing; the main public schools are being transformed into gymnasiums; their former encyclopedicism is gradually entering proper pedagogical shores; several universities and theological academies open; along with other ministries, the Ministry of Public Education is established with the division of Russia into educational districts and the creation local authorities education in view of the consciousness that “public education in the Russian Empire constitutes a special part of the state”; the charter of gymnasiums appears; a harmonious system of public education arose and existed for some time, unfortunately for a very short time (at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I), which included four successive levels: schools - parish (one class) and district (two classes), provincial gymnasium (four classes) and university. A parochial school was an elementary public school which every parish or two together was required to have; the district school was the property of the district towns and was an elementary school of a higher level than the village school, intended for townspeople; After the two schools there was a provincial gymnasium, corresponding to the senior classes of today's gymnasiums, and after the gymnasium there was a university. Student lower school upon completion, he transferred to higher education in absentia, i.e. from a city school to a district school, from a district school to a gymnasium, from a gymnasium to a university. All these schools, each providing some complete education, at the same time constituted four stages of one whole - public education. Not a single school, parish school, or university stood apart; they were all connected with each other, and together they made up one consistent education system.
As part of the implementation of her ideas, Catherine II paid attention to theological schools. The current state of theological schools, as M.I. writes. Demkov, she was extremely dissatisfied: she considered all aspects of life in the seminaries, economic, educational, and educational, unsatisfactory. To raise the level of spiritual education, Catherine II considered it necessary to raise well-being and expand the courses of theological schools. According to her instructions, she ordered in each diocese to establish one seminary and two or three schools and to establish staff for the maintenance of both, and to determine salaries for all teachers and the amount for teaching aids (libraries), at the same time to expand the course of seminary teaching by introducing general education subjects - mathematics, history and geography; Students were encouraged to do more reading in the existing seminary libraries 18.
But this is the external side of school affairs. Internally, the history of our educational institutions is a history of political pressure on schools from the standpoint of class and extreme conservatism, which is associated with a delay in the development of public education itself. The charter of gymnasiums and universities of 1804 was only the dawn of Russian school life, quickly faded away and was replaced by a gray, gloomy and cold day, almost darkness 19.
There are well-known projects by Shuvalov, who proposed “to establish gymnasiums in large cities, and literacy schools in small towns, in which children could be prepared for gymnasiums. At the end of the gymnasium course, the young men had to move to the cadet corps or to the university and, upon completion of their education there, enter the civil or military service.” As noted by M.I. Demkov, Shuvalov’s project was discussed by academicians, but with the death of Elizaveta Petrovna and Shuvalov’s removal from government affairs, it did not receive further development 20 .
In 1764, F.G. was invited to Moscow University to head the department of history and jurisprudence. Dilthey presented the Empress with a “Plan for the establishment of various schools for the dissemination of various sciences and the correction of morals.” The project reveals the causes of serious shortcomings in the education of the nobility and proposes measures to eliminate them. The source of spoiled upbringing lies, according to Dilthey, in the bad example of “uncles” to whom noble children become accustomed from an early age. Other reasons are the lack of teachers, the fact that schools are run by unlearned people and the chancelleries limit the freedom of educational institutions.
To rectify the situation, F. Dilthey proposes an original solution - to create “slave schools” (as he called them), that is, schools for training teachers from serfs. It was proposed to establish teachers' seminaries in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where 100 boys would be educated under the guidance of two teachers and a rector. One teacher would teach Latin, German and Russian, another - Latin, French, as well as arithmetic, and the rector would teach history, geography, and also what good upbringing, how one should behave in various circumstances, how one should talk to God, what one should give to the Fatherland, what moral rules allow or prohibit. Studying in “slave schools” must last 5 years. A detailed program of such training and regulation of the internal life of the school were attached.
MUNICIPAL STATE SPECIAL (CORRECTIONAL) EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR STUDENTS, PUPILS WITH LIMITED HEALTH CAPABILITIES SPECIAL (CORRECTIONAL) GENERAL EDUCATION BOARDING SCHOOL OF VIII TYPE
The development of the educational system in the Russian Empire in the second half of the eighteenth century was influenced by the so-called enlightened absolutism of Catherine the Second. IN this period cadet corps, orphanages were formed, Smolny Institute, as well as many other educational institutions. A charter for public schools is being developed.
At the same time, Catherine’s education reform was not brought to its logical conclusion. However, it was she who was able to play a major role in the further development of Russian education. Thus, between 1782 and 1800, many schools managed to graduate about two hundred thousand children, seven percent of whom were girls. At the beginning of the nineteenth century in Russia there were three hundred boarding houses and schools with twenty thousand students, taught by about eight hundred teachers.
The Empress of Russia closely studied the experience of organizing public education in leading European countries, introducing innovative pedagogical ideas. For example, in eighteenth-century Russia, the works of Jan Kamensky, as well as Locke (such as Thoughts on Education) and Fenelon, were quite famous and popular. This gave rise to a new formulation of school tasks: to educate, and not just teach. At the heart of everything was the humanitarian ideal that originated during the Renaissance. He preached “respect for freedom and individual rights,” and also excluded from pedagogy any manifestation of coercion and violence. However, this educational concept of Catherine the Second required great isolation of each child from his family and subsequent transfer of him into the hands of a teacher. At the same time, already in the eighties, all attention was again transferred to education from education.
Foundation educational reform were the Austrian and Prussian education systems. Also, it was planned to establish three separate types of schools:
· main;
· average;
The latter taught the rudiments of Russian grammar, sacred history, catechism, knowledge of numbers, writing, and reading. In secondary schools, a brief geography of Russia, Russian and general history, Russian grammar with various spelling exercises, and an explanation of the Gospel were added. The main school taught the basics of civil architecture, natural history, physics, mechanics, geometry, business writing exercises, mathematical geography, a detailed course in history and geography, etc.
Catherine II made a significant contribution to the development of culture and art in Russia. She herself received an excellent education at home: teaching foreign languages, dancing, political history, philosophy, economics, law and was considered an intelligent and educated woman. Under Catherine, the Russian Academy and the Free Economic Society were created, many magazines were founded, a public education system was created, the Hermitage was founded, public theaters were opened, Russian opera appeared, and painting flourished.
A number of events of the era of “enlightened absolutism” had progressive significance. For example, Moscow University, founded on the initiative of Shuvalov and Lomonosov in 1755, played a huge role in the development of education, Russian national science and culture, releasing big number specialists in various fields of knowledge. In 1757 The Academy of Arts has begun training. The secularization of church land ownership significantly improved the situation of the former monastic peasants, who received arable land, meadows and other lands on which they had previously served corvée, and freed them from everyday punishment and torture, from service in the household and forced marriages.
In the second half of the century, the authorities made an interesting attempt to reform education and upbringing. Its initiator and active guide was Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy. The accession of Catherine II, whose mother was introduced to Betsky at one time, brought him enormous wealth and command over a number of institutions - the Academy of Arts, the Land Noble Cadet Corps and educational homes in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and the Smolny Institute.
Betskoy based his pedagogical reform on the idea of creating a new breed of people through education. According to his idea, borrowed from French educators and supported by the empress, to give young people a good education and moral development. To do this, students need to be isolated from an inert environment and placed in closed schools. These efforts by Betsky contributed to the spread of general education. He also laid the foundation for women's education.
During the reign of Catherine II, such masters of the pen as Vasily Lukich Borovikovsky, who gained fame with portraits of the Empress, Derzhavin, and many nobles, created works, Dmitry Grigoryevich Levitsky, an academician in the 60s, taught at the Academy of Arts, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, who worked with Lomonosov, painted the coronation portrait of Catherine II, which she really liked.
Conclusion
The historical significance of the activities of Catherine II is determined on the basis of what was said in the abstract about certain aspects of Catherine’s policy. The historical significance of Catherine’s era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results were summed up previous history, historical processes that had previously developed have ended. This ability of Catherine to bring to the end, to complete resolution, the questions that history posed to her, forces everyone to recognize her as a major historical figure, regardless of her personal mistakes and weaknesses.
Catherine's ability to sum up is visible in Russian diplomacy of Catherine's era and in solving the main problems she inherited from the 17th century; consolidation of the achievements of Peter the Great in the Baltic states; reunification of lands inhabited by Belarusians and Ukrainians related to the Russian people. Conquest casting vote in pan-European affairs.
From the fact that at the end of the 18th century the policy of Russian absolutism was aimed at preserving and strengthening the feudal-serf system, the dominant position of the nobles in the economy and political life, Catherine II ascended the throne during a period of exacerbation class struggle of the peasantry against serfdom, trying to attract enlightened people recognized by the Western world to analyze the problems and find ways out of them. This is clearly evident from the attempts to attract them to one of the major actions of the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, namely the competition for the right of peasants to own land.
Ended with the death of Empress Catherine an entire era Russian history. Catherine herself and her associates were able, relying on popular forces, to achieve brilliant successes in foreign policy, military actions, and in the internal structure, and in cultural endeavors.
Reforms of Catherine 2 (briefly)
Catherine 2, like most monarchs who reigned for any significant time, sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, Russia fell to her in difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, there was a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc. Next, we will briefly describe the essence of the transformations carried out during the reign of Empress Catherine 2.
“Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the previous administrative division into provinces, provinces and districts, territories began to be divided into provinces and districts. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by a governor-general, otherwise called a governor. Each province was headed by a governor, appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, and the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The highest official of the district was the police captain. The centers of the counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received city status.
Each class had its own court. The nobles were tried by the zemstvo court, the townspeople by magistrates, and the peasants by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established, consisting of representatives of all three classes, which performed the function of a conciliation authority. All these courts were elective. A higher authority were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.
Secularization reform:
It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants living on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took upon itself the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment it acquired the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks required by the empire.
Senate Reform:
On December 15, 1763, the manifesto of Catherine 2 was published “On the establishment of departments in the Senate, Justice, Patrimonial and Revision Boards, on the division of their affairs.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second was in charge of judicial affairs in St. Petersburg, the third was in charge of transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth was in charge of military and land affairs. and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department. The heads of all departments, except the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.
The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the “Charter on the rights and benefits of cities of the Russian Empire,” which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elected institutions were introduced. The number of voters has increased. City residents were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merits to society and the state, namely: real city inhabitants - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of the three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in handicrafts and crafts in the city. Each rank had its own rights, responsibilities and privileges.
Police reform:
In 1782, Empress Catherine 2 introduced the “Charter of Deanery or Police”. According to it, the deanery board became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, mayor and chief of police, as well as townspeople determined by elections. The trial for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized construction and bribes, was carried out by the police themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition, the prohibition of certain types of activities.
Education reform
The creation of public schools in cities marked the beginning state system secondary schools in Russia. They were of two types: main schools in provincial cities and small schools in district ones. These educational institutions were supported by the treasury, and people of all classes could study there. School reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772) a commercial school.
Currency reform
During the reign of Catherine 2, the State Bank and Loan Bank were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was introduced into circulation.