In the most systematic form, these methods began to be studied in sociology, when it turned from isolated observations of individual facts and processes of social life, as well as their hypothetical explanations, into a special science about society and the social activities of people. The name of this science was given in 1838 by the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857), who is considered the founder of sociology. His merit lies in the fact that he was the first to abandon the established tradition of building systems of an ideal social structure and began to call for studying the society that actually exists using scientific methods. Since only natural science had such scientific methods at that time, he tried to extend them to the study of society, recommending building sociology as a kind of social physics. Despite the absolutization of the methods of natural science, which led him to the proclamation of the philosophy of positivism, nevertheless, his initial orientation towards a thorough study of the objective facts of social life and the laws that explain them was generally fruitful and contributed to the further development of sociology. In the 19th century Comte's ideas were developed in the works of the famous English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), who paid great attention to establishing connections between social phenomena and emphasized the large role of social laws in explaining the processes of social life. However, he was interested not so much in the methods and problems of studying the social structure of society as in questions of its evolution. G. Spencer was greatly impressed by Darwin's theory of evolution and tried to apply them to the study of the development of society. He believed that society, like life,
nature evolves according to the principle of “survival of the fittest” and therefore, unlike Comte, did not call for social reforms. These conclusions of his were later used by social Darwinists, who completely identified the laws of society with the laws of the struggle for existence in living nature.
A detailed study of the methods of sociology truly began after the appearance of the works of the outstanding French scientist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), who rightly noted that the reasoning of O. Comte and G. Spencer “has not yet gone beyond general considerations about the nature of societies , about the relationship between the world of social phenomena and biological phenomena, about the general course of progress... In order to consider these philosophical questions, there is no need for special and complex techniques” 1 . But to study specific social processes, it is necessary to have clear and accurate ideas about these processes themselves, and the methods of knowing them must expand and deepen. Durkheim stated that sociology “is not doomed to remain a branch of general philosophy”, that it is “capable of being in close contact with specific facts” 2 . In his work “Method of Sociology” (1895), E. Durkgale set out to formulate the basic rules relating to the definition, observation, explanation and proof of social facts. These rules still continue to retain their significance thanks to the author’s deep penetration into the essence of social processes, the subtle distinction between the social and the individual, the objective from the subjective, the sociological from the psychological.
Unlike his predecessors, Durkheim primarily emphasizes objective the nature of a social fact, which manifests itself in the fact that its bearer is not an individual, but a society, which is a group, collective or society as a whole. Therefore, such a fact not only exists independently of individual consciousness, but is able to exert an influence or pressure on this consciousness. Numerous examples testify to such an influence: people who are completely harmless under ordinary conditions, under the influence of social passions and movements, are capable of committing
1 Durkheim^. Sociology. - M.: Kanon, 1995. p. 25
2 Ibid. - P. 8.
actions expected for them. In many cases, such influence takes the form of coercion, forcing the individual to comply, for example, with legal laws, moral norms and community rules. Gradually, such coercion, which turns out to be useful, can turn into a habit and not be felt as coercion. Even raising a child in society, in essence, comes down to forcing him to comply with the norms, customs and rules of behavior established in society. Education, therefore, has as its goal the formation of a social being. All this, therefore, justifies and confirms the definition of a social fact that we find in Durkheim: “A social fact is any mode of action, established or not, capable of exerting external coercion on an individual; or else: widespread throughout a given society, having at the same time its own existence, independent of its individual manifestations" 1
The objective approach to establishing social facts was expressed most forcefully by Durkheim in his first and fundamental rule, which is that should social facts be considered as things?. As he himself testifies, it was this provision that caused the most objections and many found it paradoxical and even outrageous. In fact, he did not at all assert that social facts are identical to material things. By calling facts things, Durkheim contrasted them with ideas and thereby emphasized that they can only be understood through observation and experimentation. All this contradicted the traditional ideas of sociology of that time, including the views of O. Comte and G. Spencer.
According to Durkheim, all previous sociology did not, in essence, talk about things, i.e. objectively existing social phenomena, but about ideas. Indeed, even Comte, who proclaimed the general principle that social phenomena are things subject to natural laws, nevertheless actually makes ideas the object of study of sociology. In fact, when he takes as the starting point of sociology the progress of mankind, consisting in
more and more complete realization of human nature, then it tries to explore not real social facts, but completely subjective ideas about human nature. Spencer does the same, who considers, however, that the object of sociology is not the study of humanity as a whole, but its individual societies, but approaches the study of the latter not through specific observations, but with the help of a predetermined definition. In his opinion, “society exists only when cooperation is added to the common existence of individuals”, that “only thanks to this the union of individuals becomes a society in the proper sense of the word” 1 . Durkheim rightly notes that this definition is only a speculation that Spencer made up for himself about society.
Subjective ideas of this kind are often presented in sociology as facts, and vague, fuzzy and unfounded ideas as concepts, when in fact they are just preconceptions. Therefore, one of the requirements of the sociological method is that systematically eliminate all preconceptions 2. This rule recommends that the sociologist get rid of everyday concepts and current ideas. To arrive at new concepts, it is necessary to begin the study of real social facts, and not preconceived ideas about them. To do this, we must first separate some facts, phenomena, events from others according to their external signs, which are given to us by sensation. “The object of the study is Durkheim points out, one should select only a group of phenomena, previously defined by some common external features, and include in the same study all phenomena that meet this definition” 3.
It may be objected that since external signs provide superficial knowledge about phenomena, they turn out to be useless for revealing their essence. Such an objection would be fair if there were no connection between the external and internal signs of things and phenomena. In fact, the external expresses the internal and therefore, no matter how superficial the external properties are, with the right approach they show the sociologist the path along which he must follow in order to comprehend the essential, deep properties of society.
1 Durheim E. Sociology. - M.: Kanon, 1995. - P.39. 2 Ibid. - P. 40.
, Durkheim E. Sociology.- M.: Kanon, 1995.- P. 45. | 2 Right there.-P.55. And there too. - P. 58.
natural phenomena. Another objection concerns the use of sensations in the process of cognition, which may also turn out to be subjective. But this objection equally applies to the process of cognition in general, and not just to the sociological one. To minimize the influence of subjectivity in sensory cognition, one should rely on data that has a sufficient degree of objectivity. For these purposes, in physics, for example, various instruments and means of measurement are used, for example, instead of subjective sensations of temperature, they turn to thermometers. Sociology has also developed many methods and measurement techniques that ensure a reduction in subjective aspects in empirical research. In this regard, Durkheim concludes that “When a sociologist undertakes a study of any class of social facts, he must try to consider them from the side from which they appear isolated from their individual manifestations” 1 .
When explaining social facts, Durkheim pays special attention to the specific nature of the laws that are applied for this purpose. These laws, like sociological explanations, are by no means reducible to psychological laws, as many of Durkheim's predecessors and even contemporaries stated. So, for example, for Comte, who considered progress to be the dominant fact of social life, the latter “depends on an exclusively psychological factor, namely the desire that draws a person to an ever greater development of his nature. Social factors follow so directly from human nature that, in relation to the initial phases of history, they can be directly deduced from it, without resorting to observations” 2.
According to G. Spencer, society arises only so that the individual can fully realize his human nature. Therefore, in the end, it is not a social system such as society, but the ideas and goals of individuals that determine the evolution of society. “The effect exerted by a social organism on its members,” he emphasizes, “cannot have anything specific in itself, because political goals in themselves are nothing and are only simple
1 Durheim E. Sociology. - M.: Kanon, 1995. -S. 67.
2 Kont O. Course of positive philosophy. T. IV.-- P. 345.
a generalized expression of individual goals" 1 . In other words, social facts can be explained only on the basis of general psychological laws. However, this method of explanation is completely unsuitable for sociology, if only because social facts not only exist independently of psychological ones, but also exert, as Durkheim rightly notes, “pressure on individual consciousness,” which means that “they do not follow from the latter, and sociology is therefore not a corollary of psychology” 3.
Defenders of a subjective view of the method of sociology often claim that since society ultimately consists of individuals, the principles of individual psychology should become the primary source for explaining sociological facts. Such an objection does not stand up to criticism, since systems can consist of identical elements and yet be different systems. So, for example, a living cell consists of the same molecules and atoms that make up a non-living body, but no one would call them the same systems. The difference between them lies primarily in their structure, i.e. in the nature of interaction between elements of the system. Durkheim uses the term “association” to characterize such interaction, which is close in meaning to the modern term “structure”. He rightly notes that the presence of individual consciousnesses is not enough for the existence of society. To do this, it is necessary that these consciousnesses be associated in a certain way. “By virtue of this principle,” Durkheim asserts, “society is not a simple sum of individuals, but a system formed by their association and representing the reality sui generis 4, endowed with its own special properties" 5 . This is why social facts cannot be explained by psychological laws. Accordingly, Durkheim formulates the following rule: “The determining cause of a given social fact should be sought among previous social facts, and not in states of individual consciousness” 6: From this it becomes clear that
1 Durkheim E. Sociology.- P. 117.
2 Consequence, conclusion.
? Durkheim E. Sociology. -WITH. 118. 4 Of a special kind.
? Durheim E. Sociology. - P. 119. ■* Ibid. P. 126.
for him, sociological explanation consists, first of all, in establishing a causal relationship between phenomena. To do this, he turns to the simplest inductive methods that were systematized by J. St. Mill in his logic, but considers the method most useful for sociological explanations accompanying changes. The essence of the latter is to explore how a change in one phenomenon leads to corresponding changes in another phenomenon: for example, according to Durkheim's research, the tendency to suicide is caused by the weakening of religious traditionalism. According to modern ideas, the method of accompanying changes is nothing more than an expression of the functional dependence between phenomena.
This idea in a more general form was further developed in the functional-structural approach to sociology. The views of modern sociologists on methods of studying specific social processes and paradigms of sociology in general have also changed noticeably. Nevertheless, the principles of scientific methodology, first used by Durkheim in his specific studies, and subsequently formulated in the rules of method, continue to influence modern sociological theories and practice. This influence is expressed, first of all, in his emphasis on social reality, which is different from the sphere of both the individual psychological and natural world. It is not for nothing that his concept is characterized as “sociologism,” which played a big role in overcoming the individualistic and psychological views on society that were widespread in his time.
Another outstanding scientist, Max Weber (1864-1920), played an equally important role in the formation of sociology and the development of its theoretical methods. His methodological installations are in many ways the opposite of those of E. Durkheim, firstly, because he does not consider either society or other social groups to be subjects of action, since the latter are associated with a certain subjective meaning that only individuals possess; secondly, since the actions of the latter are meaningful, sociology must be “understanding”, capable of revealing this meaning through interpretation. Durkheim, as we have seen, although he recognized that consciousness and thought in the strict sense of the word are inherent only in individuals, nevertheless believed that social facts, and even more so
society has an incomparably greater impact on their behavior than their own thoughts and goals.
This new approach to sociology by Weber was largely due to the influence on him of those ideas in social science that became dominant in Germany in the last quarter of the 19th century. We are talking about the anti-positivist position that many German historians, philosophers, sociologists and other humanists took with regard to the uncritical introduction of natural science methods into the socio-historical and human sciences, as discussed in the previous chapter.
The formation of Weber's views was most influenced by the ideas of V. Dilthey, who put forward hermeneutics as a methodology for the sciences of spiritual activity. He shared with Dilthey the conviction that when studying society one cannot abstract from the goals, intentions and meaning of people's activities. However, he did not contrast social and humanitarian knowledge with natural science, and most importantly, he did not limit the understanding of social phenomena to the psychological process of feeling and getting used to the spiritual world of the characters. In his opinion, such an understanding can be achieved through appropriate interpretations social actions. It is from this position that he approaches the definition of the subject and tasks of sociology.
“Sociology...,” wrote Weber, “is a science that seeks, through interpretation, to understand social action and thereby causally explain its process and impact” 1. Action he calls human behavior “if and insofar as the acting individual or individuals associate a subjective meaning" 2. If such an action is correlated in meaning with the actions of other people and is oriented towards it, then it will be called social action. It is the presence of subjective meaning and its orientation towards other people that distinguishes social action from other actions associated, for example, with the expectation of the manifestation of forces and processes of nature, the instinctive activity of the individual, his imitative actions, and even economic activity, if it is not oriented towards others of people. This kind of “Robinsonade” was composed in large numbers by the authors of economic works in order to emphasize the individual
1 1 Weber M. Selected works. - M.: Progress, 1990.- C 602
1 2 Ibid. - P. 602, 603.
the interest of individual producers not connected with each other in society, and present the latter as a set of isolated economic units.
The concept of social action, according to Weber, it makes it possible not only to correctly define the subject of sociology and its research methods, but also to more accurately identify its relationship to other sciences. Unlike natural science, which studies nature, sociology requires an understanding of its subject of study, which is associated with revealing the meaning of social Actions. Nothing like this is required from natural science, because objects and natural phenomena do not have meaning. At the same time, Weber does not oppose understanding in social and humanitarian knowledge to causal, or causative, explanation in natural science and, as can be seen from the above quote, considers it possible to use it in sociology. Since understanding itself is not reduced to the process of feeling, getting used to the spiritual world of acting subjects, understanding is not a purely psychological process, and therefore sociology is not a part of psychology and cannot be reduced to it.
On the other hand, since the carriers of actions that have a semantic orientation are individual people, Weber believes that neither society nor its individual institutions and groups are real subjects of social action. In this respect, his approach to sociology is directly opposed to that of Durkheim, who considered social facts to be primary to individual thoughts and feelings, and, to emphasize this, called them things. Therefore, for him, the starting points are precisely such social realities as the state, nation, family and other forms of collective associations. Weber did not oppose the use of such concepts in sociology, but did not consider them to be real carriers of social action, and therefore did not attribute meaning to them, except in a metaphorical form.
For sociological analysis, social action, which can be aimed, on the one hand, at achieving the goals set by the individual himself, and, on the other hand, at using adequate means to achieve his goals, is of utmost importance. Weber calls this action purposeful and declares that it cannot be
the subject of psychology research, because the goal that an individual sets for himself cannot be understood from a consideration of his individual spiritual life, which constitutes the subject of psychology as a science.
Sociology as a generalizing, generalizing science also differs from history. While history "seeks to provide causal analysis and causal reduction individual, possessing cultural the significance of actions,” sociology “constructs... typical concepts and establishes general rules for phenomena and processes” 1 . Analysis of the process of formation of such typical concepts constitutes the most important merit of M. Weber in the development of sociological methodology.
The ideal type is a mental construct created “through one-sided strengthening one or several points of view”, which “add up to a single mental image" 2. From a purely formal point of view, such an ideal type or mental image can be considered as an ideal model of a social phenomenon or historical process. Indeed, Weber himself believes that in reality such an image in its pure form does not exist anywhere and therefore represents a utopia. Like any other idealization, such an image helps in each individual case to establish how much reality diverges from it. But this curious similarity does not reveal the process of formation of ideal types, much less their significance for socio-economic or historical research.
This process can best be illustrated by an example of a theoretical analysis of a market economy, which gives us an ideal picture of the economic processes occurring there. These processes are actually quite complex and intricate. Therefore, to study them we , according to Weber, we mentally strengthen some of their elements, namely, we assume that the market is dominated by free competition, each of its participants behaves in a strictly rational manner, none has advantages over others, etc. It is clear that in no real market, such conditions have never been met, but nevertheless, this real type of market makes it possible to establish how
Weber M. Selected works. - P. 621, 622. Gum. - P. 390.
this particular market approaches or diverges from the ideal market. On this basis, it is possible to further identify its other characteristics and causal connections between its elements. This method is also used to study other social, historical, cultural and humanitarian phenomena. "IN research the ideal-typical concept is a means for making correct judgments about the causal reduction of elements of reality. The ideal type is not a hypothesis, it only indicates in which direction the formation of hypotheses should go” 1.
By creating standard concepts and establishing general rules, sociology, according to Weber, like any generalizing science, is deprived of a certain completeness in comparison with concrete reality. Instead, it achieves greater unambiguity of its concepts, and most importantly, it deeper reveals the meaning of social behavior and action, thanks to which it becomes understanding sociology. At the same time, Weber does not abandon the use in sociology of the functional method, which has also widely proven itself in other sciences, although he considers it a preliminary stage of research. By studying the functional connections between social phenomena and events, we do not limit ourselves to this, but are able to go beyond their limits and therefore are able to understand them, i.e. reveal their meaning and significance. In this regard, Weber contrasts the functional method of natural science with the method of understanding sociology. "We we understand- he writes, - the behavior of individual individuals participating in events, while we “understand” the behavior of cells Not we can, but we can only comprehend it functionally, and then install rules of this process" 2.
Assessing the contribution of E. Durkheim and M. Weber to the development of sociological methodology, it should be noted that they approached the solution of its fundamental problem from different sides: the relationship between the individual and the general in social behavior and action. Emphasizing the priority of the general over the individual, Durkheim tried, if not to explain, then at least to reduce and justify the social action of the individual, based on the socio-historical patterns emerging
1 Weber M. Selected works. - P. 389.
2 Ibid. - P. 616.
at a given time in a particular society. It remained unclear, however, how these laws arise in society if they do not take into account the actions of the individual, and even act as some a priori provisions that he must take into account. On the other hand, M. Weber, based on the value systems of the individual, his understanding of the meaning of socio-historical and cultural-humanitarian phenomena, was forced to present the general as the result of the subjective choice of individual social connections among a huge variety of others. Of course, such a choice is certainly necessary, but what criterion should be used here remains unclear. Thus, a purely objective approach to the methods of sociology, bringing them closer to the methods of natural science, on the one hand, and an excessive emphasis in them on subjective aspects associated with the conscious activity of participants in social action, on the other, equally distort the real research process in sociology. The whole difficulty of such research lies precisely in skillfully combining the objectivity of the approach, taking into account the expedient activities of participants in social actions and processes, their goals, interests and motives of behavior. All these requirements are implemented to a greater or lesser extent in the theoretical and empirical methods of modern sociology.
Empirical methods of sociology are distinguished by great diversity, since this science studies a variety of aspects of social life, starting from social relations that form within the family as units of society, and ending with the study of the structure of such institutions of society as the state, political parties, classes, education systems, health care, pensions collateral, etc.
The most familiar and popular empirical method for studying a variety of social events and processes appears to be various types sociological reviews starting from reviews of small groups and ending with the study of public opinion in regions, and even the population of the entire country, on current pressing issues of political, economic and cultural life. In our literature such reviews are called one hundred social surveys.
Statistical techniques for analyzing the results of surveys of large populations are based on representative sample from the entire known population. In sociology to
populations include all people about whom the researcher collects relevant information. Since the researcher is not able to study the population as a whole, he, according to the requirements established in statistics, makes it a certain sample. The most important of these requirements are, firstly, randomization, according to which any element can be selected from a population with equal probability, thereby eliminating sampling bias; Secondly, representativeness sample, which should ensure adequate representation of the population structure in the sample. Often, to obtain more plausible results, one has to resort to stratified sampling, for which the entire population is divided into appropriate strata, or groups, from which individuals are then selected at random. Such a sample makes it possible to include approximately the same percentage of the most important population groups.
Based on detailed statistical data. analysis of a sample, or sample, a prediction is subsequently made that applies to the entire population, which represents a probabilistic conclusion from sample to population, i.e. from the particular to the general, which was discussed in Chapter 5.
The sampling technique itself can be very diverse: survey, interview, observation, although the survey is most often used. A survey may include one or more multiple-choice or single-choice questions (responses may be given orally or in writing). For greater reliability and persuasiveness, carefully designed questionnaires are mostly used for these purposes. In general, survey methods are useful primarily when the researcher is not able to directly judge the preferences, assessments and opinions of people on various topical issues of the political, economic and cultural life of society, their attitude towards the activities and decisions of the government and other power structures. They are also suitable for descriptive analysis of social situations developing in society. In part, they can also help in explaining the simplest dependencies between phenomena by establishing correlations between their causes and consequences.
The difficulty of conducting surveys, especially of a mass nature, lies not so much in the correct formulation of the question;
owls and subsequent statistical processing of the responses received, how many are in their organization itself, the need to build a stratified sample and provide unambiguous answers to the questions of the questionnaire, which is associated with the involvement of qualified people and significant financial resources for this.
An important means of obtaining reliable sociological information is the so-called participant observation when a researcher directly participates in the work of a certain team as a member of it, fulfills the duties assigned to him and at the same time carries out pre-planned observations of certain phenomena. Such observations from the inside provide more reliable information than from the outside, especially if the researcher penetrates the team anonymously, and therefore the people around him do not impute their behavior, as often happens with external observation. Numerous examples of participant observation are described in detail in the sociological literature. Their disadvantage is that they are applicable only to the analysis of economic and social relations in small groups and therefore the conclusions obtained from their research are difficult to extrapolate and generalize. In addition, conducting them requires the researcher to know the specifics of the team’s activities, and often the corresponding professional skills. Unlike an experiment or survey, the plan for conducting participant observation must be quite flexible, since the researcher must first enter an unfamiliar social environment, get used to life, customs and orders within the team, and only then outline the main problems for solving the goal and formulate preliminary hypotheses to test them.
This method, apparently, is of greatest importance when studying the social relations, customs and culture of ancient tribes, and therefore, in fact, it has long been used by anthropologists and ethnographers. Such observations require from the researcher not only deep specialized knowledge, but great patience, courage and observance of the customs and traditions of the tribes being studied. As the experience of such famous researchers as N. Miklouho-Maclay testifies, it takes many months and even years of hard work to conquer
trust and respect from the natives or aborigines to carry out their research plans.
Thus, the peculiarity of participant observation is that the researcher gets the opportunity to observe a group, collective or tribe from the inside and therefore his conclusions will be of incomparably greater interest than the conclusions of the observer from outside, which will inevitably turn out to be superficial. But to conduct participant observation, the researcher must not only completely immerse himself in the concerns and affairs of the group, live and feel like its other members, but also constantly, systematically conduct observations, check and correct his hypotheses and assumptions - that is, behave exactly like a researcher , and not as a chronicler or chronicler. Obviously, the results obtained by the researcher will only have qualitative character and, of course, will not be free from some subjective assessments.
Social experiment can significantly increase the objectivity of research results in various sectors of socio-economic, political, cultural and humanitarian life. The advantage of a social experiment lies, first of all, in the possibility of reproducing its results by other researchers, which significantly increases the trust of scientists in them.
The main purpose of an experiment in sociology, as in natural science, is to test hypotheses, which gives the research a targeted and systematic character. Indeed, after analyzing and generalizing the results of empirical facts, sociologists put forward certain hypotheses to explain them. Such hypotheses usually formulate connections between variables characterizing social phenomena or processes. Some of these variables are independent and therefore can be changed at the request of the experimenter. Other variables change according to the change in the independent variables and are therefore called dependent from them. In specific sociological studies, independent variables are usually identified with reason, and dependent variables - with action, or consequence. With this approach, the task of a social experiment is reduced to testing the causal relationship between phenomena. This test is to determine whether the hypothesis is supported by empirical facts. For these purposes, we strive to quantitatively
It is important to measure variables that describe social gaps. Therefore, the planned experiment includes at least three stages, interconnected with each other:
First step- the dependent variable is measured, which is identified with the action or consequence of the independent variable taken as the cause;
second phase - it is established that the result of the dependent variable (its effect) is caused by the influence of the independent variable (cause), since it is the cause that generates” or causes the effect;
third stage- the dependent variable is measured again to ensure that its various values are determined by the values of the independent variable (or independent variables).
In the simplest cases, they deal with two variables, one of which is taken as the cause, the other as the effect. However, most often it is necessary to take into account the effect of many reasons. Often, the results of an experiment provide statistical information that requires additional analysis and appropriate mathematical processing. In essence, the scheme of a social experiment, how easy it is to fly, is based on the method of accompanying changes, formulated by J. Stuart Mill, expressed in the modern mathematical language of functional dependencies. The main concern of the researcher when conducting a social experiment is to accurately establish those main factors influencing the process being studied, i.e. to determine its cause (or causes). It's easier to do it under conditions laboratory ec
Social methods are ways of influencing the social interests of organizational personnel in order to intensify their activities, giving them a creative and truly interested character. The peculiarity of these methods is their commonality. The majority of workers or all personnel are interested in satisfying the interests of this group. Therefore, social methods, on the other hand, are the influence of the subject of management on the general interests of the company’s personnel. The task of management in this case is to identify the degree of commonality of interests of personnel and develop effective ways to satisfy them.
There is a set of methods for solving this intra-company problem - these are social research, planning and regulation (Fig. 16).
Social research is a method of studying the social interests of personnel. Their result is the identified specific needs of workers for certain social benefits (for example, housing, health promotion, sports and cultural needs, advanced training and retraining of personnel, etc.). Based on this study, a program to meet these needs is developed.
Social planning is a method of planned solution of social problems of teams to improve working conditions, production life, spiritual and physical development, housing, health care, communal living conditions, worker qualifications, personnel structure, identified in the process of social research. This is realized by developing an intra-company plan to meet identified needs, taking into account the economic capabilities of the company. As a rule, such a plan is drawn up for one year and (or) 4-5 years.
Rice. 16. Types of social management methods
Social regulation is the process of implementing plans and programs to meet the social needs of personnel. Their successful implementation contributes to the unity of personnel, the convergence of their interests and the interests of the company’s management, the development of corporate spirit, i.e. such a state when both managers and ordinary employees are deeply interested in the economic performance of the company.
It must be emphasized that social regulation of work collectives is carried out using other methods. Among them: ways to increase social and production activity (intra- and inter-company exchange of experience in various forms, taking into account the observance of trade secrets); methods of social continuity (procedures for accepting new employees into the company, holding company days in honor of significant dates and events, organizing professional skills competitions, procedures for sending off employees with extensive experience in the company to their well-deserved retirement, etc.); methods of social regulation (establishing rules of etiquette, traditions, internal regulations of the company, disciplinary measures for those who do not comply with the concept of company management).
The methods of social psychology are to a certain extent interdisciplinary and are used in other sciences, for example, in sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. The development and improvement of socio-psychological methods occurs unevenly, which determines the difficulties of their systematization. The entire set of methods is usually divided into two groups: information collection methods And methods of its processing(Andreeva, 1972, 2000; Yadov, 1995). However, there are other classifications of methods. For example, in one of the well-known classifications, three groups of methods are distinguished, namely: empirical research methods(observation, document analysis, survey, group personality assessment, sociometry, tests, instrumental methods, experiment); modeling methods; methods of managerial and educational influence(Sventsitsky, 1977). Moreover, the identification and classification of methods of socio-psychological influence are especially important for the methodology of social psychology. The importance of the latter is associated with the strengthening of the role of social psychology in solving social problems.
The following methods of collecting empirical data are most often used in social psychology.
Observation method is a method of collecting information through direct, targeted and systematic perception and recording of socio-psychological phenomena (facts of behavior and activity) in natural or laboratory conditions. The observation method can be used as one of the central, independent research methods.
Classification of observations is made on various grounds. Depending on the degree of standardization of observation techniques, it is customary to distinguish two main types of this method: standardized and non-standardized observation. A standardized technique presupposes the presence of a developed list of signs to be observed, the definition of conditions and situations of observation, instructions for observation, and uniform codifiers for recording observed phenomena. In this case, collecting data involves their subsequent processing and analysis using the techniques of mathematical statistics. The non-standardized observation technique determines only the general directions of observation, where the result is recorded in free form, directly at the moment of perception or from memory. Data from this technique are usually presented in free form; it is also possible to systematize them using formal procedures.
Depending on the role of the observer in the situation being studied, they distinguish included (participating) And not included (simple) observations. Participant observation involves the interaction of the observer with the group being studied as a full member. The researcher imitates his entry into the social environment, adapts to it and observes events in it as if “from the inside.” There are different types of participant observation depending on the degree of awareness of the members of the group being studied about the goals and objectives of the researcher (Andreeva, 1972; Ershov, 1977; Semenov, 1987). Non-participant observation records events “from the outside,” without interaction or establishing a relationship with the person or group being studied. Observation can be carried out openly and incognito, when the observer disguises his actions (Petrovskaya, 1977).
The main disadvantage of participant observation is related to the impact on the observer (his perception and analysis) of the values and norms of the group being studied. The researcher risks losing the necessary neutrality and objectivity when selecting, evaluating and interpreting data. Typical mistakes: reduction of impressions and their simplification, their banal interpretation, reconstruction of events to the average, loss of the “middle” of events, etc. In addition, the labor intensity and organizational complexity of this method cause serious difficulties.
According to the organization, observation methods are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) And laboratory (observations under experimental conditions). The object of observation is individuals, small groups and large social communities (for example, a crowd) and the social processes occurring in them, for example panic. The subject of observation is usually the verbal and nonverbal acts of behavior of an individual or a group as a whole in a certain social situation. The most typical verbal and nonverbal characteristics include: speech acts (their content, direction and sequence, frequency, duration and intensity, as well as expressiveness); expressive movements (expression of the eyes, face, body, etc.); physical actions, i.e. touching, pushing, hitting, joint actions, etc. (Labunskaya, 1986). Sometimes the observer records events that occur using generalized traits, qualities of a person or the most typical tendencies of his behavior, for example, dominance, submission, friendliness, analyticalness, expressiveness, etc. (Bales, 1979).
The question of the content of the observation is always specific and depends on the purpose of the observation and the theoretical positions of the researcher regarding the phenomenon being studied. The main task of the researcher at the stage of organizing observation is to determine in which acts of behavior, accessible to observation and recording, the psychological phenomenon or property of interest to him is manifested, and to select the most significant signs that most fully and reliably characterize it. Selected behavior characteristics ( units of observation) and their codifiers make up the so-called "observation scheme".
The complexity or simplicity of the observation scheme affects the reliability of the method. The reliability of the scheme depends on the number of observation units (the fewer there are, the more reliable it is); their concreteness (the more abstract a feature is, the more difficult it is to record); the complexity of the conclusions that the observer comes to when classifying the identified signs. The reliability of an observational design is usually verified by monitoring data from other observers, other methods (eg, use of similar observational designs, expert judgment) and repeated observation.
The observation results are recorded in accordance with a specially prepared observation protocol. The most common methods for recording observation data are: factual, involving the recording of all cases of manifestation of observation units; evaluative, when the manifestation of signs is not only recorded, but also assessed using an intensity scale and a time scale (for example, the duration of an act of behavior). Observation results must be subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis and interpretation.
The main disadvantages of the method are considered to be: a) high subjectivity in data collection introduced by the observer (halo, contrast, leniency, modeling, etc. effects) and the observed (the effect of the presence of the observer); b) the predominantly qualitative nature of the observation findings; c) relative limitations in generalizing the research results. Ways to increase the reliability of observation results are associated with the use of reliable observation schemes, technical means of recording data, with minimizing the effect of the presence of the observer and depend on the training and experience of the researcher (Ershov, 1977; Semenov, 1987).
Document analysis method. This method is a type of method for analyzing the products of human activity. It was first used in social psychology as the main research method by W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki when studying the phenomenon of social attitudes (Andreeva, 1972; Yadov, 1995).
A document is any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic or photographic media (Yadov, 1995). Documents differ in the method of recording information (handwritten, printed, film, photo, video documents), by their intended purpose (targeted, natural), by the degree of personification (personal and impersonal), depending on the status of the document (official and unofficial). Sometimes they are also divided according to the source of information into primary (documents based on direct registration of events) and secondary documents. The preference for one or another type of document as a carrier of socio-psychological information is determined based on the purpose of the study and the place of the documents in the overall research program. All methods of document analysis are divided into traditional (qualitative) and formalized (qualitative-quantitative). Any method is based on the mechanisms of the process of understanding the text, i.e., the researcher’s interpretation of the information contained in the document.
Survey method. The essence of this method is to obtain information about objective or subjective (opinions, moods, motives, relationships, etc.) facts from the words of the respondents. Among the numerous types of surveys, two main types are most widespread: a) “face-to-face” survey - interview, face-to-face survey conducted by the researcher in the form of questions and answers with the interviewee (respondent); b) correspondence survey - questioning using a questionnaire (questionnaire) designed for self-completion by the respondents themselves. The pioneers of its application in social psychology are S. Hall, G. M. Andreeva, E. Noel. The scope of application of a survey in social psychology: a) in the early stages of research to collect preliminary information or pilot test methodological tools; b) survey as a means of clarifying, expanding and monitoring data; c) as the main method of collecting empirical information. The source of information during a survey is the oral or written judgment of the person being interviewed. The depth, completeness of answers, and their reliability depend on the researcher’s ability to correctly construct the questionnaire design. There are special techniques and rules for conducting surveys aimed at ensuring the reliability and validity of information. They reflect algorithms for determining the representativeness of the sample and the motivation for participating in the survey, constructing questions and composition of the questionnaire, and the procedure for conducting the survey (Andreeva, 1972; Sventsitsky, 1977; Yadov, 1995).
The main types of interviews in socio-psychological research are: standardized and non-standardized interviews. In the first case, the interview assumes the presence of standard formulations of questions and their sequence, determined in advance. However, the researcher does not have the ability to change them. The non-standardized interview technique is characterized by flexibility and variation over a wide range. The interviewer is guided only by the general plan of the survey, formulating questions in accordance with the specific situation and the respondent’s answers.
Conversation technique is of great importance for successful interviewing. It requires the interviewer to be able to establish close contact with the respondent, to interest him in a sincere conversation, to “actively” listen, to have the skills to formulate and record answers, and to overcome the “resistance” of the interviewee. In this case, the interviewer must avoid imposing (“prompting”) a possible answer on the person being interviewed and exclude subjective interpretation of his statement.
The difficulty of conducting an interview is associated with the task of maintaining the required depth of contact with the respondent throughout the conversation. The literature describes a variety of techniques for stimulating the activity (answers) of the interviewee, among them the most often mentioned are: expression of agreement (attentive look, nod, smile, assent), the use of short pauses, partial disagreement, clarification by incorrectly repeating what was said, pointing out contradictions in answers, repetition of the last words, demand for clarification, additional information, etc.
There are also other types of interviews, such as focused and therapeutic. Each of the listed types of interviews is characterized by certain limitations determined by the purposes of its use and the nature of the information received (Andreeva, 1972; Sventsitsky, 1977; Yadov, 1995).
Criteria for the effectiveness of the interview: completeness (breadth) - it should allow the interviewee to cover, as fully as possible, various aspects of the problem being discussed; specificity (concreteness) - during the interview, accurate answers must be obtained on each aspect of the problem that is significant for the interviewee; depth (personal meaning) - the interview must reveal the emotional, cognitive and value aspects of the respondent’s attitude to the situation under discussion; personal context - the interview is designed to reveal characteristics of the interviewee’s personality and life experiences.
Types of surveys are divided by the number of respondents (individual and group), by location, and by the method of distribution of questionnaires (handout, postal, press). Among the most significant disadvantages of handout, and especially postal and press surveys, are the low percentage of questionnaires returned, the lack of control over the quality of their completion, and the possibility of using only questionnaires that are very simple in structure and volume.
The choice of survey type is determined by the goals of the study, its program, and the level of knowledge of the issue. The main advantage of questionnaires is associated with the possibility of mass coverage of a large number of respondents and its professional accessibility. The information obtained in an interview is more meaningful and in-depth compared to a questionnaire. However, the disadvantage is, first of all, the difficult to control influence of the personality and professional level of the interviewer on the interviewee, which can lead to a distortion of the objectivity and reliability of the information.
Sociometry method refers to the tools for socio-psychological research into the structure of small groups, as well as the individual as a member of the group. The area of measurement using sociometric technology is the diagnosis of interpersonal and intragroup relationships. Using the sociometric method, they study the typology of social behavior in group activities, evaluate the cohesion and compatibility of group members. The method was developed by J. Moreno as a way to study emotionally direct relationships within a small group (Moreno, 1958). The measurement involves surveying each member in order to identify those members of the group with whom he preferred (chose) or, on the contrary, would not want to participate in a certain type of activity or situation. The measurement procedure includes the following elements: a) determination of the option (number) of choices (deviations); b) selection of survey criteria (questions); c) organizing and conducting a survey; d) processing and interpretation of results using quantitative (sociometric indices) and graphic (sociograms) analysis methods.
Usually, several collective sociograms are compiled for one group: mutual elections, mutual deviations, the first two (five) elections and some others. Individual sociograms allow for a more subtle analysis of the position of a particular member in a group: to distinguish the position of the leader from the position of the “popular” members of the group. The leader is often considered to be the one whom the “popular” members of the small group prefer in their elections.
The reliability of measurement in sociometry depends on the “strength” of the sociometric criterion, the age of the subjects, and the type of indices (personal or group). In a sociometric test, the possibility of distorting the test subject’s answers and concealing his true feelings is not excluded. A guarantee of the subject’s frankness can be: personally significant motivation for participation in the study, the choice of survey criteria that are significant for group members, trust in the researcher, the voluntary nature of testing, etc.
The stability of a sociometric measurement is confirmed, as a rule, by the method of parallel testing and cross-correlation of results. It has been established that the stability of sociometric results is determined by the dynamic nature of socio-psychological phenomena, in particular interpersonal relationships, and decreases over time. To determine the validity of the sociometric method, a comparison of measurement results with an external criterion is used, usually with the opinion of experts. The sociometric method should be complemented by other techniques aimed at a deeper analysis of the grounds of interpersonal preferences: the motives for interpersonal choices made by group members, their value orientations, the content and type of joint activities carried out.
The most significant disadvantages of the method are considered to be the difficulty of identifying the motives of interpersonal choices, the possibility of distortion of measurement results due to the insincerity of the subjects or due to the influence of psychological defense, and finally, sociometric measurement becomes important only when studying small groups that have experience of group interaction.
Method of group personality assessment (GAL). The group assessment method is a method of obtaining characteristics of a person in a specific group based on mutual questioning of its members about each other. The development of the method is associated with applied research in industrial and organizational psychology, where, on its basis, they are trying to solve issues of selection and placement of personnel (Chugunova, 1986). This method allows you to assess the presence and degree of expression (development) of a person’s psychological qualities, which are manifested in behavior and activity, in interaction with other people. The widespread use of GOL for applied and research purposes is associated with its simplicity and accessibility for users, the ability to diagnose those human qualities for which there are no reliable tools (tests, questionnaires), etc.
The psychological basis of GOL is the socio-psychological phenomenon of group ideas about each of the group members as a result of mutual knowledge of people in the process of communication. At the methodological level, GOL is a statistical set of individual ideas (images), recorded in the form of assessments. The psychological essence of the method determines the boundaries of its practical application as a method of recording certain reflected personality properties, the level of manifestation of the personality qualities of the person being assessed in a specific group.
The procedure of the GOL method involves assessing a person according to a certain list of characteristics (qualities) using methods of direct scoring, ranking, pairwise comparison, etc. The content of the assessment, i.e., the set of qualities being assessed, depends on the purpose of using the data obtained. The number of qualities varies among different researchers in a wide range: from 20 to 180. Qualities can be grouped into separate semantic groups (for example, business and personal qualities). Other grounds for separation are also used (Chugunova, 1986; Zhuravlev, 1990). To obtain reliable results, the number of assessment subjects is recommended to be between 7-12 people. The adequacy of measurement using GOL depends on three points: the cognitive abilities of the subjects of assessment (experts); on the characteristics of the object of assessment; from the position (level, situation) of interaction between the subject and object of assessment.
Tests. A test is a short, standardized, usually time-limited test. Tests in social psychology measure inter-individual or inter-group differences. On the one hand, it is believed that tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, and all methodological standards adopted in general psychology are also valid for social psychology (Andreeva, 1995). On the other hand, the wide range of used socio-psychological methods for diagnosing individuals and groups, intergroup interaction allows us to talk about tests as an independent means of empirical research (Semyonov, 1977; Croz, 1991). Areas of application of tests in social psychology: diagnostics of groups, study of interpersonal and intergroup relations and social perception, socio-psychological properties of the individual (social intelligence, social competence, leadership style, etc.).
The testing procedure involves the subject (a group of subjects) performing a special task or receiving answers to a number of questions that are indirect in nature in the tests. The point of subsequent processing is to use a “key” to correlate the received data with certain assessment parameters, for example, with personality characteristics. The final measurement result is expressed in a test indicator. Test scores are relative. Their diagnostic value is usually determined through correlation with a normative indicator obtained statistically on a significant number of subjects. The main methodological problem of measurement in social psychology using tests is the determination of a normative (basic) assessment scale when diagnosing groups. It is associated with the systemic, multifactorial nature of socio-psychological phenomena and their dynamism.
Classification of tests is possible on several grounds: according to the main object of study (intergroup, interpersonal, personal), according to the subject of study (compatibility tests, group cohesion, etc.), according to the structural features of the methods (questionnaires, instrumental, projective tests), according to the initial the starting point of the assessment (methods of expert assessment, preferences, subjective reflection of interpersonal relationships) (Yadov, 1995).
Among the tests used in social psychology, a special place is occupied by being an important tool for studying and methods (scales) for measuring social attitudes predicting the social behavior of an individual (Anastasi, 1984). They are designed to quantitatively measure the direction and intensity of human behavioral reactions in relation to various categories of social stimuli. Attitude scales are used for various purposes. The most well-known areas of their application are: studying public opinion, the consumer market, choosing effective advertising, measuring attitudes towards work, towards other people, towards political, social, economic problems, etc.
Attitude is often defined as the willingness to respond favorably or unfavorably to certain social stimuli. The peculiarity of the manifestation of attitudes is that they cannot be observed directly, but can be inferred from the characteristics of external behavior, in particular from a person’s responses to a specially selected set of judgments and statements (attitude scale), which records an opinion regarding a certain social object or stimulus, for example, attitude towards religion, war, place of work, etc. An attitude scale, unlike an opinion poll, allows you to measure an attitude as a one-dimensional variable, determine a special procedure for its construction and assumes a single summary indicator.
Experiment. The term “experiment” has two meanings in social psychology: experience and testing, as is customary in the natural sciences; research in the logic of identifying cause-and-effect relationships. One of the existing definitions of the experimental method indicates that it involves interaction organized by the researcher between the subject (or group of subjects) and the experimental situation in order to establish the patterns of this interaction. However, it is believed that the presence of only the logic of experimental analysis is not sufficient and does not indicate the specifics of the experiment (Zhukov, 1977).
Among the specific features of an experiment are: modeling of phenomena and research conditions (experimental situation); active influence of the researcher on the phenomena (variation of variables); measuring the reactions of subjects to this influence; reproducibility of results (Panferov, Trusov, 1977).
We can say that the emergence of social psychology as a science is associated with the penetration of experiment into the study of human relations. The classic studies of V. Mede, F. Allport, V. M. Bekhterev, A. F. Lazursky and others laid the experimental foundations for the study of the “group effect” and the social psychology of personality. As social psychology developed, this method became increasingly important in theoretical applied research, and its technique was improved (Zhukov, 1977).
As a rule, an experiment involves the following stages of its implementation. The theoretical stage - determining the initial conceptual scheme for analyzing the phenomenon under study (defining the subject and object of research, formulating a research hypothesis). The importance of this stage should be noted, since the experiment has the highest indirectness from theory. The methodological stage of the study involves choosing a general experimental plan, choosing an object and research methods, determining independent and dependent variables, determining the experimental procedure, as well as methods for processing the results (Campbell, 1980; Panferov, Trusov, 1977). Experimental stage - conducting an experiment: creating an experimental situation, controlling the progress of the experiment, measuring the reactions of subjects, controlling variables that are unorganized, i.e., included in the number of factors being studied. Analytical stage - quantitative processing and interpretation of the obtained facts in accordance with the original theoretical principles.
Depending on the basis of the classification, different types of experiments are distinguished: according to the specifics of the task - scientific and practical; by the nature of the experimental design - parallel (presence of control and experimental groups) and sequential ("before and after" experiment); by the nature of the experimental situation - field and laboratory; according to the number of variables studied - single-factor and multi-factor experiments. Sometimes a natural science experiment and an “ex-post-facto” experiment are distinguished (Andreeva, 1972).
The experimental method is generally considered to be the most rigorous and reliable method for collecting empirical data. However, the use of experiment as the main method of collecting empirical data led in the 70s. to the crisis of experimental social psychology. The experiment is criticized primarily for its low ecological validity, i.e., the impossibility of transferring conclusions obtained in an experimental situation beyond its boundaries (into natural conditions). Nevertheless, there is a point of view that the problem of the validity of an experiment lies not in the fact that the facts obtained in the experiment have no scientific value, but in their adequate theoretical interpretation (Zhukov, 1977). Despite many criticisms of this method, experiment remains an important means of obtaining reliable information.
As already noted, along with methods of collecting and processing psychological information, social psychology has an arsenal of methods of socio-psychological influence. These are methods of socio-psychological training, and socio-psychological counseling, etc. A very successful classification of methods of socio-psychological influence (Table 1.1), and in a form convenient for using the scheme, was proposed by A. L. Zhuravlev ( 1990).
Table 1.1. Classification of socio-psychological methods of influence
|
Purpose of influence |
Method group name |
|
|
Optimization |
Optimizing |
Formation of a favorable psychological climate, communication training, formation of compatible groups |
|
Intensification (stimulation, activation) |
Intensifying |
Techniques for rational organization of labor, staffing well-functioning groups |
|
Control |
Managers |
Psychological selection, personnel placement, planning of group activities |
|
Development, formation |
Developmental |
Group training, education and education |
|
Warning |
Preventive |
Methods for correcting the psychological properties of an individual and a group |
|
Diagnostic |
Certification, self-certification |
|
|
Informing |
Informing |
Psychological counseling |
In domestic scientific and educational literature, in Russian textbooks and manuals on social work, the classification of methods is carried out according to the traditional paradigm of social work, which was formed within the framework of sociology, pedagogy, psychology, management, economics: sociological, pedagogical, psychological, organizational, economic methods .
Sociological methods are highlighted as the sociological foundations of social work; pedagogical - as the social and pedagogical basis of the activities of social services; psychological - as psychological support for social work, content and methods of psychosocial practice. The authors of the textbook "Fundamentals of Social Work" highlight the sociological, political science, pedagogical, and psychological foundations of social work. There are methods of individual social work, methods of social work with a group, methods of social work in a microsocial environment. In the textbook "Social Work" edited by Professor V.I. Kurbatov distinguishes pedagogical, sociological, psychological methods of social work.
In the practice of social work, methods of social influence on the individual are used, which were formed as methods of purely social work, as a result of its theory and practice. Most of them are borrowed from the experience of social work in the USA and developed countries of Western Europe. The best of them are adapted to the domestic system of social protection of the population and social support for various target groups and categories of citizens. These methods are classified in terms of:
· Subject-subject or subject-object relationships (team, group work of specialists, social work specialists, volunteers and work with clients);
· Number of clients who are objects of social impact (individual, group, community, mass work);
Taking into account these approaches and cross-cultural traditions of social work in Ukraine, the methods of social work in our manual are presented as follows: sociological, psychological, organizational, and also study current approaches to defining methods of social work.
Sociological methods of social work
Sociology in social work is considered from the point of view of sociological support for the activities of organizations and institutions in the social sphere. At the level of social work as a science, theoretical sociology is used, reveals universal patterns and principles of constructing various social systems, generalizes and structures empirical data within individual branches of sociological knowledge. At the level of social work practice, empirical sociology is used, which establishes and generalizes social facts.
Methods for collecting sociological information are used in social work for research:
· Social interaction and social connections of individuals and social groups within the framework of relevant social institutions;
· Social changes and social processes, the source of which are social movements, which can escalate tension and conflicts in society, and on the other hand, be a means and instrument for overcoming them; reflect social isolation, marginality, changes in social status, personal instability, loss of family ties and individual mobility;
· Features of the functioning of social institutions of society and social organizations involved in social work: family, school, social services, rehabilitation centers, departments of social protection of the population, cultural institutions, social funds, etc.;
· Personalities in the system of social connections: needs, value orientations, motives, social attitudes, socialization of the individual, social status, social roles, social activity, etc.;
· Gender sociology: the study of the differentiation of male and female roles, gender differences, the functioning of married couples
· The influence of state policy on the lives of citizens: analysis of the political process and its material basis, sociological analysis of the mechanism of power within social work, studies of political stratification;
· Sociology of law: the social nature of lawful and unlawful behavior;
· Public opinion regarding the social status of citizens, their interests, requests, needs for social services;
· Structures, functions, causes and mechanisms of social conflict, conflict prevention and resolution;
· Interaction of bodies and institutions of the education system and social services, institutions of social protection of the population within the framework of the sociology of education;
· Sociology of city and countryside, the impact of urbanization on the organization;
· Social problems of various target groups of clients and categories of the population.
Sociological methods of social work are methods that are used to collect, process and analyze sociological data within the framework of social work.
Methodology is a consistent and interconnected set of technical techniques and operations associated with a specific method.
Technique is a set of special techniques for the effective use of a certain method.
In conducting sociological research, there are four sequential, logically and meaningfully interconnected stages:
1. Preparatory, consists of developing a program and tools - questionnaires, interview forms, forms for recording observation results, document analysis, and the like.
2. Collection of primary sociological information. Occurs through survey, observation, document analysis, experiment.
3. Compilation and processing of collected information.
4. Analysis of processed information, preparation of a report, formulation of conclusions, development of recommendations.
Object of sociological research- a certain social reality that requires targeted study (social communities, subjects, processes in their specific, relatively completed states and interactions).
Subject of sociological research- the most significant features from a theoretical or practical point of view, aspects of the object that need to be investigated.
The specifics of each stage are determined by the specific type of sociological research. In accordance with the established criteria, the most important of them are: the purpose of the study, the depth of the required analysis, the method of collecting primary sociological information, the object of the study, the timing of its implementation, the relationship between the customer and the contractor, the sphere of social reality that is being studied.
Fundamental sociological research in social work aimed at establishing and analyzing social trends, patterns of social development and related to solving complex problems of citizens and society as a whole. Fundamental sociological research is carried out in social work at the level of state institutions, such as the Ukrainian State Center for Social Services for Youth, the State Committee for Family and Youth Affairs, the Ministry of Social Policy and Labor, etc.
Applied research is aimed at studying a specific society (district, microdistrict, city, region, region), specific objects (pensioners, disabled people, orphans, low-income people, youth affected by the Chernobyl ABS, refugees released from prison, etc.), solutions certain social problems (homelessness, poverty, alcoholism, drug addiction, deviance, vagrancy, etc.).
Exploratory, descriptive, analytical studies that illuminate the depth of the data being studied and are used depending on the purpose and objectives of the study.
Exploratory research is the simplest in its parameters; it solves problems that are simple in content. They are used when the problem, object or subject of research is poorly studied or not studied at all. For example, studying the problems of families raising a disabled child with a rare pathology, a certain social group or community, foster families, and deinstitutionalization processes. Such studies are used as a preliminary stage of a more in-depth large-scale study, focusing them on collecting information about the object and subject of research, clarifying hypotheses, etc.
Descriptive studies create a relatively holistic picture of the phenomena and processes being studied: a study of the system of social services for youth, the functioning of the structure of the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy. The object of analysis is a large community of people - workers in the field of social services and users of social services with certain social, professional and demographic characteristics.
Analytical research not only describes social phenomena and their components, but also establishes the causes of their occurrence, the mechanisms of functioning, and identifies the factors that ensure them. They are used to analyze various social problems, the functioning of various social groups, and the level of living of citizens.
Search, descriptive, analytical studies are carried out on behalf of organizations and institutions of the social sphere by social agencies, institutes and other organizations and institutions that carry out sociological research.
One-time and repeated studies highlight methods of studying an object (statically or dynamically). A one-time study informs about the state of the object, its quantitative and qualitative characteristics at the time of the study, and reflects a “snapshot” of a social phenomenon. Data reflecting changes in an object, their directions and trends, can only be obtained through repeated studies (panel, trend, cohort). Panel studies examine changes in the same object over time, and it is mandatory to maintain the same sample. Trend - explore changes over a certain time on the same object without sampling. Cohort - study specific social aggregates - cohorts over a certain time.
Important for social work are monographic studies aimed at studying a specific social phenomenon or process on one object, which acts as a representative of a whole class of similar objects. In continuous research, all units of an object are examined without exception. In social work, sample studies are most often used, which examine not all units of research, but part of them, the purpose of which is to draw conclusions on the phenomenon being studied as a whole.
A special place is given to pilot sociological research, which allows one to assess the quality of tools (questionnaires, questionnaires, observation protocols, procedures, document analysis, etc.) and make the necessary adjustments to it.
Social work uses methods for collecting primary social information - document analysis and sociological observation. Analysis of documents allows the social worker to formulate the problem, object, subject, goals, objectives and hypotheses of the phenomenon under study; compare the empirical data obtained during the study with indicators from other studies; obtain information about a specific social problem; draw up a description of the social processes that occur at the societal, group, and individual levels, identify trends and develop forecasts for their further development; obtain information about the activities of the main social institutions of society - family, education, media; study public opinion and social well-being of the population, its individual segments and specific people. Analysis of documents allows you to see various aspects of social life, helps to learn about the norms and values inherent in a certain society in a certain historical period; find the information necessary to describe certain social structures; makes it possible to track the dynamics of interaction between various social groups and individuals, and the like.
Document- a means of fixing in an established way, using a special information carrier, facts, phenomena, processes of objective reality and human mental activity.
Of great importance for social workers are official documents - laws, government regulations, regulations, national programs and projects relating to issues of social protection of the population and social support for certain target groups and categories of the population. Official documents reflect and highlight collective opinions regarding certain political, socio-economic phenomena, events, and processes. Individual official documents, such as government and industry reports, inform about the state of affairs in the social sphere, intended to regulate relations between individuals, groups, communities, social institutions, and the like.
Statistical documents contain certain generalizations regarding the most important indicators of the functioning of society and its individual parts. Based on statistical data, a social worker has the opportunity to obtain information about the population size in the territory of the social service in which he works, the level of social stratification, features of the infrastructure of the district, microdistrict, city, etc., age composition of the population, gender differences, etc. Such documents can be the subject of independent analysis, since they allow one to study a certain process or phenomenon in dynamics, find out their trends, supplement the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, and enrich it with historical context. Statistical data contributes to the outline of a conceptual framework and the implementation of a specific research project. Statistical materials can be used not only for the quantitative determination of some qualitatively established parameters or illustrations, but also to prove the hypotheses put forward on any other basis. A careful and comprehensive analysis of statistical materials provides the basis for deep, qualitatively new social conclusions and generalizations.
At the micro level of social work, it is essential to study unofficial documents, which are an important source of information about the characteristics of the client’s social problem, his living conditions, and biographical data. The fate of a person and his future life often depend on how correctly personal documents are drawn up and adequately interpreted by a social worker. Informal documents (autobiographies, diaries, letters, literary adaptations, etc.) enrich with information about a person’s value orientation, the motives of his behavior, the level of socialization, individualization, adaptation, and satisfaction of needs in various spheres of life.
Iconographic documents, such as cinema and photographic documents, works of fine art - paintings, engravings, sculptures, are used primarily to supplement professional knowledge about a certain social phenomenon, and as “human history documents”, that is, documents that make it possible to draw up assessment of the personality of their authors.
Phonetic documents are often used in conjunction with other sociological methods. For example, during a focus group, a discussion on a particular issue is recorded on audio media. Phonetic documents in modern living conditions are an important tool for analyzing information obtained during conferences, round tables, trainings, seminars and other events organized by institutions in the field of social protection of the population. The most interesting phonetic documents are due to their linguistic analysis of information: knowledge of the characteristics of the language greatly contributes to the study of the structure and culture of thinking of various segments of the population. For a social worker, comparisons of various local dialects, literary and folk languages, and various speech characteristics that are characteristic of certain social groups may be interesting.
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Technical Institute (branch) of the Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education “North-Eastern Federal University named after M.K. Ammosov" in Neryungri
Test
In the discipline "Sociology"
On the topic: “Methods of social analysis”
Neryungri
Introduction
1. Methods of sociology
2. Survey, in the form of questionnaires and interviews
3. Observation
4. Document analysis
5. Content analysis
6. Experiment
7. Sociological test
8. Sociometric survey (sociometry)
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
It is quite obvious that the reliability of the facts and conclusions obtained by the researcher depends on how the latter came to these facts and conclusions, i.e., on the method he used. In everyday life, we also describe facts, evaluate their plausibility, infer hypothetical patterns, or refute other people's conclusions. However, in science, all these everyday methods of obtaining new knowledge are subject to much more careful development. Scientific methodology is a discipline that studies both technical, “procedural” issues of organizing research, and more general issues of the validity of the methods used, the reliability of observations, criteria for confirming or refuting scientific theories. The assessment of existing theories and hypotheses in the social sciences, as in the natural sciences, involves the introduction of certain criteria for empirical testability and the truth of theoretical statements, as well as the development and application of research methods that meet these criteria.
Quantitative methods for collecting sociological information include methods of obtaining information about the object being studied, which make it possible to identify its quantitative characteristics. We are talking, first of all, about content analysis, observation, sociometry, a set of survey methods, as well as a sociological experiment. In my work I will focus specifically on survey research methods.
1. Methods of sociology
Sociology, as an independent branch of scientific knowledge, uses a set of specific methods to study its subject. All methods of sociology can be divided into theoretical and empirical.
As a tool for theoretical research in sociology, as in philosophy, reflection is used (from the Latin reflexio - turning back) - the process of comprehending something through study and comparison. The source material for the production of new scientific knowledge are already existing theories, ideas of various scientists, which are synthesized with the researcher’s own scientific views using various logical schemes, based on one or another theoretical paradigm. In the process of research, sociologists, as a rule, use such theoretical methods as systemic, structural-functional, synergetic, methods of logical interpretation, modeling and a number of others.
A special group of methods widely used in sociological research are the methods of mathematical statistics. They allow analysis and interpretation of primary sociological information, as well as verification of data already obtained.
Along with theoretical methods, sociology uses empirical methods. The source material for empirical research is various opinions, judgments, social facts, semantic indicators, phenomena or processes that the sociologist tries to obtain and systematize using special methods of collecting and processing primary sociological information.
Methods of sociology- this is a set of basic cognitive techniques with the help of which one arrives at scientific truths. Sociology uses two groups of methods.
Empirical methods are divided into quantitative (classical) and qualitative. Some methods have their own variations, both in quantitative and qualitative approaches.
Quantitative methods for collecting sociological information include, first of all:
· survey, in the form of questionnaires and interviews;
· observation;
· document analysis;
· content analysis;
· experiment;
· sociological test;
· sociometric survey (sociometry).
2. Survey, in the form of questionnaires and interviews
Polls - a method of collecting social information about an object during direct (interview) or indirect (questioning) socio-psychological communication between the sociologist (interviewer) and the one being interviewed (respondent) by recording the respondent’s answers. Survey methods are divided into interviews and questionnaires.
There are many types of interviews. Based on the technique of conducting, there are free, focused and formalized interviews.
· Free interviews are long conversations with the respondent without strictly detailing the questions.
· A formalized (standardized) interview involves a detailed development of the entire procedure, including a general outline of the conversation, a certain sequence and design of questions, and options for possible answers.
· Focused (clinical) interview - identifying a relatively narrow range of reactions of the interviewee.
Conversation - This is one of the survey methods, which is a relatively free dialogue between the researcher and the subject(s) on a specific topic, i.e. a method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication. In a conversation, you can identify the relationship of the person being examined to people, their own behavior, and events; determine the cultural level, features of moral and legal consciousness, level of intellectual development, etc.
During the conversation, you should make a favorable impression on your interlocutor, arouse interest in the issues being discussed, and a desire to answer them.
A favorable climate for conversation is created by:
Clear, concise and meaningful introductory phrases and explanations;
Showing respect for the personality of the interlocutor, attention to his opinion and interests (you need to let him feel this);
Positive remarks (every person has positive qualities);
A skillful manifestation of expression (tone, timbre of voice, intonation, facial expressions, etc.), which is designed to confirm a person’s conviction in what is being discussed, his interest in the issues raised.
Thus, the survey can be conducted orally - interview and in writing - survey. But the meaning is the same: to obtain answers from respondents to certain, pre-formulated questions. Moreover, each question in the questionnaire should be considered as a specific measuring tool for recording certain information.
Interview - a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent, with the answers recorded by the interviewer or his assistant, possibly on tape.
A feature of a questionnaire survey is the use of a questionnaire filled out by the respondent (he reads the questionnaire himself and records the answers). A questionnaire survey can be face-to-face, in which the interviewer distributes questionnaires and was present when they are filled out, and correspondence, which in turn can be postal (questionnaires are sent by mail and returned to the researchers after a while), press (the questionnaire is published on the pages of newspapers or magazines) and telephone (the survey takes place by telephone). A special type of survey is an expert survey, i.e. a survey in which the respondent is an expert (a specialist in a certain field of activity).
3. Observation
Observation is a method of direct recording of events by an eyewitness as they occur. Most often, this method is used when the information needed by a sociologist cannot be obtained by any other means, for example, when studying the behavior of people at rallies or during mass spectacles (for example, football competitions).
There are two main types of observation: included and non-involved. If a sociologist studies the behavior of strikers, a street crowd, a teenage group or a team of workers from the outside (he records all types of actions, reactions, forms of communication, etc. on a special form), then he conducts non-participant observation. The rule of non-participant observation: one must strive to see without being visible and without becoming a participant in the observed event. If a sociologist joined the ranks of the strikers, joined the crowd, participates in a teenage group, or if he got a job at an enterprise (participation may be anonymous or not), then he conducts participant observation.
The characteristic features of scientific observation, in contrast to everyday observation, are systematicity and planning. The main feature of the observation method is that there is a direct connection with the object, and one of the features of the method is the impossibility of repeated observation.
4. Document analysis
This is a method of collecting primary information, the main source of which is documents. Documents are printed, handwritten, etc. materials that are created to store information.
Types of documents vary:
· By the method of storing information.
· By the nature of the source (official, unofficial).
Document analysis has the problem of information reliability and document reliability. It is decided during the selection of documents for specific studies, and during the internal and external analysis of the content of documents. External analysis is the study of the circumstances surrounding the origin of documents. Internal analysis - study of the features of the content and style of the document.
Types of analysis:
· qualitative (in-depth logical and stylistic study of the document). It is focused on tracing, recreating an individual in the history of the author. It is used to analyze unique personal documents and is adjacent to the direction of understanding sociology;
· qualitative-quantitative (content analysis). The essence of this method is to recreate social reality according to some indicators that can be identified in the text. This is a calculation of how semantic units presented in a certain information array characterize extra-textual reality. This method is used to analyze large arrays of documents.
5. Content analysis
Content analysis (from the English contens content) is a method of qualitative and quantitative analysis of the content of documents in order to identify or measure various facts and trends reflected in these documents. The peculiarity of content analysis is that it studies documents in their social context. It can be used as the main research method (for example, content analysis of a text when studying the political orientation of a newspaper), parallel, i.e. in combination with other methods (for example, in studying the effectiveness of the functioning of the media), auxiliary or control (for example, when classifying answers to open-ended questions in questionnaires).
Not all documents can become the object of content analysis. It is necessary that the content being studied allows one to set an unambiguous rule for reliably recording the necessary characteristics (the principle of formalization), and also that the content elements of interest to the researcher occur with sufficient frequency (the principle of statistical significance). Most often, the objects of content analysis research are press, radio, television messages, minutes of meetings, letters, orders, instructions, etc., as well as data from free interviews and open-ended questionnaire questions. The main areas of application of content analysis: identifying what existed before the text and what was reflected in it in one way or another (the text as an indicator of certain aspects of the object being studied - the surrounding reality, the author or the addressee); determination of what exists only in the text as such (various characteristics of the form - language, structure, genre of message, rhythm and tone of speech); identifying what will exist after the text, i.e. after its perception by the addressee (assessment of various effects of influence).
There are several stages in the development and practical application of content analysis. After the topic, objectives and hypotheses of the study are formulated, categories of analysis are determined - the most general, key concepts corresponding to the research tasks. The category system plays the role of questions in a questionnaire and indicates which answers should be found in the text.
In the practice of domestic content analysis, a fairly stable system of categories has developed - sign, goals, values, theme, hero, author, genre, etc. Content analysis of media messages, based on a paradigmatic approach, according to which The studied features of texts (the content of the problem, the reasons for its occurrence, the problem-creating subject, the degree of intensity of the problem, ways to solve it, etc.) are considered as a structure organized in a certain way.
6. Experiment
An experiment (from the Latin experimentum - test, experience) is a general method of obtaining new knowledge under controlled and controlled conditions, primarily about cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena and processes.
A social experiment is a way of obtaining information about a social object as a result of the influence of certain factors on it. The experiment involves the direct intervention of the researcher in the real course of events. It is important to remember that during the experiment, special attention is paid to the study of the “behavior” of those factors that give the object new features and qualities.
The following types of experiment are distinguished: economic, legal, pedagogical, socio-psychological, etc. Preparing and conducting any experiment is quite labor-intensive and requires special knowledge and methodological skills.
The experimental method is aimed at obtaining information based on studying the behavior of the object of study under the influence of predetermined and controlled factors artificially introduced into the object under study or its environment.
When conducting an experiment, it is important to take into account that it involves a violation of the natural connections of the object being studied, as a result of which its essence may change.
The effectiveness of an experiment as a method of collecting sociological information increases significantly if it is combined with other methods, especially such as document analysis, which usually precedes the experiment, and various types of surveys.
7. Sociological test
A sociological test is a system of statements selected by sociological methods and presented to respondents in order to obtain reliable information about the characteristics of interest.
In applied sociology, the testing procedure is borrowed from psychologists. Tests measure personality and group characteristics. Recently, tests have been used in various fields of knowledge (from pedagogy to astronautics). In sociological research, tests are a type of survey.
8. Sociometric survey (sociometry)
survey sociometric questionnaire interview
The purpose of a sociometric survey is to obtain data on interpersonal relationships in small social groups using so-called sociometric criteria.
Processed and analyzed sociometric information makes it possible to diagnose points of psychological tension in the surveyed groups, determine their causes and promptly influence the structure of teams, changing their composition so that the relationships of individuals are based on feelings of sympathy, mutual compatibility, excluding antagonistic conflicts in the process of joint activities.
Conclusion
Sociology in our country is a relatively young science. There was a time when, along with cybernetics and genetics, sociology was considered a bourgeois science. Sociological research was not encouraged, because it was believed that everything contained in party documents was true. Along the way, it can be noted that at present we have gone to the other extreme: every student and every non-specialist teacher considers himself a complete sociologist and considers knowledge of sociological theory, methodology and methods of conducting sociological research unnecessary, limiting himself to compiling primitive questionnaires. Meanwhile, the study of sociology is of theoretical and practical interest for future specialists. The peculiarity of the sociological method and research lies in two fundamental points: first, it allows you to formalize the method of collecting social information. What other humanities disciplines spend many years of work and money on, a sociologist can do in a few days, and at the same time obtain relatively cheap and objective information. Secondly, the sociological research method allows, by conceptually recording a phenomenon in the process of its development, to verify the resulting conceptual constructs, albeit relative to its previous stage, i.e., recording as an after fact. But this allows us to quite successfully predict and, accordingly, plan our activities and even design some social processes.
Bibliography
1. Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A., Sociology.
2. Economic sociology? Radaev V.V.
3. Electronic resource: http://www.xreferat.ru//.
4. Sociological dictionary.
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