Church reform of Peter I - measures carried out by Peter I in early XVIII centuries, which radically changed the governance of the Russian Orthodox Church, introducing a system that some researchers believe to be Caesar-papist.
The position of the Russian Church before the reforms of Peter I
By the end of the 17th century, the Russian Church had accumulated a significant number of both internal problems and problems related to its position in society and the state, as well as practically complete absence systems of religious and church enlightenment and education. In half a century, as a result of the not entirely successfully carried out reforms of Patriarch Nikon, an Old Believer schism occurred: a significant part of the Church - primarily the common people - did not accept the decisions of the Moscow Councils of 1654, 1655, 1656, 1666 and 1667 and rejected the transformations prescribed by them in the Church, following norms and traditions that formed in Moscow in the 16th century, when the Moscow Church was in schism with Ecumenical Orthodoxy - until the normalization of its status in 1589-1593. All this left a significant imprint on the society of that time. Also, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon pursued a policy that clearly threatened the emerging Russian absolutism. Being an ambitious man, Nikon tried to maintain the same status in the Moscow State that Patriarch Filaret had before him. These attempts ended in complete failure for him personally. The Russian tsars, clearly seeing the danger of the privileged position of the Russian Church, which owned vast lands and enjoyed benefits, felt the need to reform the government of the church. But in the 17th century the government did not dare to take radical measures. The privileges of the Church, which came into conflict with the emerging absolutism, consisted of the right of land ownership and trial of clergy in all matters. By land holdings the churches were huge, the population of these lands, in most cases exempt from paying taxes, was useless to the state. Monastic and bishop's commercial and industrial enterprises also did not pay anything to the treasury, thanks to which they could sell their goods cheaper, thereby undermining the merchants. The continuous growth of monastic and church land ownership in general threatened the state with huge losses.
Even Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, despite his devotion to the church, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to put a limit on the claims of the clergy. Under him, the further transfer of land into the ownership of the clergy was stopped, and lands recognized as taxable, which ended up in the hands of the clergy, were returned back to taxation. According to the Council Code of 1649, the trial of the clergy for all civil cases was transferred to the hands of a new institution - the Monastic Prikaz. The monastic order was the main significant subject of the subsequent conflict between the Tsar and Nikon, who in in this case expressed the interests of the entire corporation of the highest clergy. The protest was so strong that the tsar had to give in and agree with the fathers of the Council of 1667, so that the trial of clergy in civil and even criminal cases would be returned to the hands of the clergy. After the Council of 1675, the Monastic Order was abolished.
An important factor in church life at the end of the 17th century was the annexation of the Kyiv Metropolis to the Moscow Patriarchate in 1687. The Russian episcopate included Western-educated Little Russian bishops, some of whom will play key role in the church reforms of Peter I.
General nature and background
Peter I, having stood at the helm of government, saw the mute, and sometimes obvious, dissatisfaction of the clergy with the transformations that were begun to modernize Russia, because they were destroying the old Moscow system and customs, to which they were so committed in their ignorance. As the bearer of the state idea, Peter did not allow the independence of the church in the state, and as a reformer who devoted his life to the cause of renewal of the fatherland, he did not like the clergy, among whom he found greatest number opponents of what was closest to him. But he was not an unbeliever; rather, he belonged to those who are called indifferent to matters of faith.
Even during the life of Patriarch Adrian, Peter, a very young man who led a life quite far from church interests, expressed his wishes to the head of the Russian clergy regarding the putting in order of the clergy. However, the patriarch shunned innovations that penetrated the structure of state and social life in Russia. Over time, Peter's dissatisfaction with the Russian clergy intensified, so that he even got used to attributing most of his failures and difficulties in internal affairs to the secret but stubborn opposition of the clergy. When, in Peter’s mind, everything that opposed and was hostile to his reforms and plans was embodied in the person of the clergy, he decided to neutralize this opposition, and all his reforms related to the structure of the Russian Church were aimed at this. They all meant:
- Elimination of the opportunity for the Russian pope to grow up - “the second sovereign, an autocrat equal or greater”, which he could become, and in the person of Patriarchs Filaret and Nikon before to a certain extent became, Moscow Patriarch;
- Subordination of the church to the monarch. Peter looked at the clergy in such a way that they “are not another state” and must, “along with other classes,” obey general state laws.
Peter's travels through the Protestant countries of Europe further strengthened his views on the relationship between the state and the church. With considerable attention, Peter listened to the advice of William of Orange in 1698, during his informal meetings, to organize the Church in Russia in the Anglican manner, declaring himself its Head.
In 1707, Metropolitan Isaiah of Nizhny Novgorod was deprived of his chair and exiled to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, who sharply protested against the actions of the Monastic Order in his diocese.
The case of Tsarevich Alexy, with whom many clergy pinned hopes for the restoration of former customs, was extremely painful for some of the higher clergy. Having fled abroad in 1716, the Tsarevich maintained relations with Metropolitan Ignatius (Smola) of Krutitsky, Metropolitan Joasaph (Krakovsky) of Kiev, Bishop Dosifei of Rostov, and others. During the search carried out by Peter, Peter himself called “conversations with priests and monks” the main reason for treason. As a result of the investigation, punishment fell upon the clergy who were found to have connections with the Tsarevich: Bishop Dosifei was defrocked and executed, as well as the Tsarevich’s confessor, Archpriest Jacob Ignatiev, and the clergyman of the cathedral in Suzdal, Theodore the Desert, who was close to Peter’s first wife, Queen Evdokia; Metropolitan Joasaph was deprived of his see, and Metropolitan Joasaph, summoned for questioning, died on the way from Kyiv.
It is noteworthy that throughout the preparation for the reform of church government, Peter was in intensive relations with the eastern patriarchs - primarily the Patriarch of Jerusalem Dositheos - on various issues of both a spiritual and political nature. And he also addressed the Ecumenical Patriarch Cosmas with private spiritual requests, such as permission for him to “eat meat” during all fasts; His Letter to the Patriarch dated July 4, 1715 justifies the request by the fact that, as the document says, “I suffer from febro and scurvy, which illnesses come to me more from all sorts of harsh foods, and especially since I am forced to be constantly for the defense of the holy church and state and my subjects in military difficult and distant campaigns<...>" With another letter from the same day, he asks Patriarch Cosmas for permission to eat meat at all posts for the entire Russian army during military campaigns, ““our more Orthodox troops<...>They are on difficult and long journeys and in remote and inconvenient and deserted places, where there is little, and sometimes nothing, of any fish, below some other Lenten dishes, and often even bread itself.” There is no doubt that it was more convenient for Peter to resolve issues spiritual nature with the eastern patriarchs, who were largely supported by the Moscow government (and Patriarch Dosifei was de facto a political agent and informant for several decades Russian government about everything that happened in Constantinople) rather than with his own, sometimes obstinate, clergy.
Peter's first endeavors in this area
Even during the life of Patriarch Adrian, Peter himself forbade the construction of new monasteries in Siberia.
In October 1700, Patriarch Adrian died. Peter was at that time with his troops near Narva. Here in the camp, he received two letters concerning the situation created by the death of the Patriarch. Boyar Tikhon Streshnev, who remained in charge of Moscow during the sovereign's absence, according to the old custom, gave a report on the death and burial of the patriarch, on the measures taken to protect the property of the patriarchal house, and asked who to appoint as the new patriarch. Profit-maker Kurbatov, obliged by his position to represent the sovereign about everything that tends to profit and benefit the state, wrote to the sovereign that the Lord judged him, the tsar, “to govern his property and his people in everyday needs in truth, like the father of a child.” He further pointed out that due to the death of the patriarch, his subordinates took all matters into their own hands and disposed of all patriarchal income in their own interests. Kurbatov proposed electing, as before, a bishop for temporary control of the patriarchal throne. Kurbatov advised that all monastic and episcopal estates should be rewritten and given over to someone else for protection.
A week after returning from Narva, Peter did as Kurbatov suggested. Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan and Murom was appointed guardian and administrator of the Patriarchal Throne. The locum tenens was entrusted with the management of only matters of faith: “about schism, about opposition to the church, about heresies,” but all other matters under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch were distributed according to the orders to which they belonged. The special order in charge of these matters - the Patriarchal Order - was destroyed.
The reforms of Peter I are transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activities of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.
The peculiarity of the first stage was haste and not always thought out, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to desired result. In addition to government reforms, at the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, reforms were more systematic.
A number of historians, for example V. O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that the reforms of Peter I were not something fundamentally new, but were only a continuation of those transformations that were carried out during the 17th century. Other historians (for example, Sergei Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.
Historians who analyzed Peter's reforms adhere to different views for his personal participation in them. One group believes that Peter did not play the main role in both the formulation of the reform program and the process of its implementation (which was assigned to him as a king). Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter I in carrying out certain reforms.
Reforms government controlled
See also: Senate (Russia) and Collegiums ( Russian empire)
At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the sphere of government. The emergence of a new government institution or a change in the administrative-territorial management of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg.
From the first years of Peter's reign, there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in government. In 1699, under the king, the Near Chancellery, or Consilium (Council) of Ministers, was organized, consisting of 8 proxies, managing individual orders. This was the prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711. The last mention of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704. A certain mode of work was established in the Consilium: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appeared. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established. Peter formulated the main task of the Senate this way: “To look at expenses throughout the state, and set aside unnecessary, and especially wasteful ones. How can we collect money, since money is the artery of war.”
Created by Peter for the current administration of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar went to Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of the boards), gradually turned from a temporary to a permanent highest government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, and monitored the orderly execution of the nobles conscription, the functions of the Discharge and Ambassadorial orders were transferred to him.
Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, on general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest government body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.
Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared. The duty of the chief fiscal under the Senate and the fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the Auditor General, who was renamed Chief Secretary in 1718. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.
The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In 1717-1721 a reform was carried out executive bodies management, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 boards were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. The following were introduced:
· Collegium of Foreign Affairs - replaced the Ambassadorial Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
· Military Collegium (Military) - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.
· Admiralty Collegium - naval affairs, fleet.
· Patrimonial Collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
· Chamber Board - collection of state revenues.
· State Office Board - was in charge of state expenses,
· Audit Board - control over the collection and expenditure of government funds.
· Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
· Berg College - mining and metallurgy (mining industry).
· Manufactory Collegium - light industry(manufactures, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
· The College of Justice - was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). She worked in civil and criminal court.
· The Spiritual College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This board/Synod included representatives of the highest clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. Actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular power controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the king. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an educational mission among the peasants: read sermons and instructions to them, teach children prayers, and instill in them respect for the king and the church.
· Little Russian Collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who held power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime there local government. After the death of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections of hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The board was headed by a tsarist officer.
From February 28, 1720 General Regulations introduced a unified system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country. According to the regulations, the board consisted of a president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.
The secret police occupied a central place in the management system: Preobrazhensky order(in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were administered by the emperor himself.
In addition, there was a Salt Office, a Copper Department, and a Land Survey Office.
The “first” collegiums were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.
There were two institutions with the rights of collegiums: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.
The boards were subordinate to the Senate, and to them were the provincial, provincial and district administrations.
The results of the management reform of Peter I are viewed ambiguously by historians.
Regional reform
Main article: Regional reform of Peter I
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.
Governors were also in charge of the troops stationed on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.
In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by voivodes, and super-district provinces headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. Functions supreme court received the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - the Hofgerichts or court appeal courts in major cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called single court acted (cases were decided individually by the zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722, the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a voivode. Also, Peter I was the first person to carry out judicial reform, regardless of the state of the country.
Control over the activities of civil servants
To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, the position of fiscals was established in 1711, who were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals. . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the emperor and subordinate to him. The chief fiscal was part of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).
In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.
Military reform
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reform of the army and the creation of a fleet began necessary conditions victories in Northern War 1700-1721. In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first recruitment yielded 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households were required to send one recruit to lifelong service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.
To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings. In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.
In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the tsar’s close Ukrainian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed Holy Synod, who was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of loyalty to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.
Financial reform
Azov campaigns, the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the maintenance of a permanent conscription army created by Peter I required huge funds, the collection of which was aimed at collecting financial reforms.
At the first stage, it all came down to finding new sources of funds. To the traditional customs and tavern levies were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.) , mandatory use of stamp paper, minting coins of lesser weight (damage).
In 1704 Peter carried out currency reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit became not money, but a penny. From now on it began to be equal not to ½ money, but to 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins. At the same time, the fiat ruble, which had been a conventional monetary unit since the 15th century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a standard in exchange transactions, was also abolished. The most important measure during financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the previously existing household taxation. In 1710, a “household” census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of households. One of the reasons for this decrease was that, in order to reduce taxes, several households were surrounded by one fence and one gate was made (this was considered one yard during the census). Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to the poll tax. In 1718-1724, a repeat census was carried out in parallel with the population audit (revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this audit, there were 5,967,313 people in taxable status.
Based on the data obtained, the government divided the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy by the population.
As a result, the size of the per capita tax was determined: serf landowners paid the state 74 kopecks, state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay quitrent), urban population- 1 ruble 20 kopecks. Only men were subject to tax, regardless of age. The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempt from the poll tax. The soul was countable - between audits, the dead were not excluded from the tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was distributed unevenly.
As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased. If in 1710 incomes extended to 3,134,000 rubles; then in 1725 there were 10,186,707 rubles. (according to foreign sources - up to 7,859,833 rubles).
Transformations in industry and trade
Main article: Industry and trade under Peter I
Having realized Russia's technical backwardness during the Grand Embassy, Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming Russian industry. In addition, the creation of its own industry was dictated by military needs, as indicated by a number of historians. Having started the Northern War with Sweden in order to gain access to the sea and proclaiming as a task the construction of a modern fleet in the Baltic (and even earlier in Azov), Peter was forced to build manufactories designed to meet the sharply increased needs of the army and navy.
One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen. The Tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service for favorable conditions, sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe. Manufacturers received great privileges: they were exempt from military service with their children and craftsmen, they were subject only to the court of the Manufacture Collegium, they were freed from taxes and internal duties, they could import the tools and materials they needed from abroad duty-free, their houses were freed from military billets.
Significant measures have been taken for geological exploration of mineral resources in Russia. Previously, the Russian state was completely dependent on raw materials foreign countries, first of all, to Sweden (iron was brought from there), however, after the discovery of deposits of iron ore and other minerals in the Urals, the need for purchasing iron disappeared. In the Urals, in 1723, the largest ironworks in Russia was founded, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed. Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, and Nizhny Tagil were founded. Weapons factories (cannon yards, arsenals) appeared in the Olonetsky region, Sestroretsk and Tula, gunpowder factories - in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, the leather and textile industries developed - in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and Left Bank Ukraine, which was determined by the need to produce equipment and uniforms for the Russian troops, silk spinning, paper production, cement production, a sugar factory and a trellis factory appeared.
In 1719, the “Berg Privilege” was issued, according to which everyone was given the right to search, smelt, cook and clean metals and minerals everywhere, subject to payment of a “mining tax” of 1/10 of the cost of production and 32 shares in favor of the owner of that land where ore deposits were found. For hiding ore and attempting to interfere with mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of the land, corporal punishment and even the death penalty"due to fault."
The main problem in Russian manufactories of that time was the shortage of labor. The problem was solved by violent measures: entire villages and villages were assigned to manufactories, whose peasants worked off their taxes to the state in manufactories (such peasants would be called assigned), criminals and beggars were sent to factories. In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed “merchant people” to buy villages, the peasants of which could be resettled in manufactories (such peasants would be called possessions).
Further development received trade. With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the country's main port passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital. River canals were built.
In particular, the Vyshnevolotsky (Vyshnevolotsk water system) and Obvodny canals were built. At the same time, two attempts to build the Volga-Don Canal ended in failure (although 24 locks were built), while tens of thousands of people worked on its construction, the working conditions were difficult, and the mortality rate was very high.
Some historians characterize Peter's trade policy as a policy of protectionism, consisting of supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of mercantilism). Thus, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be produced or were already produced by domestic enterprises.
The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to 233, including about 90 large manufactories.
Autocracy reform
Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated by law in any way, and was entirely determined by tradition. In 1722, Peter issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in force until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not take advantage of the law on succession to the throne, since he died without specifying a successor.
Class politics
The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy, - legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, there was new structure society in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.
Nobility
1. Decree on education of 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education.
2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
3. Decree on single inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the differences between them.
4. Division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of a personal nobleman. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service.
The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks first four classes "Table of Ranks". Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed its responsibilities. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class service people, is now becoming a duty for all segments of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on single inheritance and audit, he is made responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the nobility to people of other classes through length of service through the Table of Ranks. On the other hand, with the law on single inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy for those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia is becoming a military-bureaucratic class, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.
Peasantry
Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying rent to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land ( Cathedral Code 1649) and could be granted by the king to individuals and the church as serfs. State peasants in the 18th century had rights personally free people(could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to class bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category finally established as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts, relating to the serf peasantry itself, were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owners. The norm was also confirmed about the transfer into custody of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants, and serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, serfs were deprived of this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were given the right to move to posads, freed from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, landowners were allowed to give serfs as recruits. By decree of April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede for unpaid debts of “manorial” serfs, which was actually a form of serf trade. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries. Created under Peter new category dependent farmers - peasants assigned to manufactories. In the 18th century, these peasants were called possession farmers. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.
Transformations in the sphere of culture
Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ.” The year 7208 according to the Byzantine era became 1700 from the Nativity of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, under Peter, uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced.
After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I waged a fight against external manifestations“outdated” way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular people began to appear educational establishments, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.
Under Peter the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared in 1703. Before that, numbers were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified style of letters (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), two letters “xi” and “psi” were excluded.
Peter created new printing houses, in which 1312 book titles were printed between 1700 and 1725 (twice as many as during the entire previous story Russian book printing). Thanks to the rise of printing, paper consumption increased from 4-8 thousand sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50 thousand sheets in 1719.
Changes have occurred in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.
In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the organized Academy of Sciences (opened in 1725 after his death).
Special meaning there was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, lifestyle, food composition, etc. have changed.
By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts. The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study “art” abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. “Peter’s pensioners” began to return to Russia, bringing with them a new artistic experience and acquired skill.
On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702) Peter issued a decree, which ordered that full names should be written in petitions and other documents instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees before the Tsar, and a hat in winter in the cold Do not take pictures in front of the house where the king is. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: “Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of a king...”
Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to dissolve the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither party had the right to “beat the forfeit.” Legislative regulations 1696-1704. on public celebrations, mandatory participation in celebrations and festivities was introduced for all Russians, including the “female sex.”
Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape among the nobility, which was radically different from the values and worldview of the majority of representatives of other classes.
Education
On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721 artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and Marine Academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. Purposes mass education Numerical schools, created by decree of 1714, were supposed to serve in provincial cities, designed to “teach children of every rank to read and write, numbers and geometry.” It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created for the training of priests in 1721.
According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.
Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death; most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.
In 1689, Peter I the Great established himself on the Russian throne, having gained the opportunity to make independent decisions, and not just be listed as tsar (from 1682). Descendants remembered him as a controversial and powerful man who started global transformations in the country. About these historical reforms and we'll talk in our article.
Conditions for change
Having gained true power, the king immediately began to govern the country. There are several main reasons for this:
- he inherited a state that was quite far behind the European powers in development;
- he understood that such large and poorly developed territories needed permanent protection, establishing new economic and political ties.
In order to adequately support the army, it is necessary to raise the standard of living of the entire country, change foundations and strengthen power. This became the main goal and objectives of the reforms of Peter the Great.
Not everyone liked the innovations. Some segments of the population tried to resist the reforms of Peter the Great. The boyars and high clergy lost their special status, and a small group of nobles and merchants were afraid to deviate from old customs. But, due to the lack of sufficient support, they could not stop the changes, they only slowed down the process.
Rice. 1. The first Russian emperor Peter the Great.
The essence of the transformation
State reforms in Russia during the time of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two stages:
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- From 1696 to 1715: changes were carried out hastily, under pressure; were poorly thought out and often ineffective. The main activities of this period were aimed at obtaining resources for participation in the Northern War.
- From 1715 to 1725: the transformations were planned and were more successful.
In 1698, Peter the Great, having adopted the experience Western Europe, embarked on an active transformation of both state and public sphere. For convenience, we will list the main changes point by point:
- Administrative : include public administration reform, regional (provincial), city. Creation of new authorities (Senate, 13 colleges, Holy Synod, Chief Magistrate); change territorial structure, for more efficient collection taxes;
- Judicial reform : also concerned the reorganization of power, but was highlighted separately because it the main task- stop the influence of the administration on judges;
- Church reform : deprivation of the church's independence, submission to the will of the ruler;
- Military reform : creation of a fleet, a regular army, their full support;
- Financial : include monetary and tax reform. The introduction of new monetary units, reducing the weight of coins, replacing the main tax with a capitation tax;
- Industrial and trade reforms : mining of minerals, creation of manufactories, use of serfs to reduce the cost of labor, state support of national production, reduction of imports, increase in exports;
- Social : class reforms (new duties for all classes), educational (compulsory initial training, creation of specialized schools), medical (creation of a state hospital and pharmacies, training of doctors). These also include educational reforms and changes in the field of science (the creation of the Academy of Sciences, printing houses, public library, newspaper release), including metrological (introduction English units measurements, creation of standards);
- Cultural : a new chronology and calendar (the year begins on January 1), the creation of a state theater, the organization of “assemblies” (mandatory cultural events for nobles), restrictions on wearing beards, European clothing requirements, permission to smoke.
Serious indignation among the nobility was caused by the need to bring their appearance in accordance with European standards.
Rice. 2. Boyars under Peter II.
Consequences of reforms
It would be wrong to downplay the importance of the reorganizations carried out by Peter I. They contributed to the comprehensive development of the Russian state, which made it possible to make it an empire in 1721. But we should not forget that not all results were positive. The transformations led to the following results:
- Strengthening power with the help of a new state apparatus (strengthening autocracy);
- Building a fleet, improving the army, getting access to Baltic Sea(25 years of military service);
- Development of domestic industry (use of free labor of serfs);
- Improving conditions for the development of science, education (practically not touched common people);
- Spreading European culture(oppression of national traditions);
- Salary title of nobility for official merits (additional responsibilities for all segments of the population);
- Introduction of new taxes.
Convenient navigation through the article:
History table: Reforms of Emperor Peter I
Peter I is one of the most prominent rulers of the Russian state, ruling from 1682 to 1721. During his reign, reforms were carried out in many areas, many wars were won, and the foundation for the future greatness of the Russian Empire was laid!
Table navigation: Reforms of Peter 1:
| Reforms in the field: | Reform date: | Reform name: | The essence of the reform: | Results and significance of the reform: |
| In the field of army and navy: | 1. Creation of a regular army | Creation of a professional army, replacing the local militia and streltsy troops. Formation based on conscription | Russia became a great military and naval power and won the Northern War, gaining access to the Baltic Sea | |
| 2. Construction of the first Russian fleet | A regular navy appears | |||
| 3. Training of personnel and officials abroad | Training of military and sailors from foreign professionals | |||
| In the economic sphere: | 1. Militarization of the economy | State support for the construction of metallurgical plants in the Urals. During times of military difficulties, bells were melted down to make cannons. | An economic basis for conducting military operations has been created - strengthening the defense capability of the state | |
| 2. Development of manufactories | Creation of many new manufactories Registration of peasants to enterprises (registered peasants) | Industry growth. The number of manufactories increased 7 times. Russia is becoming one of the leading industrial powers in Europe. Many industries are being created and modernized. | ||
| 3. Trade reform | 1. Protectionism - support for your manufacturer; export more goods than import; high customs duties on the import of foreign goods. 1724 – Customs tariff 2. Construction of canals 3. Search for new trade routes | Growth of industry and flourishing trade | ||
| 4. Craft | Association of artisans into workshops | Improving the quality and productivity of artisans | ||
| 1724 | 5. Tax reform | A poll tax was introduced (levied on males) instead of a household tax. | Budget growth. Increasing the tax burden on the population | |
| Reforms in the field of state and local self-government: | 1711 | 1. Creation of the Governing Senate | 10 people who made up the king’s inner circle. Helped the Tsar in state affairs and replaced the Tsar during his absence | Increased performance government agencies. Strengthening royal power |
| 1718-1720 | 2. Creation of boards | 11 boards replaced many orders. The cumbersome and confusing system of executive power has been put in order. | ||
| 1721 | 3. Peter's acceptance of the imperial title | Increasing the authority of Peter 1 abroad. Discontent of the Old Believers. | ||
| 1714 | 4. Decree on unified inheritance | He equated estates with estates, nobles with boyars. Only one son inherited the property | Elimination of the division between boyars and nobles. The emergence of landless nobility (due to the ban on the division of land between heirs) After the death of Peter 1, it was cancelled. | |
| 1722 | 5. Adoption of the Table of Ranks | There are 14 ranks established for officials and military personnel. Having reached the 8th rank, the official became a hereditary nobleman | Opportunities for career growth opened up for everyone, regardless of background | |
| 1708 | 6. Regional reform | The country was divided into eight provinces | Strengthening the authority of local authorities. Putting things in order | |
| 1699 | Urban reform | An elected Burmister Chamber was created | Development of local government | |
| Church reforms: | 1700 | 1. Liquidation of the patriarchate | The Emperor became the de facto head of the Orthodox Church | |
| 1721 | 2. Creation of the Synod | Replaced the Patriarch, the composition of the Synod was appointed by the Tsar | ||
| In the field folk culture and everyday life: | 1. Introduction of European style | Mandatory wearing of European clothes and shaving of beards - payment of a tax was introduced for refusal. | Many were dissatisfied, the king was called the Antichrist | |
| 2. Introduction of a new calendar | The chronology from the Nativity of Christ replaced the chronology “from the creation of the world.” The start of the year has been moved from September to January. | Instead of 7208, the year 1700 came. The chronology has survived to this day. | ||
| 3. Introduction of the civil alphabet | ||||
| 4. Transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg | Peter did not like Moscow with its “inveterate antiquity”, he built new capital near the sea | A “window to Europe” has been cut. High mortality rate among city builders | ||
| In the field of education and science: | 1. Education reform | Training of specialists abroad Creation of schools in Russia Support of book publishing | Improving the quality of education, quantity educated people. Training of specialists. Serfs could not attend public schools | |
| 1710 | 2. Introduction of the civil alphabet | Replaced the old Church Slavonic alphabet | ||
| 3.Creation of the first Russian Museum of Kunstkamera | ||||
| 1724 | 4. Decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences | It was created after the death of Peter 1 |
What is the Church reform of Peter 1? This is a whole series of events that significantly changed the management of the Orthodox Russian Church. During the church reform of Peter 1, the system of “Caesaropapism” was introduced - this is when the head of state was at the same time the head of the church. The term "Caesaropapism" denotes the right of the head of state to ecclesiastical supreme power.Church reform of Peter 1 reasons:
The Russian Church at the end of the 17th century had a huge number of internal and external problems, which were associated, first of all, with the position of the church in the state. At that time, the system of religious education and enlightenment was practically not developed. And in the second half of the 17th century, the reform of Patriarch Nikon led to a split.The Council of 1654 began the procedure of unifying Moscow books in accordance with Greek ones printed in Western printing houses. According to the instructions of Patriarch Nikon, since 1653 the sign of the cross had to be made with “three fingers,” although since 1551 two fingers were established. The Moscow Council of 1656 decided to consider all who are baptized with “two fingers” as heretics. As a result, there was church schism- Old Believers, “Nikonians” (supporters of Patriarch Nikon) and Old Believers (opponents of reforms - the common people, the main part of the Church) appeared. Patriarch Nikon was a rather ambitious person; he tried in every possible way to strengthen his influence in the state. The Russian tsars saw this and clearly feared the growing position of the Church as opposed to the development of autocracy in Russia. On the part of the head of state, there was a need for changes in the management of the church. But the government did not take radical measures. There were huge land holdings of the church and the fact that the population of these lands and monastic enterprises were exempted by the church from paying all taxes to the state. As a result, prices for church products industrial enterprises were lower, and this, in turn, hindered the development of the merchant business. But in order to confiscate church property, funds were needed, and under the same Peter the Great, Russia fought almost non-stop.
But in the 17th century, more and more lands continued to become the property of the clergy. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich issued the Monastic Order, attempting to carry out trials against clergy outside the church. But the strength and protest of the clergy was so significant that the Monastic Order had to be canceled.
The essence of the church reform of Peter 1
Peter the Great is called a “Westernizer.” At that time, pro-Western sentiments were already quite “audible” in Moscow. In turn, the clergy was clearly dissatisfied with the ongoing transformations in Russia, aimed at modernizing the country. Peter I did not like the clergy, also because among him there were many opponents of what Peter was striving for, namely, the creation of a state on the Western European model. The strengthening of views on the relationship between the state and the church was facilitated by visiting Protestant European countries. The clergy had great hopes for Tsarevich Alexy, the eldest son of Peter I. Having fled abroad, Alexey maintained contact with metropolitans and bishops. The Tsarevich was found and returned to Russia. The charges against him included unnecessary “conversations with priests.” And representatives of the clergy who were caught communicating with the crown prince suffered punishment: they were all deprived of their rank and life. It is noteworthy that in preparing for the reform of church government, Peter I was in close contact with the Patriarch of Jerusalem (Dosifei) and the Ecumenical Patriarch (Cosmas). In particular, for himself and for the Russian soldiers who were on military campaigns, Peter asked them for permission to “eat meat” during Lent.Peter I's reforms were aimed at:
to prevent the Russian patriarch from being raised into a second sovereign.
to subordinate the church to the monarch. The clergy is not another state, but on an equal basis with everyone else must obey general laws.The patriarch at that time was Adrian, who was very fond of antiquity and not inclined to the reforms of Peter I. In 1700, Patriarch Adrian died, and shortly before that, Peter had already independently prohibited the construction of new monasteries in Siberia. And in 1701 the Monastic Order was restored. The bishop's houses, the Patriarchal courtyard, and monastery farms went to him. The head of the Monastic Prikaz became the secular boyar Musin-Pushkin. Then a series of decrees were issued, one after another, which significantly reduced the independence of the clergy from secular power. “Purges” took place in the monasteries: all those “not tonsured” were expelled; convents Women were allowed only after forty years, and the monastic property and economy were given to the Monastic Order. A ban was introduced on the ownership of land by monks.
Among the reliefs, it is worth noting the mitigation of the harsh persecution of schismatics and the permission of free religion for Catholics and Protestants. Peter spoke on this matter in such a way that “the Lord gave power to the king, but only Christ has power over the conscience of men.” All significant events both in the life of the country and in the life of the tsar personally, they were accompanied by church services in a solemn atmosphere. The bishops were given orders not to “invent miracles”: not to accept unknown remains as holy relics and not to attribute miraculous powers to icons, not to encourage holy fools. To people of various ranks It was forbidden to give alms to the poor. You could donate to almshouses.
Results of the church reform of Peter 1
Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was appointed guardian of the Patriarchal Throne, that is, to lead the affairs of the church. He was completely under the authority of the head of state, and his authority was reduced to zero. He was authorized in Moscow to hold meetings with representatives of the clergy, which he immediately had to report to the sovereign. And since 1711, the Governing Senate began its work (instead of the Boyar Duma), all state services had to obey the decrees of the Senate: temporal and spiritual. The appointment of any clergyman to a position has now become possible only with the permission of the Senate; moreover, permission to build churches is now issued by the Senate.Gradually, all institutions were concentrated in St. Petersburg, and the guardian of the patriarchal throne moved here by order of the sovereign. And in 1721, Peter I established the Spiritual College, which was soon renamed the Holy Governing Synod - a new church administration. The Synod was obedient to the sovereign, and the system was built in such a way that Peter established supervision over the activities of the Synod. A chief prosecutor was appointed at the Synod, whose task was to control relations with the civil authorities and not coordinate the decisions of the Synod if they differed from the decrees of the tsar. The Chief Prosecutor was “the eye of the sovereign.” And the “correct” state of affairs in the Synod was monitored by inquisitors. The main goal of the Synod, according to Peter’s plan, was to correct the vices of church life: to supervise the activities of the clergy, check texts scriptures, fight superstitions, observe services, not allow various false teachings to penetrate into the faith, and administer patriarchal justice.
It so happened that in Ancient Rus' Almost anyone who wanted could join the clergy. Any clergy could freely walk from one city to another, from one temple to another. Even a landowner or a non-free person could join the clergy. For many, this was also an opportunity to find income more easily. Parishioners often chose a suitable person “from among their own” for the position of clergyman. And instead of a deceased clergyman, his children or relatives were often appointed. And sometimes in a church or parish, instead of one priest, there were several people - priests - relatives. In Ancient Rus', the so-called “wandering priesthood” or “sacral priesthood” was developed. In ancient Moscow (as in other cities), crossroads where large streets intersected were called crosses. There was always a crowd of people here for various reasons. In Moscow, the most famous were the Spassky and Varvarsky sacrums. Representatives of the clergy gathered here, who left their parishes and went to “free bread.” Those who needed a priest “one time” came here - a prayer service at home, to celebrate the 40th anniversary, a blessing.
Peter I, at the very beginning of the 18th century, ordered to limit the availability of entry into the clergy. Moreover, at the same time, the system for leaving the clergy is being simplified. All this leads to a reduction in the quantitative number of clergy. At the same time, unique quotas are being introduced for new churches - strictly according to the number of parishioners.Theological schools were also established to train priests. Each bishop was ordered to have a school for children at home or at home.
Peter I did not like monks. It was within the walls of the monasteries, according to Peter, that a force hostile to him was hidden, capable of bringing confusion into the minds of people. All decrees regarding monasteries were reduced to reducing their number and complicating the conditions for admission to monasticism. Peter tried to adapt the monastic farms into “useful” institutions for the benefit of Russia: hospitals, schools, almshouses, factories. Peter began to use the monasteries as shelters for beggars and disabled soldiers. Monks and nuns were ordered to leave monasteries for two to three hours with special permission, and long absences were prohibited.