The problem of aggressive behavior remains relevant throughout the existence of mankind due to its prevalence and destabilizing influence. There are ideas that aggression is exclusively biological in origin, and also that it is associated mainly with problems of education and culture (10).
Aggression is represented by multiple terms in everyday speech. “Benign” aggression (perseverance, assertiveness, sportive anger, courage, boldness, bravery, bravery, will, ambition), “malignant” aggression (violence, cruelty, arrogance, rudeness, impudence, evil) and the actual aggressive, destructive type of aggression ( according to Fromm). Destructive aggression has always been associated with such philosophical and moral concepts as evil.
Discussions about whether evil is immanent for man, or whether he is inherently good, continued throughout the centuries-old history of mankind. Already in ancient philosophy there are polar points of view on this issue. The Chinese philosopher Xiong Tzu believed that man has an “evil nature.” Another Chinese philosopher, Mencius, proclaimed the idea that all people are born good or at least morally neutral, and then exposure to vicious social factors can lead to a person becoming evil. The philosopher was convinced that since man is good by nature, then, therefore, forcing him to commit evil means forcing him to commit the unnatural.
A similar idea was expressed and continued 19 centuries later by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (10). According to Lewis DO, unlike some species, such as specially bred aggressive rodents, no ethnic, racial or religious group has shown itself to be innately more aggressive than others (although throughout history, the people of a given country have periodically been yourself in this respect different from others
Social and biological sciences have come to the conclusion that; Perhaps the most important influence on the formation and development of aggressive behavior is exerted by environmental factors. These include vicious upbringing, including physical punishment, moral humiliation, social and sensory isolation, taboos on emotional manifestations, as well as such mega-factors as overcrowding (an unprecedented increase in population density).
Nature human aggression difficult to analyze. The behavior of both Jack the Ripper and John D. Rockefeller can be considered aggressive, but the difference between them is huge (11). K. Lorenz believes that between different human populations there are still differences in their initial (innate) degree of aggressiveness, which developed as a result of natural selection. As an example, it is extremely aggressive people he brings in the Utah Indian tribe. According to Lorenz, man is aggressive because he descended from primates. Since the latter are herbivores, they completely lack the “killer instinct” inherent in predators.
For predators to preserve the species, as a result of evolution, a mechanism had to arise that inhibits intraspecific aggression, since a “killer instinct” directed at its own kind would lead to the complete extinction of the species. Hominids had no need for such a mechanism (nature could not have foreseen that a deadly weapon would appear in the hands of a “naked ape”) (3). K. Lorenz, in his work on aggression, interprets it as a driving force in the struggle for survival, and this struggle mainly occurs within one species (3).
R. Dawkins viewed the individual as a selfish machine, programmed to provide for its genes as a whole as best as possible, i.e., as a survival machine. In this way, survival machines of one species more directly attack the life of another. One of the reasons for this is that representatives of the same species, being very similar to each other, are forced to compete for all the resources they need. One of important resources are marriage partners. Competition usually occurs between males for females.
This means that a male can ensure the survival of his genes if he causes some damage to another male with whom he competes. The logical course of action is to kill your rivals and then eat them. But cannibalism and murder are extremely rare in nature. Indeed, the most remarkable feature of fights between animals is that they are formal competitions, like boxing or fencing, strictly according to the rules. If the enemy admits defeat by his behavior, then the winner refrains from delivering a fatal blow or bite. In this case, it turns out that only HOMO SAPIENS is the only species that kills its own kind, as the only heir to the seal of Cain (4).
According to G. Marcuse, civilization is in permanent need of sublimation and desexualization, which weakens the Eros that creates it, releasing its destructive counterpart (Thanatos). e. aggression. This threatens the culture with the disintegration of instincts, and the attraction to death (destruction, destruction, mostly irrational) tends to take precedence over the instincts of life (creation) (8).
The founder of psychoanalysis, S. Freud, first formulated his understanding of aggression in his work “Beyond the Pleasure Principle” (1912). In it, he viewed aggression as a combination of Eros (libido, creative principle) and Thanatos (mortido, destructive principle), with the predominance of the latter, i.e., as a fusion of the sexual instinct and the death instinct with the dominance of the latter. Freud believed that aggression in humans this is a manifestation and proof of the biological death instinct.
He argued (1933) that Thanatos is opposed to Eros, and its goal is a return to the inorganic state. But how, then, does a person live long enough, having an innate instinct of death? Freud believed that there is a mechanism for neutralizing internal aggression, which is the main function of the ego. But the Ego does not appear with the birth of a child, but is formed in the process of its development. Along with its formation, the mechanism for neutralizing aggression begins to develop. Dr. H. Parens, who dedicated his scientific activity studying aggression in children, considers it unconditional that children are already born with different levels of aggression.
True, he practically identifies aggression with activity, believing that with normal personality development, aggression is transformed into activity. Freud, as we know, also initially used the terms “aggressive” and “active” as synonyms (1909), although later, in his work “New Introductory Lectures” (1933), he used the word “active” not as a synonym for aggressiveness, but as the most important characteristic of this instinct. H. Parens also notes that aggression can manifest itself in different forms, but all these forms have one thing in common - they represent an attempt by subjects to control, influence and cope with themselves and the world around them
Achieving any goal requires taking control of any factors encountered on the way to the goal (facilitating or preventing its achievement. The goal, in the language of information thermodynamics, is the desire to fight chaos (entropy) towards a structured state (ordering. This requires energy, let’s call it in this case, activity. Then aggression is modulated energy aimed at eliminating obstacles leading to the goal. At the same time, Freud did not attach much importance to the phenomenon of aggression, considering libido and the instinct of self-preservation to be the dominant forces in man. His student Adler in 1908 as a principle uniting psychological and biological phenomena, he introduced the concept of an aggressive stimulus as a universal (“basic”) instinct.
Hence, all primitive drives, no matter how they manifest themselves, turn out to be subordinate to this main (aggressive) stimulus. The aggressive instinct became the equivalent of psychic energy, serving to compensate (by aggressive means) for organic deficiencies inherent in a particular individual; “... an unstable psychological balance is restored by satisfying a primitive drive through excitement and the manifestation of an aggressive impulse.”
In the case of simultaneous manifestation of sexual and aggressive instincts, the latter (according to Adler) always dominates. Subsequently, Adler came to the conclusion that the aggressive instinct (impulse) is a way of overcoming (obstacles, barriers to the goal, vital needs) and; hence adaptation. (2) G. Marcuse, using the teachings of Freud, argues that civilization begins with the introduction of prohibitions on primary instincts. Two main ways of organizing instincts can be identified: a) the containment of sexuality, which is formed in long-term and expanding group relationships, and b) the containment of the instincts of destruction, leading to the dominance of men and nature, as well as individual and social morality. As the union of these two forces becomes more and more successful in preserving the life of enlarged groups, Eros takes precedence over Thanatos: social use forces the death instinct to serve the life instincts.
However, the process of civilization itself increases the volume of sublimation and controlled aggression; in both cases there is a weakening of Eros, releasing destructiveness. This suggests that progress is associated with a regressive tendency in the structure of the instincts, and that the growth of civilization is confronted with a constant (though repressed) impulse towards the ultimate satisfaction of needs and the attainment of peace.
Max Scheller pointed out that “the conscious or unconscious impulse or will to power over nature is the main motive in the attitude of modern man to existence, which in structurally preceded modern science and technology as the “before and illogical” beginning of scientific thought and intuition. The organism “a priori” experiences nature as striving for dominance and therefore subject to mastery and control. And therefore, labor turns into force and provocation aimed at fighting nature, at overcoming resistance. When setting such an attitude towards work, images of the objective world appear as “symbols of the direction of aggression”; action appears as the exercise of domination, and reality as resistance (8).
Fromm distinguishes two types of aggression. The first type is common to both humans and animals - this is a phylogenetically inherent impulse to attack or flee, depending on the situation when a threat to life arises. This defensive, “benign” aggression serves for the survival of the individual or species; it has biological forms of manifestation and fades away as soon as the danger disappears.
Another species is represented by “malignant” aggression, destructiveness or cruelty, characteristic only of humans and practically absent in other mammals; it has no phylogenetic program, does not serve biological adaptation, and thus has no specific purpose. Fromm understands the relationship between benign-defensive aggression and malignant-destructive aggression as an instinct to character, i.e., it assumes the need to differentiate between natural drives rooted in physiological needs and specific human passions that have their source in human character. Instinct is a response to human physiological needs, and passions are a response to existential needs, and therefore the latter are exclusively human (1).
Followers behavioral theories believe that a person feels, thinks and acts as he considers correct to achieve the nearest desired goal. Thus, aggressiveness, like other forms of behavior, is acquired (i.e., the most profitable and effective strategy for achieving goals) and is determined by the fact that a person (by aggressive means) achieves the maximum advantage (ibid.).
One of the theories that claims to explain the phenomenon of aggression is the frustration theory of John Dollard, which states that aggressive behavior arises as a reaction to frustration, and therefore frustration is always accompanied by aggressiveness (ibid.). Fromm identifies a number of actions that he calls pseudo-aggression, including such types as unintentional (for example, accidentally injuring a person), playful (necessary in training for skill, dexterity and speed of reactions), and also without any destructive purpose and negative motivations ( anger, hatred). Fencing, archery, and various types of wrestling developed from the need to defeat the enemy, but then completely lost their original function and turned into sports.
The concept of aggression as self-affirmation is supported by evidence of a connection in observations between the effects of male sex hormones and aggressive behavior (ibid.). Defensive aggression is a factor of biological adaptation. The animal's brain is programmed to mobilize all offensive and defensive impulses if the vital interests of the animal are threatened, for example, in cases where the animal is deprived living space or limit his access to food, sex, or when his offspring are at risk. Obviously, the purpose of defensive aggression is to preserve life, not to destroy.
Man is also phylogenetically programmed: he reacts to a threat to his vital interests either by attack or by flight. Although this innate tendency in humans is less pronounced than in animals, many facts convince us that humans also have a tendency towards defensive aggression.
It manifests itself when there is a threat to life, health, freedom or property (the latter is relevant when the subject lives in a society where private property is a significant value). Of course, an aggressive reaction may be due to moral and religious beliefs, upbringing, etc.; in practice it also occurs in most individuals and even in entire groups. Probably, the defensive instinct can explain most of the warlike manifestations of man (ibid.).
However, despite the fact that the neurophysiological patterns in both humans and animals are quite similar, the formation and implementation of aggressive behavior in humans and animals are different.
In this case we are talking about the following:
1. An animal perceives as a threat only an obvious danger, while a person, endowed with the gift of foresight and imagination, reacts not only to an immediate threat, but also to a possible danger in the future, to his idea of the likelihood of a threat. In other words, the mechanism of defensive aggression is mobilized not only when a person feels immediate danger, but also when there is no obvious threat yet. It turns out that the individual gives an aggressive reaction to his own forecast.
2. Man has not only the ability to foresee real danger in the future, but also allows himself to be persuaded, allows himself to be manipulated, led, persuaded. He is ready to see danger where there is none. This is what Fromm explains the beginning of most modern wars.
3. An additional increase in defensive aggression in people (compared to animals) is due to the specifics of human existence. Man, like an animal, defends himself when something threatens his vital interests. However, the sphere of vital interests of a person is much wider than that of an animal. To survive, a person needs not only physical, but also mental conditions. He must maintain some mental balance (mental homeostasis) in order to maintain the ability to perform his functions. For a person, everything that contributes to mental comfort is just as important in the sense of life as what serves physical comfort.
And the most important vital interest is to preserve one’s coordinate system and value orientation. The ability to act and, ultimately, awareness of oneself as an individual depends on it (ibid.). Fromm interprets the reaction to a vital threat as follows: fear usually mobilizes either an attack reaction or a tendency to escape. The last option is often found when a person is looking for a way out to “save his face.” If the conditions are so harsh that it is impossible to avoid shame or collapse, then an attack reaction is most likely to occur.
Fear, like pain, are highly negatively charged feelings, and a person strives to get rid of them at any cost. Often, in order to escape from fear and pain, a person resorts to such means as sex, sleep or communication with other people. But most in an effective way is aggressiveness. If a person finds the strength from a passive state of fear to go into attack (to aggression, destructive behavior), the painful feeling of fear immediately disappears (ibid.).
One type of biological adaptation is instrumental aggression, which pursues a specific goal - to provide what is necessary or desirable. Destruction (destruction) in itself is not a goal, it only serves auxiliary to achieve the real goal. In this sense, this type of aggression is similar to defensive, but differs from the latter in a number of other aspects. Among mammals, only predators, for whom aggression serves as a means of subsistence, have innate neural connections that motivate attack on prey. In the case of hominids and humans, aggression is based on learning and does not have a phylogenetic program. When analyzing this phenomenon, Fromm uses the concepts of “necessary” and “desirable”.
Necessity is an unconditional physiological need, for example, to satisfy hunger (or sexual need). When a person commits theft because he does not have the basic minimum means to feed himself and his family, such aggression can be qualified as an action that has a physiological motivation. By desirable we can mean what is desired. People (unlike animals) want to have not only what they need to survive, and not only what constitutes material basis life worthy of a person, most people are distinguished by greed: hoarding, excess in food and drink and sex, thirst for power and fame. At the same time, any of the listed areas becomes someone’s passion (ibid.).
Biologically adaptive aggression serves the purpose of life. However, only a person is subject to the desire to torture and kill and at the same time experience pleasure. This is the only living creature capable of destroying its own kind without any benefit or gain for itself (ibid.). Fromm considers chronic neurotic depression (dysthymia, decreased vitality) and, as its consequences, boredom (melancholy) to be one of the fundamental factors for the formation of malignant aggression. As a result of evolution, man has acquired mental properties that are found only in him and have no analogues in other species. These include consciousness, reason and imagination. The latter cannot exist in a vacuum and require for their existence and functioning a description of the world, a kind of structure, a map of the world. The description of the world can be primitive, as happens in wild tribes, or extremely complex, as in a civilized society. Within this structure, a kind of coordinate system is set, using which a person can regulate his behavior and receive value guidelines, namely; what to strive for and what to avoid.
A person vitally needs a goal, as well as an object of veneration. The object of veneration can be anything - from the simplest idols in wild tribes to God in the most complex monotheistic religions. The human brain not only needs minimal rest, but also some amount of stimulation (emotionally significant stimuli). G. Selye describes this state as a state of eustress. It is known that a deficiency of emotionally significant stimuli, especially at an early age (sensory deprivation), especially often leads to the formation of the personality of an aggressor, and the significance of this factor in the formation of aggressiveness is an order of magnitude higher than physical punishment and other educationally harmful factors. It is known that under conditions of sensory isolation, a person begins to experience increasing fear, up to panic and hallucination (as evidenced by experimental studies).
Fromm as one of the the most important conditions The maturation of an individual is driven by the presence of a sense of unity. E. Erikson, who carefully developed this topic and is its founder, reports on the need for a person to identify himself with other people (reference group), nation, etc., that is, when he can say “I am like them, they are the same like me". It is preferable for a person to identify with subcultures such as hippies or drug addicts than not to identify at all (1). Fromm distinguishes three categories of individuals in relation to the problem of boredom and arousal:
1) People who are able to respond productively to stimulating stimulation; they don't know boredom.
2) People who constantly need additional stimulation, as well as a constant change of stimuli; These people are doomed to chronic boredom, but since they compensate for it, they are practically unaware of it. 3) People who cannot be brought into a state of excitement by a normal (for most people) stimulus. These people are sick and often may well be aware of their inferiority. In the third case, according to Fromm, persons suffering from chronic depression predominate, which, accordingly, is accompanied by chronic boredom. Particularly dangerous consequences of “uncompensated boredom” are violence and aggressiveness. Most often this manifests itself in passive form when, for example, a person likes to watch cruel, bloody scenes, in particular on television.
And from passive pleasure about cruel scenes and violence there is only one step to numerous forms of active arousal, which is achieved at the cost of sadistic and destructive behavior. As a consequence of chronic neurotic depression (dysthymia) and the accompanying boredom, Fromm describes a lack of interest in communicating with other people and difficulties in this communication. All emotions of such individuals are in a frozen state: they do not experience joy, but they do not know either pain or grief. Next, Fromm writes about the importance of character structure in the formation of sadism. Man, who is even less determined by instincts than chimpanzees, has developed compensatory abilities that perform the function of instincts. Such a compensatory role in a person is played by character, which is a specific structure that organizes human energy aimed at achieving a goal, and also determines the pattern of behavior.
Fromm identifies a special sadistic-exploitative character, the essence of which is the exploitation of other people, whom the owner of such a character depersonifies, i.e. treats them as “human material” or a means to achieve a goal, cogs in his own machine (remember that among ideologists fascism there was a concept of “human material”). By the way, let us mention the well-known idea of I. Kant that a person can in no way be a means, he is always an end). Depersonification is essentially the process of transforming a subject into an object, or in other words, a person into a thing. Fromm considers the main desire of a productive person to be the thirst to love, give, and share with others.
These attractions, conditioned by character, are so strong that they seem absolutely natural to the owner of such a character. A person with a sadistic-exploitative character can behave like a super-altruist, but there is always insincerity behind this (ibid.). Fromm introduces the concept “ social character”, by which he understands the transcendence of the human (immanent to him as biological species) energy in a specific form necessary for the functioning of a particular society. The category “character” is introduced by Fromm as one of the most important for explaining the phenomenon of malignant aggression, since the passion for destruction and sadism are usually rooted in the structure of character. Thus, in a person with sadistic inclinations, this passion in volume and intensity becomes the dominant component of the personality structure.
Fromm introduces such concepts as “biophilia” and “necrophilia,” understanding by the first the desire for everything living and growing, and by the second, the desire for everything dead and mechanical. necrophilia, in a characterological sense, is defined by Fromm as a passionate attraction to everything that is dead, sick, putrid, decaying; a passionate desire to transform everything living into non-living, a passion for destruction for the sake of destruction, an interest in everything purely mechanical (non-biological), and, in addition, a passion for the violent severance of natural biological connections.
The attraction to the dead is most often seen in the dreams of necrophiles. A necrophilic character can also manifest itself in the conviction that there is only one way to solve problems - violence. A necrophile is characterized by the belief that violence is “the ability to turn a person into a corpse.” Such people react to life's problems mostly destructively and never try to help other people find a constructive way to solve their problems. Necrophilia is less clearly represented in special interest to illness in all its forms (hypochondria), as well as to the topic of death (ibid.).
An elusive feature of the necrophilic character is lifelessness (absence or decrease in the ability to empathize, as well as subtle emotional differentiations). An intelligent, educated necrophiliac can talk about things that in themselves might be interesting, but he presents them primly, coldly, indifferently, pedantically, lifelessly and formally.
The opposite type of character - the biophile, on the contrary, can talk about experiences that in themselves are not very interesting, but he presents them with such interest and liveliness that he infects others with his good mood. Fromm cites Hitler as a striking example of a necrophilic character, analyzing the development of his personality throughout his life (1). For the purpose of survival, a person must receive satisfaction of his physical needs and his instincts force him to act in the direction required for survival.
However, satisfying physiological needs alone does not make a person happy and does not guarantee his well-being. According to Freud's view of sadism, even those sadistic desires that are not outwardly related to sexuality are still sexually motivated.
The thirst for power, greed or narcissism - all these passions manifest themselves in sexual behavior in a certain way. There is no sphere of activity in which a person’s character is more accurately revealed than in sexual intercourse: precisely because here we can least of all talk about “learned behavior,” a stereotype or imitation. A. Gehlen noted that spiritual institutions radically channel the claims of the subject, his ideas and reflections. He also criticizes an era that condemns a person to lose contact with the world, making him a captive of fantasy. He views fantasies as a lack of illusion, deception, derealization. But at the same time, Gehlen’s theory of fantasy is multi-layered; he considers man a “fantasizing creature.” Loneliness and self-absorption. An essential feature that distinguishes humans from animals is self-absorption. The animal gets to know outside world, but cannot become an object of knowledge for itself (9).
Like an animal, a person is surrounded by things and other beings, but does not dissolve in them, like an animal, but can isolate himself from them by going deeper into himself (ibid.).
Being in reality with a small amount of reflection is possible only with a sufficiently high basal-affective background, which is accompanied by a sufficiently strong intensity of perception and the ability to concentrate attention. Otherwise, he will plunge into himself with subsequent reflection and the subsequent will be subject to the laws of the inner world - the ideational sphere (fantasies and reflection), the very one that “gives rise to monsters.” This level of being, in Gehlen’s sense, is similar to sleep, derealization (ibid.).
According to G. Marcuse, throughout the existence of society, not only its social, but also its biological state, not only individual aspects of human existence, but the very structure of its instincts were subjected to cultural suppression. However, it was precisely this coercion that was the main prerequisite for progress. Since uncontrollable (unsuppressed) sexual instinct and its counterpart, aggressive instinct, are destructive.
The destructive power of both instincts stems from the imperative desire to obtain maximum pleasure-satisfaction as an end in itself. I remember the example of a mouse in which electrodes were inserted into the brain's pleasure zone and which stimulated itself until it died from exhaustion. Hence the need arose to deviate instincts from their goal by imposing prohibitions on them; the guarantor of these prohibitions is usually the government, justifying this with the help of various laws and moral and social norms, as well as religious dogmas.
Civilization begins with repression, regulation, and modification of instincts. The energy sublimated in this way goes to both creative and routine work, the purpose of which is to maintain civilization. The rein on instincts is supported by power structures, as well as positive and negative sanctions.
A humanoid animal only becomes a human being when a radical transformation of its nature occurs, affecting not only the goals of the instincts, but also their “values,” i.e., the principles that govern the achievement of goals. Freud described this change as the transformation of the pleasure principle into the reality principle. The unconscious in man strives only to achieve pleasure; mental activity any action that could cause unpleasant (painful) experiences” (8).
However, the unrestrained pleasure principle necessarily leads to conflict with the natural and human environment. The individual comes to the conclusion that complete and painless satisfaction of all his needs is impossible. The crisis that occurred after this leads to a new principle-reality. As a result, a person acquires the ability to refuse instant, uncertain and dangerous pleasure for the sake of delayed, restrained, but “guaranteed” satisfaction (ibid.). With the strengthening of the principle of reality, the little man, who was nothing more than a set of animal instincts, turned into an organized “I”, striving for what, “what is useful” and what can be obtained without damage to himself and his life environment.
Under the influence of the principle of reality, a person develops the function of reason and the resulting ability to think, analyze and synthesize, attention, memory and judgment. He becomes a conscious, thinking subject, driven by rationality imposed on him from the outside. And only one form of mental activity “stands apart” from the power of the principle of reality - fantasy, which remains committed to the principle of pleasure (ibid.). According to Gestalt psychologists (F. Perls), aggression and destruction (of the whole) (as elements of perception) are necessary for subsequent deep perception (understanding). The process following destruction is reconstruction.
Destruction and reconstruction do not literally refer to a physical object, but to our behavior in relation to the object. Thus, any trusting relationship between people is possible only if certain barriers are destroyed, so that people begin to understand each other (K. Lorenz also spoke about this). This understanding assumes that a person examines a partner, just as we examine a picture (“dissecting it”), so that its “parts” are associated with own needs, which precisely thanks to this contact come to the fore. In other words, if the experience is not destructured, but “swallowed” entirely (introjected), it cannot be assimilated (interiorized) and is thus perceived as form, not content. The non-interiorized perceives the subject as an object, i.e. depersonalizes him.
Interpersonal contacts can exist only with sufficient capacity for destruction and subsequent reconstruction, and these two processes are derivatives of the interaction of the emotional-volitional and intellectual spheres (what will happen if they are violated?) (5). It was also noted by Klerasbo that for the formation of aggressive personalities (persons with destructive behavior) there is an ideational sphere (aggressive-sadistic fantasies. Quite often, a sadist only needs one fantasy to achieve sexual arousal. Fantasy is the process of programming future possible actions or an indicator of the existence and operation of such a program.
Most psychotic patients, even when they give free rein to their fantasies and, through hallucinations and delusions, distort reality to suit their emotional needs, nevertheless retain a certain real idea of the possibility of transition to another world. To a certain extent they have a dual existence. While maintaining some ideas about real world, they protect themselves from it and live as a reflection of it in the world they themselves created, the world of their fantasies (6).
Fantasy (ideational sphere), the ability of imagination is the main component of thought; in psychosis this faculty of imagination is used not to master reality, but to escape it. Positive and negative fantasies, depending on the subject’s attitude towards them, can be egosyntonic or egodystonic.
So fantasy is integral part thinking or even any specific type of it. The type of thinking (absolutist-dichotomous, etc.) depends almost directly proportionally on the affective sphere of a person, which is a derivative of the type of brain activity and can change under the influence of exogenous perturbations. An example is the thinking of a person in a state of depression and the opposing thinking of a person in in manic excitement. One of the manifestations of aggressiveness and destructive behavior is cruelty.
Cruelty (in the legal sense) is a particularly brutal way of committing crimes, to designate certain properties of the nature of the crime. Cruelty can be intentional and involuntary, realized in certain actions, verbal behavior (inflicting torture with words) or in the imagination, fantasy, operating with images of torture, torment of people or animals. Cruelty can be conscious and unconscious, so the question arises of its correlation with the ego and the unconscious.
Cruelty can manifest itself in relation to people and animals, and cases of splitting, coexistence of cruelty towards people and sentimentality towards animals are widely known. Cruelty gives a certain color to rape, hooliganism, infliction of grievous bodily harm, incitement to suicide, leaving in danger, etc. The combination of the prevalence and persistence of cruelty with its disapproval by the majority of the population, also if it manifests itself within the framework of formally sanctioned actions, is paradoxical. Cruelty as a personal trait should be understood as the desire to cause suffering, torment to people or animals, expressed in actions, inaction, words, as well as fantasies of corresponding content.
The attraction to cruelty is so widespread that it is almost considered normal. Nietzsche considered it precisely the norm and believed that orgies of cruelty act as a fundamental factor in the history of everything human race. This kind of perverted desires associated with the sexual sphere are known as sadism and masochism.
But sexual coldness (frigidity) is also associated with an attraction to causing suffering, with a thirst for power and might, which manifests itself in the form of pleasure from torture. Moralism (absolutist-dichotomous thinking) is also often a manifestation of the thirst for power and might, which manifests itself in the form of pleasure in torture. Moralizing is also often a manifestation of the thirst for power and the desire to torture (as Nietzsche said, the manifestation of “the word just” sounds almost the same as “to subject to torture”) (6)
Malignant aggression and destructive behavior are components of asocial or antisocial behavior. According to K. Jaspers, a completely different type of asociality develops as an inability to communicate with others and adapt to situations (due to a reduced ability to empathize). Subjectively, this inability is felt as something very painful. Any contact becomes torture, and therefore a person strives to avoid them, preferring solitude. This is the cause of the individual’s suffering because... suppressing his social instincts, he experiences a longing for communication and love. His asociality becomes noticeable to those around him, whom he annoys with his awkwardness. Shyness alternates in him with unceremoniousness, all his external manifestations are immoderate, his behavior contradicts accepted norms. He feels the reaction of others and therefore withdraws more and more (6).
The ability to communicate interpersonally requires, above all, empathy. Empathy is a concept denoting the ability to analogue, mediated by the function of the limbic system, to process information coming from outside its splitting and by establishing feedback, predicting subsequent events and developing strategies and tactics of behavior to obtain the greatest benefit. Empathy is not something frozen, but a process as a result of which interpersonal contacts occur, as a result of which a person is able to satisfy (within the framework of society his vital and other needs, including higher ones. As a result of communication, changes occur in the neurochemical status of each fearful parties.If the function of the limbic system is impaired, the ability to empathize is automatically impaired.
It turns out vicious circle. The higher a person’s ability to empathize, the more he will strive to communicate, and thus these abilities will become even greater and vice versa. A person with low empathic abilities will avoid communication, as a result of which his identification process will suffer and thus his vital needs will not be satisfied. Such people are prone to introspection and, as a rule, are prone to moralizing, painful self-reflection and a feeling of what a number of authors call a decreased sense of self-confidence, a feeling of inner emptiness, deadness, frozenness and reasoning, and also have a low affective background (dysthymia).
What sensory and emotional deprivation leads to is known - often psychosis. Such subjects are rational, since their thinking is deprived of sufficient emotional support. Sometimes, under the influence of external circumstances of a stressful nature, they move to another higher level of existence. After which they develop a feeling of their own inferiority, because... they have experienced another higher existential level.
While that rat is pressing the lever, they strive to again increase their low emotional level by taking psychotropic pills, participating in various dangerous, risky activities, etc. In his work “Notes on the relation of the inferiority complex to the guilt complex” (1938), Alexander distinguishes between the psychology of feelings of guilt and the psychology of feelings of inferiority, i.e. shame. In the psychoanalytic literature of the time, the terms guilt and shame were used interchangeably; Alexander showed, however, that they have different emotional content and completely opposite functional results. Guilt is a reaction to some wrong action committed or intended towards another, which causes the desire to receive punishment.
The guilty person thus seeks punishment; Further, his guilt, inhibiting further aggressiveness, has a paralyzing effect. This reaction is most clearly visible in depressed, inhibited and retarded patients who accuse themselves of sinfulness. Shame, on the other hand, is a reaction to feelings of weakness, ineptitude, and humiliation in relation to others. Psychological reaction The reaction to shame is the opposite of the reaction to guilt: it stimulates aggressiveness. To get rid of shame, an individual must prove that he is not weak, that he can defeat the one who shamed him. Shame is such a primitive reaction that it manifests itself even in animals; but the feeling of guilt can arise only when the individual has a developed conscience, that is, otherwise, when he realizes and accepts the moral values of his circle.
Hostile, aggressive, alienated impulses cause feelings of guilt; it in turn suppresses a person’s ability to assert himself in competition with others. The inability to assert oneself inhibits successful competition with others, paralyzes aggressiveness and hostility, which will subsequently also be suppressed by feelings of guilt. In this way it is created vicious circle, which underlies many neurotic disorders (2). Thus, Japan is a country based on a culture of shame, while the United States is a typical representative of a culture of guilt. As an illustrative fact, in 1980 the United States had 10,728 murders (population 220 million people), while in Japan 48 cases were registered (population 120 million people). The risk of being subjected to a violent attack in New York is 200 times higher than in Tokyo.
Eibl-Eibesfeld interprets such facts as the existence of a so-called “cultural corset” (10). We can come to the conclusion that certain features of the close interaction between biological and social-environmental factors can lead to the formation of destructive aggressive behavior
The concept of aggression is interpreted quite widely by different specialists. The reason is that researchers consider aggression as one of the components of the subject of their study, and not as the actual subject of research. And, as T. G. Rumyantseva (1991) notes, the variety of interpretations of the term “aggression” does not bother researchers. Indeed, the process of accumulating scientific data on this problem continues, and it is necessary to take into account the diversity of opinions, which is a kind of reflection of the existing state of the problem of aggression in science.
In mathematics when formulating scientific problem it is generally accepted that the terms describing the phenomenon being studied are strictly defined, the formulation of the problem is scientifically justified. If we set out to conduct a frequency analysis of the terms used on the problem of aggression, it turns out that the terms “aggression” and “aggressive” are most often used behavior", less often "aggressiveness". But the main thing is that in the interpretation of these terms there is no clear distinction between the concepts; most often they are associated as synonyms.
Therefore, when starting a theoretical analysis of the state of the problem of aggression in psychology, I set myself the following tasks: to understand the terms and definitions of the phenomenon of aggression; based on an analysis of the concepts of the nature of aggression, try to imagine the mechanism of this phenomenon; Based on the principle of mental integrity and the functional relationship of mental phenomena, distinguish aggression into the category of mental phenomena.
1.1, Understanding aggression in modern psychology
Today there is a fairly large number of pub- ■,-,■ lications of domestic and foreign authors, which describe aggression and aggressive behavior (Levitov 1964; 1967; 1972; Ploticher, 1969; Sosnovikova, 1975; Hollicher, 1975; Rumyantseva, 1982; 1989; 1991; 1992; Heckhausen, 1986; Frey d, 1991; Horney, 1993; Lorenz, 1994; Fromm, 1994; Gorbatov, 1995; Rean, 1996; Furmanov, 1996; Baron, Richardson, 1998; Buss 1961; Shantz, Voydarion", 1973; Felson, 1978;
Zillman, 1979; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1980; Feshbach; Feshbach, 1982; Brittan, 1989; Severson, 1990, etc.). The list of works that touches on the problem of human aggression is even wider (Rubinstein, 1973; Ananyev, 1980; Singer, 1980; Zeigarnik, 1982; Maslow, 1982; Lomov, 1984; Granovskaya, 1988; Nalchadzhyan, 1988; Zhurbin, 1990; Frankl , 1990; Byutner, 1991; Godefroy, 1992; Leontyev, 1993; Adler, 1995; Antonyan, 1995; Nemov, 1995; Personality..., 1996; Ilyin, 1998; Grishina, 2000, etc.).
First of all, it should be noted wide use the term "aggression" to denote violent and offensive actions. In such cases, they speak of hostile aggression, the main goal of which is to cause suffering to the victim. Such aggression is assessed sharply negatively. In everyday life, there are forms of violent behavior (cockiness, pugnacity, scandalousness, anger, etc.) that are not called aggression. In psychotherapy, it is generally accepted that aggression can take infinitely diverse forms. As the authors note, an incomplete list of manifestations of aggression may be as follows: hatred; criticism; sarcasm; irritation; indignation; sarcastic remarks; aggressive fantasies; ridicule; passive sabotage; cruelty; bitterness; pickiness; ill will; Blind fury; grouchiness; gloomy appearance; unjustified refusal; hostility; vindictiveness; self-destructive behavior (Assagioli, 1994). They also talk about aggressive actions as positive, socially approved forms of behavior (sports, discussion, protection of loved ones, as a condition for a person to realize his capabilities in professional or everyday situations). In these cases, the concept of instrumental aggression is used, in which an attack on other people pursues goals not related to causing harm or damage. A number of studies show cases of aggressive behavior of people to maintain power over loved ones, in an effort to insist on their own, to assert themselves and increase self-esteem (Baron, Richardson, 1998). Speaking about instrumental aggression, it should be emphasized that it is assessed as a positive quality only if it receives approval and support from other people.
An analysis of the opinions of different researchers allows us to distinguish two forms of aggressive behavior - negative and positive. To designate these forms of behavior, different terms are used: unconstructive and constructive (Ammon, according to: Rotenberg, Bon-
■renko, 1989); malignant and benign (Fromm, 1994); .hostile and instrumental (Baron and Richardson, 1998). There are different types of aggression, the implementation of which can have sexual or negative manifestations: open and hidden; ini-iii.i defensive and defensive; involuntary and voluntary; physical and verbal; direct and indirect (Levitov, 1967).
Aggression is usually viewed as an act of attack. In this case, the person or object who attacks can be (Heckhausen, 1986; Schwarzer, Spilberger, 1982). The possibility of changing the target of attack is also noted, i.e. transferring aggression to another object (substitution mechanism). In addition, auto-aggression (Levi-GOV, 1972) and auto-aggression (Rean, 1998) are distinguished.
As already noted, the diversity of interpretation of the term “aggression” does not worry researchers. This is a kind of reflection of the current state of the problem of aggression in psychological science. Here are the most common interpretations of aggression:
Violent aggressive actions (Levitov, 1972);
Reaction to stress caused by threat (Ibid.);
Actions aimed at seizing or maintaining power (Ibid.); ;"
An act that can take different forms, but their purpose is to cause harm to the individual or that which is identified with him (Vasiliev, 1976);
Any type of behavior that causes harm to another, or any action intended to cause harm to another (Alexandrova, 1992);
Individual or group behavior, action aimed at causing physical or psychological harm, damage or destruction of another person or group of people (Psychology.... 1990);
A reaction to arousal caused by frustration, an instrumental act aimed at achieving various goals (Levin, Fleishman, according to: Levitov, 1972);
Any form of behavior intended to insult or harm another living being that does not wish to be treated in that way (Baron & Richardson, 1998).
Despite the fact that researchers, when considering the problem of aggression, distinguish positive and negative forms of its manifestation,
niya in behavior, in definitions we are talking exclusively about causing any damage to the object of aggression.
If we set out to conduct a frequency analysis of the terms used on the problem of aggression, it turns out that the terms “aggression” and “aggressive behavior” are most often used, less often “aggression”. But the main thing is that in the interpretation of these terms there is no clear distinction between the concepts; most often they are associated as synonyms. In my opinion, all of the researchers’ statements given in this paragraph refer to specific manifestations of aggressive behavior. Human behavior as a whole is the result of a purposeful adaptation to a situation in order to achieve a personal goal. This or that human behavior is determined by the psyche, its characteristics at the level of mental properties, states and processes. In this case, if a special form of behavior is identified - aggressive behavior, then it must have specific manifestations in all categories of mental phenomena.
N.D. Levitov (1967; 1972) pointed out the need to assess motives and experiences when diagnosing aggressive behavior. He also emphasized that aggression should be studied not only as a behavioral act, but also as a state, highlighting its cognitive, emotional and volitional components. Many authors point to the need to study the evolution of aggression (Levitov, 1972; Hollicher, 1975; Heckhausen, 1986; Horney, 1993; Fromm, 1994; Rean, 1996).
The statement of A. A. Rean (1996, p. 5) should be recognized as important for understanding the phenomenon of aggression: “The difference between the concepts of aggression and aggressiveness leads to important consequences. Namely. Behind any aggressive actions of the subject there really is an aggressiveness of the individual. And, on the other hand, human aggressiveness does not always manifest itself in clearly aggressive actions. The manifestation (or non-display) of aggressiveness as a personal property in certain acts of behavior, such as aggressive actions, is always the result complex interaction trans situational and situational factors.”
Summarizing the statements of researchers, I note that most often we are talking about aggressive behavior, which is understood as causing harm or harm to another person, an object, or oneself. Negative, hostile, unconstructive and positive, instrumental, constructive forms of aggression are distinguished. In the first case, it is implied that causing harm or damage is the goal of aggressive behavior. Most often these are impulsive, unproduced
free reactions to a situation under the influence of external factors. In the second case, we are talking about the use of aggressive forms of behavior to achieve a specific goal, that is, aggressive behavior becomes a means of achieving a goal.
Aggressive behavior can be directed directly at the object of aggression (direct aggression) or, for some reason, transferred to another object (indirect aggression). It can manifest itself in actions (physical aggression) or in words (verbal aggression), can be directly realized in a specific situation in one form or another of behavior (overt aggression) or limited to feelings and experiences (hidden aggression).
It is fundamental to distinguish between trans-situational and situational manifestations of aggression. Aggression is not realized in every action and deed; it is the result of the interaction of situational factors and a person’s personal characteristics.
1.2. Theoretical directions of study
aggressive behavior p;
In theoretical terms, consideration of the nature of aggressive behavior is concentrated within the following areas: theory, drives (instincts); frustration theories; social learning theories; , motivational theory and cognitive approach. Since a fairly large number of review papers have been published in recent years, which analyze theoretical approaches to the study of aggressive behavior, let us briefly present the main provisions of the listed areas of study of the nature of aggressive behavior.
Theory of drives (instincts)
The founder of this direction, which explains the causes of aggressive behavior, is 3. Freud. Within the framework of the theory of psychoanalysis, it is substantiated constant struggle three “I” - “It-I”, “Ego-I”, “Super-I”. Initially, the nature of aggression was explained by the dissatisfaction of one of the “I”s, as a consequence of the resulting irritation (Freud, 1989; Witels, 1991; Godefroy, 1992; Lorenz, 1994). Later, Freud puts forward a dichotomy - the drive to life (eros) and the drive to death (thanatos) (Freud, 1991; Fromm, 1994). Based on this, a conclusion is made about the energy impulse of aggression that is constantly present in the human body. State of internal
The conflict between these forces makes him a potential neurotic. The only opportunity to maintain mental health, according to S. Freud, depends on the mechanisms psychological protection, the most effective of which is sublimation - a mechanism that helps direct energy (including the energy of aggressive striving) in another direction, for example, to engage in sports, art, science.
The theory of drives received a different sound in the works of K. Lorenz (1994), who argued that the aggressive instinct was of great importance in the process of human evolution, survival and adaptation. E. Fromm (1994) emphasizes that for Lorenz, aggression is an internal tension that requires discharge and finds it, whether there is a suitable stimulus for this or not. Thus, V. Hollicher (1975), in the framework of the analysis of Lorenz’s concept, emphasizes that the aggressive instinct in the learning process encourages a person to develop his abilities. True, which ones are not indicated.
However, most psychologists do not share such a fatal view of human behavior. It is not denied that the nature of human aggression has evolutionary and physiological roots. But at the same time, the limited ideas about the nature of aggression as something unchangeable are condemned. Subsequently, even many psychoanalysts moved away from the rigid interpretation of Freud’s concept, including into consideration not only the biological, but also the social component of aggression.
Thus, A. Adler (1995) considers aggression not as an instinct, but as a rational and (or) irrational tendency in overcoming obstacles. Position: this major psychoanalyst, rather, occupies an intermediate position between all known theoretical directions that explain aggressive human behavior. Aggression is considered as a secondary formation, as a consequence of compensation for feelings of inferiority (frustration element) with an undeveloped sense of community (social learning factor) and agonizing (overwhelming feeling of irritation) consciousness (cognitive element). At the same time, a person develops certain personality traits - suspicion, cruelty, vindictiveness, which determine various forms of aggressive behavior. According to A. Adler, aggressiveness is an integral component neurotic personality, and he saw the way out in developing the ability to cooperate with other people, in developing a sense of community.
K. Horney (1993) rejected both the death instinct and the instinct of aggressiveness. She interprets aggressiveness as a neurotic reaction of defense, in which there is a threat to personal values, dignity, and unity. E. Fromm (1994) identified “defensive” and “malignant” aggression. The first ensures human survival and attenuation. (I, as soon as the danger or threat to life disappears. The second is de-(productivity and cruelty, which are determined by various psychological and social factors.
The drive theory, as the first theoretical concept for revealing the mechanisms of aggressive behavior, has not stood the test of time. It should be noted that Z. Freud’s followers did not simply reject his vision of the problem, but, based on the provisions of the instinctive explanation of the causes of aggression, went further in revealing the mechanisms of this psychological phenomenon.
Frustration theories
The obvious origin of aggression from instinct has always caused objections from psychologists. Frustration theories arose as a contrast to the theory of drives; in them, aggressive behavior is viewed as a situational rather than an evolutionary process (Levitov, 1967; Ploticher, 1969; Zeigarnik, 1982; Nalchadzhyan, 1988; Rumyantseva, 1991; Rean, 1996; Furmanov, 1996; Baron , Richardson, 998). The impulse to aggression can arise in situations where the body is deprived of any essential things or conditions and increases as this kind of deprivation intensifies (Bairson, Richardson, 1998). The concept of frustration within this direction becomes key in explaining the causes of aggressive behavior. Frustration is a human condition, expressed in the characteristic features of experience and behavior and caused by insurmountable (objective or subjective) difficulties that arise on the way to achieving a goal or solving a problem (Levitov, 1967).
D. Dollard proposed the “frustration-aggressive” hypothesis, according to which aggression is always a consequence of frustration. In relation to the incentive to aggression, three groups of factors are decisive: the degree of expected effect from the future achievement of the goal; the strength of the obstacle to achieving the goal; subsequent frustrations. At the same time, he identified the main factor preventing the open demonstration of aggression - the threat of punishment (according to Baron, Richardson, 1998).
The threat of punishment is not considered as a prohibition of aggressive behavior, but only as a deterrent, but not weakening the relevance of the incentive to aggression. This phenomenon is called “displacement of aggression” - aggression does not manifest itself in relation to frustrators, but is directed towards other objects. N. Miller proposed a list of factors that determine the displacement of aggression: the strength of the incentive to aggression; forces inhibiting this behavior (punishment, unattainability of the goal); similarity of another object with the frustrating object. He also noted that the greater the similarity with the frustrating object and the less the force inhibiting such behavior, the greater the strength of the incentive to aggression (according to Baron and Richardson, 1998).
A fundamental contribution to the theory of frustration was made by the work of L. Berkowitz, who dealt with this problem for more than twenty years. In his opinion, frustration is only one of the stimuli that can provoke an aggressive reaction, but does not lead to aggressive behavior. Frustrators only create internal conditions for potential readiness for aggressive behavior. What is needed are “prompts to aggression” - external environmental conditions and previous factors that provoke anger and aggression (according to: Baron, Richardson, 1998).
Within the framework of the discussed approach, it is also necessary to indicate the works of authors who are not inclined to consider the presence of frustrators as an unambiguous factor in real or potential human aggression. Thus, H. Heckhausen "(19&6) believed that not every frustrator causes aggression: firstly, instrumental aggression is not associated with frustrators; secondly, frustrating factors can be perceived as justified. Moreover, a person is able to find constructive ways way out of a situation of frustration (Alexandrova, 1992; Assajoli, 1994). The ability for such constructiveness is associated with a person’s mental state. If the level of arousal exceeds a certain individual threshold and a person leaves a state of mental balance (exceeding the threshold of tolerance), then aggressive behavior becomes reality. The conditioning of aggression by arousal is discussed in detail in the work of R. Baron and D. Richardson (1998).
Theoretical developments of the “frustration” direction, in fact, remain within the framework of instinctive mechanisms for the realization of unsatisfied needs. Frustration theories introduce elements
external (social) environment, which can both restrain and provoke aggression.
It should be added that within the framework of theories of frustration, the phenomenon of aggression is also attributed to an adaptive function of behavior. Thus, K. Rogers links aggressiveness with the level of development of self-actualization (according to: Zhurbin, 1990). V. Frankl (1990) considers aggressiveness not as a personal quality, but only as a defense mechanism, seeing in frustration the attributive beginning of the meaning of life. K-Horney, G. Sullivan also attribute a defensive nature to aggressiveness, but are inclined to consider aggressiveness as an acquired personal quality (according to Martsinkovskaya, Yaroshevsky, 1995).
Frustration theories were extremely important to understand aggression, primarily through experimental research and empirical data, in contrast to the psychoanalytic drive theory, built on the interpretation of psychotherapeutic practice (Heckhausen, 1986).
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Theories of social mediation of aggression
A position diametrically opposed to instinctivism is occupied by the direction within the framework of behaviorism - “environmental theory”. Human behavior, including aggressive behavior, is formed solely under the influence of the social environment, social and cultural factors (Levitov, 1972; Zeigarnik, 1982; Rumyantseva, 1991; Fromm, 1994; Rean, 1996; Furmanov, 1996). Social learning theories were formed as a result of the process critical analysis two previous theoretical directions. Aggression is considered as the learning of behavior in the process of socialization through observation of the appropriate course of action and social reinforcement. E. Fromm (1994) noted that within the framework of the behavioristic approach, aggression, like other forms of behavior, is acquired and is determined by the fact that a person strives to achieve the maximum advantage. Based theoretical analysis problems of aggressiveness, carried out by I.A. Furmanov (1996), it is emphasized that the more often a person uses forms of aggressive behavior, the more perfect they become. And the determining factor is the success or failure of behavior. Repeated success increases the motivation for aggressive behavior, while failure inhibits it.
The most significant contribution to the development of this direction was made by the works of L. Berkowitz, A. Bandura and A. Bass. The developments of these authors relate to cognitive models of aggressive behavior, since the main components that explain aggressiveness are emotional and cognitive processes in L. (Zerkovitsa, cognitive processes and learning - in A. Bandura.
L. Berkowitz, recognizing the role of frustration, named emotional and cognitive processes as the cause of human aggression, as a result of which negative affects are formed - pain, disgust, insult, failure to achieve a goal, etc. Moreover, the presence of reasons is not a prerequisite for the manifestation of aggression. They only intensify the aggressive reaction to the presence of a barrier that prevents the achievement of the goal. Within this approach, the determining role is given to the level of arousal. When a certain level of activation is exceeded, the mechanisms of cognitive activity and, accordingly, behavior change - rational regulation is replaced by irrational one, which leads to impulsive behavior. This interpretation of aggressive behavior, on the one hand, emphasizes the role of experience - positive reinforces, and negative inhibits similar forms behavior in achieving the goal. On the other hand, it becomes possible to manage aggression by reinforcing or rejecting one or another person’s experience, as well as teaching techniques for managing one’s emotional reactions ( mental self-regulation). Thus, the question of inevitability, inevitability of aggression is removed (Berkowitz, 1962; 1974).
A slightly different position is expressed by A. Bandura. Aggression is considered as one of the forms of social behavior, which is learned in the same way as other forms of behavior. To form aggressiveness and, therefore, to analyze the causes of aggressive behavior, it is necessary to highlight three points. First, ways to internalize aggressive behavior. Social behavior is a complex, functionally related set of actions that must be learned. To be aggressive, you must learn to behave aggressively. Secondly, factors that provoke aggressive behavior: situations that cause extremely high arousal (for example, the pre-launch state); frustrating factors (uncertainty about successful performance at competitions); incentives (power, money, fame, admiration); instructions (order); obsessive eccentric beliefs (paranoid
ideas). Thirdly, the conditions under which aggressive behavior is consolidated: encouragement and punishment from the social environment or self-encouragement, self-punishment of specific actions; observing how others are rewarded or punished; self-regulation mechanisms - involuntary (conscience, guilt, fear), voluntary (psychoregulation techniques) (Bandura, 1965; 1973).
The main advantage of models of cognitive and social determination of aggression should be recognized that they emphasize not the permanence of the need and motivation to display aggression, but the possibility of preventing, weakening and, I would add, rationalizing or constructive manifestations of aggression.
Analysis of theoretical directions for studying the problem of aggressive behavior allows us to draw the following conclusions:
1. The considered theoretical directions indicate
evolution of ideas about the mechanisms of aggressive behavior. For
servant 3. Freud is that he was the first to make
torture of scientific analysis of aggression. Followers, starting from
provisions of the theory of instincts, let's move on. Based on perma criticism
nence of the “death drive” the theory of frustration, achievement
whose purpose is the recognition of the fact of permanent rejection
of human aggression and highlighting the significance of the situation, its conditions
viy and possible consequences. Cognitive models define
the role of emotional, cognitive, motivational components
behavior. For the subject of our research (aggression in sports) it is important
It is also important to highlight the significance of the activation level and the dependent
This results in the ability to voluntarily and involuntarily regulate
tions of their behavior. Work within the framework of social learning theory shows the importance of factors of social determination as adaptation mechanisms in the manifestations of various forms of aggressive behavior.
2. If aggression is a mental phenomenon, and this is recognized
is recognized by all researchers, then it should have manifestations on all
levels of organization of the functioning of the human body and psyche
ka. In psychology, there are four levels of organization - biochemistry
logical, physiological, mental and socio-psychological
(Novoseltsev, 1978; Ganzen, 1984; Ilyin, Kiselev, Safonov, 1989; Neither
Kiforov, 1996; Safonov, 1998). Thus, we can say that everything
the considered theoretical directions contribute to understanding
mania for the principles and mechanisms of the nature of aggressive behavior.
3. Each mental phenomenon must have a manifestation in the categories of mental phenomena - processes, states and properties. Without emphasis on this issue, the work of R. Baron and D. Richardson (1998) provides factual material reflecting the manifestations of aggression at the level of processes (in my opinion, extremely interesting material for the study of aggression in sports), states and personality traits. At the same time, it is necessary to recognize the terminological lack of rigor in the interpretation of the phenomenon of aggression in the categories of states and properties.
1.3. Concepts of aggression and aggressiveness
Earlier I already pointed out that modern psychology mainly considers the behavioral aspect of aggression. Specific behavior is a consequence of the functioning of the psyche in specific conditions of life, which has specific manifestations in each of the three categories of mental phenomena - processes, states and properties. Within the framework of the problem under consideration, this is not clearly visible, which is reflected in the terminology used to describe aggressive behavior. First of all, this concerns the terms “aggression” and “aggression”. When analyzing the theoretical directions in the study of aggression presented in the previous section, I tried to highlight the main thing in the understanding of these terms.
Within the framework of drive theory, aggression is interpreted quite broadly. These are tendencies manifested in behavior or fantasy, this is the behavior itself - causing harm, coercion, humiliation, refusal of help, irony, ridicule of another person, etc. (Laplange, Pontalis, 1996). And yet, within the framework of this direction, aggressiveness should be understood as a tendency or a set of tendencies of a person’s personality, the purpose of which is to cause harm to another person or to oneself. Aggression is an external manifestation of these tendencies, which can take negative, positive and symbolic forms.
In the frustration theory, attempts are made to establish cause-and-effect relationships between aggressive behavior and internal (actually psychological) and external factors human life activity. Aggression is understood as behavior in various forms. Aggression is considered as an acquired, i.e. secondary, personal quality.
In social learning theories, including cognitive and motivational models, aggressiveness is interpreted as being formed in
All socialization is a personal quality that, under certain
they can be realized in forms of aggressive behavior.
("we should dwell on the question of the primacy-secondary nature of aggression
to them as a mental phenomenon. As already noted, in theoretical
Unconceptions are mainly about aggressive behavior. So, in
Yuri's instinctive attraction speaks of the primacy of aggressive
In fact, social learning theories emphasize the role of experience
|, thus, learning such behavior. In the works of many authors
rVrov traces the idea of the determination of aggressive behavior
subtle phenomena such as anger and hostility.
L. Berkowitz (Berkowitz, 1962) notes; that anger, hostility and stress are often used interchangeably. Emphasizing the relationship between these manifestations of the psyche, it was he who raised the question of establishing differences between these phenomena. If we summarize the statements of researchers on this issue, we can see a certain tendency to attribute anger to feelings, emotions, attitudes, mental state, and hostility to personality traits.
Thus, S. Spielberger understands anger as an emotional state, greed as a personality trait, and aggression in his view as a behavioral manifestation of both. Hostility as a personal property can have varying degrees of severity, and thus a greater or lesser predisposition is possible; manifestation of anger. People with different degrees of hostility experience the emotional state of anger differently. But, as S. Spielberger notes, since there are no clear boundaries for dividing these |&lents, it is advisable to consider anger, hostility and aggression as a manifestation of some single syndrome (Spilberger, 1979; 1980). H. Heckhausen (1986) adheres to the same position, classifying anger as an active disposition, and hostility as a personal one. So, aggression is seen as a consequence of hostility and Anger. But is anger always realized in aggressive behavior? E. Spielberger and co-authors distinguish between “anger outside” and “anger inside” and raise the question of whether “anger inside” is considered aggression. The distinction between “anger outside” and “anger inside” raises the question of the mechanisms of expression and suppression of aggression. Since aggressive behavior is [ In most cases, socially disapproved, the manifestation of aggression is associated with the control function. Low control - frequent expression of anger in behavior, high control - suppression of aggressive
No behavior. H. Heckhausen, analyzing individual differences in the prerequisites for the manifestation of aggression based on the results of studies by other authors, shows that highly aggressive individuals are prone to spontaneous manifestations of aggression in behavior, while low-aggressive individuals use this form of behavior only when they have previously been insulted. He provides data that allows him to draw a conclusion about the individual determinants of predisposition to aggressive behavior. Thus, individuals with high “social anxiety” external locus control differ stable trend to inhibit aggression. At the same time, it is shown that the manifestation of aggressive tendencies is stopped by “fear of retribution.” In cases where the aggressive behavior of the subjects entailed a similar reaction, they avoided aggression towards other people. At the same time, when aggressive behavior did not entail retaliatory aggression, they showed extreme cruelty towards their partner. As an internal inhibition of aggression, X. Heckhausen calls “a strong feeling of guilt.”
Promising in scientific and practical terms are the positions of S. Spielberger and X. Heckhausen, who, in fact, consider the phenomenon of aggression at the level of the individual (personal disposition) and at the level of mental states (situational disposition). T. N. Kurbatova (1995), in terms of production, also proposes a scheme of level organization of aggression - individual (regulation processes), subject-activity (behavior styles) and personal ( motivational sphere, self-awareness).
The presented justification for the need to differentiate the pro-phenomena of aggression in the categories of mental phenomena is the result of the analysis and interpretation of the statements of researchers. Therefore, I consider it necessary to once again refer to the above statement by A. A. Rean about the identification of trans-situational and situational manifestations of aggression, since, in my opinion, he is the first to clearly raise the question of a personal property (aggression) and the characteristics of the mental state (aggression) realized in behavior or feelings and
experiences.
Thus, aggression as a mental phenomenon appears to researchers from the South as a multicomponent formation that has biological and social roots, manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent at the level of personality traits and implements
and in behavior when certain features mental state.
On the basis of the above Aggression should be understood as a temporary, situational state in which a person performs actions that cause damage or are aimed at causing damage to himself, another person, a group of people, an animal or an inanimate object. Aggressiveness is considered as a personality trait, expressed in readiness for aggression. Thus, aggression is certain human actions that cause damage to another object (the object of aggression can be a person, an animal, or an inanimate object) or to oneself, and aggressiveness is the ego’s potential readiness for such actions, which predetermines the perception and interpretation of the conditions of activity or life activities accordingly. In this regard, we can talk about potentially aggressive perception and potentially aggressive interpretation as a stable personal characteristics worldview and worldview. At the same time, the aggressiveness of the individual is not really behind all the aggressive actions of the subject. At the same time
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A person’s aggressiveness does not always manifest itself in clearly aggressive actions. 1.4. Methods for studying aggression and aggressiveness The presence of theoretical concepts that describe the mechanisms of the phenomenon being studied is not enough to solve applied issues of psychological practice. Experimental studies and measurements are needed, on the basis of which an assessment is made and a conclusion is drawn on the phenomenon being studied. This is a question about methodological sub-grams, methods and specific techniques.
The methodological support for the study of aggression reflects the level of "theoretical developments on this problem - these are mainly methods that make it possible to assess the form and severity of aggressive behavior. Methods for the experimental study of aggression fit into \ "the classic scheme of methods of psychological research. These are observation (passive and included), interviews, projective and survey techniques, laboratory experiments. The issue of methods for studying aggression is considered in sufficient detail in the work of R. Baron and D. Richardson (1998).
It should be noted that all methodological approaches contain a significant element of subjectivity, indirectness and indirectness both on the part of the subject and on the part of the experimenter-interpreter. main reason This lies in the fact that in real conditions it is almost impossible to apply methods of objective, direct registration of manifestations of aggression and belligerence. In the field, only observation followed by interpretation by the researcher is possible. In the case of video recording, it is possible to analyze the behavior of the subject together with the observer. In laboratory conditions, a situation of manifestation of aggressiveness can be created very approximately. Thus, the results of studies using experimental methods of studying aggressive behavior that have become classic in the West - “aggression machines” and “mutual aggression” - which are based on shock punishment for incorrect completion of a task and planned insults of subjects by experimenter’s assistants, according to researchers, can be explained by both aggressiveness and the desire to help the partner in the experiment successfully complete the task.
The complexity of the experimental study of aggression is due to the very nature of the object. Malice, hostility, irritability, suspicion, suspiciousness, envy, which are characteristic of manifestations of an aggressive attitude towards other people, are qualities traditionally assessed negatively in human society. Negative social assessment and social prohibition on this kind of behavior limit the possibility of openness and sincerity of research participants when using survey methods.
An analysis of publications on methods for studying aggression shows that the most common are survey and projective methods, and all domestic developments are modifications of foreign ones. Among the methods used in Russian psychology for assessing aggressiveness as a personality trait, the following can be mentioned: Ivov Hostility Questionnaire; Sachs and Voltaire Aggression Scale; some scales of the MMPI and Freiburg questionnaire; Bass-Darkey questionnaire; Rorschach test; thematic apperception test (TAT). To assess aggression as a state - Rosenzweig's frustration test; Mir-Lopez myokinetic test. I would also like to note that I am not aware of any domestic publications that present materials on the validation of the methods used.
About the use of projective methods, it should be said that they are cumbersome, require special training, and require a lot of time for examination, processing and interpretation of data, which are very significantly susceptible to the influence of subjectivity and prejudice of the researcher. Projective-I methods cannot be used when conducting mass communications.
■ >vaniya. Compared to them, survey methods have a number of advantages.
■ n. questions or statements relate directly to aggressive
1Ш.1Х experiences or behavior; ordinal scales are used
I ion 2-, 4-, 7-point scales); relative simplicity of design
1.And and interpretation of data. At the same time, survey methods have
YI disadvantages. The main one is the possibility of insincerity in the test.
vu.x, since the survey concerns socially disadvantaged forms of
shadows or worries. In addition, still in the scientific community
The question of the construct validity of survey methods needs to be addressed.
, Experimental methods include those that use
Often situations or conditions are created that potentially encourage
experienced and even provoking aggressive behavior
we are X. It is not difficult to agree that a natural experiment to study
|sni.yu aggression concerns the safety of participants in such
Xierimenta, as well as ethical aspects of behavior. Experimental
These methods are acceptable in laboratory settings where participants are familiar with
worry about the nature of the actions they will have to perform
I experiment, and at the end of the experiments they are explained what happened
walked during testing. Moreover, the experimenter at any time
may interfere with the course of events. Most common
A method called the “aggression machine” has received some attention, the essence of which is
This consists of punishing the subject with an electric shock for doing something wrong.
completing the task. Within this method, options are possible when
one subject Plays the role of teacher or When both subjects
alternately play the role of teacher and student. "
In laboratory conditions, it is possible to study the influence of specific variables on the subject and record his reaction. For example, the influence of medications, the level of activation of the nervous system, environmental factors that interfere with the completion of a task, or the artificial creation of a conflict situation, encouragement of physical and verbal aggression, etc. Similar experimental techniques can also be found in the work of R. Baron and D. Richardson
Considering the problem of aggression, researchers identify positive and negative forms of its manifestation in Behavior, while the definitions deal exclusively with causing any damage to the object of aggression.
Within the framework of the problem of aggression, the terms “aggression” and “aggressive behavior” are used, less often “aggressiveness”. In the interpretation of these terms there is no clear distinction between the concepts; most often they are associated as synonyms.
Theoretical directions in the study of aggression differ in the interpretation of this phenomenon:
Drive theory is an instinct, thanks to which it provides
the self-preservation of the individual;
Frustration theories - the realization of an unsatisfied need. This is an unconditional protective mechanism that ensures the individual’s adaptation to the environment;
Theories of social mediation of aggression - behavior learned in the process of socialization. The determining factor is the success or failure of such behavior. The presence of a reason for aggressive behavior, including an unmet need, is not a prerequisite for the manifestation of aggression.
An analysis of the literature on the problem of aggression, which is important for understanding its nature as a mental phenomenon, allows us to recognize the following.
1. Aggression as a mental phenomenon is based on unrealities
called need, the satisfaction of which occurs through blessing
rya mechanisms of social adaptation (learning). Inclusion in this
the process of emotional and cognitive components determined
shows the voluntariness and involuntary regulation of aggressive behavior
management, as well as the arbitrariness of suppressing aggressive forms of behavior
Denia.
2. Aggression as a mental phenomenon must have specific
manifestations at all levels of mental organization. Based
This separates the concepts of aggression and aggressiveness.
Aggression- a temporary, situational state in which a person performs actions that cause damage or are aimed at causing damage to himself, another person, a group of people, an animal or an inanimate object.
| I |
Aggressiveness- a personality trait expressed in suitability for aggression. This is a potential readiness for similar actions, which is predetermined by the perception and interpretation of the conditions of activity or life in an appropriate way. 3. The experimental study of aggression and aggressiveness is significantly complicated due to the negative social assessment of such behavior, and the known methods are cumbersome, intensive surveys, and require special training of the researcher, which makes it very difficult to conduct mass surveys.
One of the first theories of aggression was the ethological one, in which human aggressiveness is explained purely biologically - as a means of surviving in the fight against other beings, as a means of protecting and asserting oneself, one’s life through destruction or victory over an opponent. In this sense, a man, being an active defender of his own life and that of his fellow men, is biologically programmed to be aggressive.
This point of view is reflected in the works of K. Lorenz, who believes that aggression originates from the innate instinct of the struggle for survival, which is present in people just like in all living beings.K. Lorenz assumed that this instinct developed over a long period of evolution, as evidenced by three of its important functions. First, fighting disperses species over a wide geographical area, thereby ensuring maximum utilization of available food resources. Secondly, aggression helps improve the genetic fund of the species due to the fact that only the strongest and most energetic will be able to leave offspring. Thirdly, strong animals are better able to defend themselves and ensure the survival of their offspring.
The author believed that aggressive energy is generated in the body spontaneously, continuously, at a constant pace, accumulating over time. The deployment of overtly aggressive actions is a joint function, on the one hand, of the amount of accumulated aggressive energy; on the other hand, the power of special stimuli that facilitate the discharge of aggression in the immediate environment. In other words, the more aggressive energy there is at the moment, the less force the stimulus is needed for aggression to splash out. In fact, if enough time has passed since the last aggressive manifestation, such behavior can unfold spontaneously, in the absence of a releasing stimulus (Lorenz K., 1994).
K. Lorenz admits the possibility of regulating aggressiveness and places hopes on education, strengthening moral responsibility people for their future. However, other adherents of the ethological theory believe that people, no matter how much they want, cannot exercise control over their aggressiveness, therefore wars, murders, skirmishes are inevitable and, in the end, humanity will die in a nuclear war.
The beginning of the study of the psychological mechanisms of aggressiveness is associated with the name of Z. Freud, who identified two fundamental instincts - life, the creative principle in man, manifested in sexual desire, Eros) and death (the destructive principle, with which aggressiveness is associated, Thanatos). These instincts are innate, eternal and unchanging. Therefore, aggressiveness is an integral property of human nature. The accumulated energy of the aggressive drive must be discharged from time to time in outbursts of aggressiveness (Freud Z., 1999).
Thus, Freud's views are extremely pessimistic: aggression is innate; aggression is inevitable in human behavior; aggression is always directed at other people, otherwise it will destroy the person himself.
Psychologists who adhere to psychoanalytic concepts believe that in order to prevent uncontrolled violence from occurring, aggressive energy must be constantly discharged (in observing violent actions, destroying inanimate objects, participating in sports competitions, achieving positions of dominance, power, etc.).
For A. Adler, aggressiveness is an integral quality of consciousness that organizes its activity. He considers competitiveness, the struggle for primacy, and the desire for superiority to be a universal property of living matter. However, these basic drives become authentic only in the context of a correctly understood social interest. Aggressive consciousness gives rise to various forms of aggressive behavior - from open to symbolic. Aggression, woven into the context of culture, takes on symbolic forms associated with causing pain and humiliation. According to the author, aggressiveness is a natural conscious or unconscious human reaction to coercion, resulting from the individual’s desire to feel like a subject and not an object (Adler A., 1995).
In line with the psychoanalytic approach, D. Dollard also studied the cause of aggressive behavior. He developed the frustration-aggression theory, which views aggressive behavior as a situational process. Aggression is always a consequence of frustration, and frustration always entails aggression. Moreover, the degree of frustration depends on the strength of motivation to perform the desired action, the significance of the obstacle and the number of targeted actions. Fear of punishment or condemnation for aggression directed at the source of frustration may cause a shift of aggressive impulse to some other target or even to the frustrated person himself.
In addition to the basic concepts of aggression and frustration, considered inextricably, this theory also operates with the key concepts of inhibition and substitution.
Inhibition is the tendency to limit or curtail actions due to expected negative consequences. The inhibition of any act of aggression is directly proportional to the strength of the expected punishment. In addition, inhibition of direct acts of aggression almost always results in additional frustration, which causes aggression against the person perceived as the culprit of this inhibition.
Displacement is the desire to engage in aggressive actions directed against some person other than the true source of frustration.
One of the notable ideas of the frustration theory of aggression is the catharsis effect. Its essence is that the physical or emotional expression of hostile tendencies leads to temporary relief, as a result of which psychological balance is achieved and the readiness for aggression is weakened (according to Beron R., Richardson D., 1997).
Later studies showed that the relationship between frustration and aggression is not at all clear-cut. It has been observed that people quite often experience frustration, but do not necessarily behave aggressively, and vice versa. Psychologists began to say that frustration causes anger and emotional readiness for aggression. Proponents of the frustration theory agreed with this and slightly modified their position. The representative of such a modified form of the theory of the conditioning of aggression by frustration is L. Berkowitz. Aggression, in his opinion, is a function of a complex interaction between innate tendencies and learned reactions. He introduced a new variable characterizing possible experiences arising from frustration - anger, as an emotional reaction to a frustrating stimulus.
L. Berkowitz also recognized that aggression is not always the dominant reaction to frustration and can be suppressed under certain conditions. L. Berkowitz introduced three significant amendments to the “frustration-aggression” conceptual scheme:
1. frustration is not necessarily realized in aggressive actions, but it stimulates readiness for them;
2. even in a state of readiness, aggression does not occur without proper conditions;
3. getting out of a frustrating situation with the help of aggressive actions instills in the individual a habit of such actions.
In later works, it is noted that when frustrated, a person reacts with a whole complex of defensive reactions, of which only one plays a leading role (Berkowitz L., 2001). Moreover, not all aggression is provoked by frustration. It can be due, for example, to a “position of power” and an expression of authority.
A study of the conditions under which frustration gives rise to aggressive actions showed that the influence is influenced by the similarity/dissimilarity of the aggressors and the victim, the justification/unjustification of aggressiveness, and its presence as a personal characteristic. Currently, aggression is considered as a possible, but not at all inevitable, way out of a frustrating situation.
E. Fromm, a representative of neo-Freudianism, takes the opposite position in understanding aggression. By aggression he understands all those actions that cause (or intend to cause) harm to another person, animal or inanimate object.
The author distinguishes between biologically adaptive or benign aggression and malignant or biologically maladaptive aggression. Biologically adaptive aggression is a reaction to a threat to the vital interests of the individual; it is inherent in phylogenesis and is characteristic of animals and humans. Such aggression is explosive in nature, arising spontaneously as a reaction to a threat; and its consequence is the elimination of either the threat itself or its cause.
Biologically maladaptive, malignant aggressiveness is not at all a defense against attack or threat; it is not inherent in phylogeny. This type of aggression is specific only to humans.
The main idea of E. Fromm is that the explanation of human cruelty and destructiveness should be sought in those factors that distinguish man from his animal ancestors. The main problem is to find out to what extent the specific conditions of a person’s existence are responsible for the emergence of his desire to torture and kill, as well as what determines the nature and intensity of pleasure from this (Fromm E., 1998).
In this sense, the phenomenon of aggression can only be understood by taking into account the social factor of development.
In the theory of social learning, authored by A. Bandura, aggression is a behavior learned in the process of socialization through observation of an appropriate way of acting with social reinforcement. A pattern of behavior is seen as a means of interpersonal influence. Significant attention here is paid to studying the influence of the primary mediators of socialization, namely parents, on teaching children aggressive behavior.A. Bandura emphasized that if a person from childhood sees the aggressive behavior of people, especially parents, then by virtue of imitation he learns similar actions. Research has shown that aggressive boys were raised by parents who abused them physical violence. Such children could behave submissively at home, but towards peers and strangers they showed more aggressiveness than their peers who had a different family situation.
The process of children observing other people's behavior and imitating their parents is called modeling. Later, the modeling process turns into the process of socialization, during which habitual reaction patterns are formed.
A. Bandura identified 3 most important points that need to be taken into account when studying aggression:
1. way of mastering such actions;
2. factors provoking their manifestation;
3. the conditions under which they are fixed.
A. Bandura introduces the concepts of reinforcement replacement and self-reinforcement. Reinforcement substitution is the positive or negative consequences of someone else's actions observed by the individual. The likelihood of aggressive behavior increases if he has observed other people being rewarded for similar behavior.
The self-reinforcing effect influences an individual's behavior as external reinforcement. After the desired response model acquires a negative evaluation, the role of self-reinforcement begins to be played by the pleasant sensations experienced by the person.
According to A. Bandura, the conditions for the development of aggression are:
1) frustration that occurs in the absence of parental love and with the constant use of punishment by either one or both parents;
2) inconsistency in the requirements for the child on the part of the parents.
At birth, the child is weak and unable to satisfy basic needs on his own - for this he needs an adult. Therefore, almost all children develop dependency motivation to some degree. If there was no atmosphere of love when raising a child, his desire for dependence develops weakly. Moreover, if a child is not closely dependent on his parents, he will have little opportunity to imitate them and adopt their behaviors.
Frustration of a child's need for dependence, resulting from the lack or absence of tender care and affection on the part of parents, often gives rise to fear and aggressiveness. Aggression, in this case, brings him temporary relief and, at the same time, can force others to pay attention to him (Bandura A., Walters R., 1999).
Thus, the primary role in the formation of a predisposition to aggression is given to the social environment. Currently this theory is dominant.
The most famous proponent of this approach is Arnold Bass. He defines frustration as blocking the process of desired behavior, introducing the concept of attack. It is the act of presenting hostile stimuli to the body. In this case, an attack causes a strong aggressive reaction, and frustration causes a weak one. A. Bass pointed out a number of factors on which the strength of aggressive habits depends.
1. The frequency and intensity of cases when a person experienced an attack, frustration, irritation. People who have been exposed to many angry stimuli are more likely to react aggressively than those who have been exposed to such stimuli infrequently.
2. Repeatedly achieving success through aggression reinforces the corresponding habits. Success can be internal (a sharp decrease in anger, satisfaction) or external (removing an obstacle or achieving a desired goal or reward). The developed habit of aggression and attack makes it impossible to distinguish situations when aggressive behavior is necessary; a person always tends to react aggressively.
3. Cultural and subcultural norms acquired by a person facilitate the development of aggressiveness in him (from childhood he watches cartoons and films where there are scenes of aggressive behavior, assimilates his norms).
4. A person’s temperament has an influence: impulsiveness, intensity of reactions, level of activity provoke the consolidation of aggressive forms of behavior and form aggressiveness as a personality trait.
5. The desire for self-respect, for protection from group pressure, for independence first causes a tendency to disobedience, and then, with resistance from others, provokes a person to show aggression.
A. Bass built a classification of aggressive behavior based on dichotomies. They distinguished: physical/verbal, active/passive, directed/undirected aggression.
The purpose of physical aggression is to cause pain or harm to another person. The intensity of aggressive behavior can be assessed by the likelihood that the aggression will result in injury and how severe the injury may be. Shooting a man with close range more aggressive than someone giving him a kick.
Verbal aggression also appears as painful and offensive; as you know, words can kill. These include: numerous denials; negative reviews and criticisms; expression negative emotions, for example, discontent (abuse), hidden resentment, mistrust, hatred; expressing thoughts and desires of aggressive content such as: “I need to kill you” or curses; insults; threats, coercion and extortion; reproaches and accusations; irony, mockery, offensive and offensive jokes; scream, roar; aggression in dreams, fantasies, expressed in words, mentally, less often in drawings.
Direct aggression is directly directed against the victim. Indirect does not imply the presence of the first: slander is used, negative reviews or aggression is vented against objects representing the victim’s circle.
According to A. Bass, one should distinguish between hostility and aggressiveness. The first is expressed by feelings of indignation, resentment and suspicion. A hostile person is not necessarily aggressive, and vice versa.
The last to emerge is the theory of coercive force. Its essence is quite simple: physical violence (force of coercion) is used to obtain the desired effect when other methods have been exhausted (or absent) (force of persuasion).
In this regard, M. Fischbach identifies an instrumental type of aggression. This is a means to achieve a goal, in which causing damage is just a way of influence. Hostile aggression, according to M. Fischbach, causes damage to the victim and can be considered as aggression for the sake of aggression.
Thus, the problem of aggression is the focus of many researchers. Available approaches to understanding aggression suggest taking into account its various determinants, development mechanisms and forms of manifestation. All the various theories trying to explain aggressive behavior can be roughly reduced to three main approaches:
1. aggression as an instinctive, innate behavior;
2. aggression as a consequence of frustration;
3. aggression is determined by current social conditions in combination with previous learning.
Introduction
Chapter 1. Theoretical approaches to the problem of aggressiveness of adolescents from disadvantaged families
1.1 Psychological characteristics adolescence
1.2 The problem of personality aggressiveness in modern psychology. Teenage aggression
1.3 Psychological problems of adolescents from families with alcohol addiction
Chapter 2. Study of aggressiveness in adolescents from alcohol-dependent families
2.1 Description of the research methodology
2.2 Research results
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
The problem of aggressiveness is one of the most significant problems of modern psychology.
An alarming symptom is the increase in the number of minors with deviant behavior, manifested in antisocial actions (alcoholism, drug addiction, public order, hooliganism, vandalism, etc.). Demonstrative and defiant behavior towards adults increased. Cruelty and aggressiveness began to appear in extreme forms. Crime among young people has increased sharply. Compared to the recent past, the number of serious crimes has increased, consciousness records an increase in conflicts and facts of aggressive behavior of people. Intergroup and interpersonal conflicts arise on the basis of social contradictions.
The problem of aggressiveness research has a long history. Many researchers in our country (Yu. Voronov, E. Marinina, Yu.B. Mozhginsky, A.A. Rean, O.O. Savina, L.M. Semenyuk, I.A. Furmanov) and abroad (A. Bandura, R. Walters) studied the problem of aggression, but did not come to a common denominator, since this problem is complex and multifaceted. Researchers have focused on such aspects of the problem as the biological and social determinants of aggression, the mechanisms of its acquisition and consolidation, the conditions that determine the manifestations of aggression, individual and gender-age characteristics of aggressive behavior, and ways to prevent aggression.
Issues related to human aggression are addressed in many psychological studies. The presence of an extremely high concentration of aggression in society and the lack of an unambiguous and adequate scientific definition of this complex phenomenon make the problem of studying aggressiveness one of the most pressing problems of the modern world, an important theoretical and practical task.
Aggression is formed mainly in the process of early socialization in childhood and adolescence, and it is this age that is most favorable for the prevention and correction of aggressive behavior. This explains the relevance of the topic of adolescent aggression.
In our country and in the world, the fight against alcoholism has recently become increasingly important. This is due to the fact that this disease harms not only the health of the drinker, but is also a complex problem that includes a number of aspects: social, economic, educational, legal, and psychological. The problem of family alcoholism is of particular concern. Parents suffering from alcoholism are characterized by aggressive behavior towards their children while intoxicated. In turn, children inherit the mechanisms of aggressive behavior, manifesting it in relationships with adults and peers or in relation to themselves. This explains relevance themes of aggression among adolescents from families with alcohol addiction.
Target work - to study the features of the manifestation of aggressive behavior of adolescent children brought up in a dysfunctional family, where the parents (one of the parents) suffer from alcohol addiction.
Item
An object
To achieve this goal, the following are set in the work: tasks :
1.Study theoretical approaches to the problem of aggressiveness of adolescents from alcohol-dependent families.
2. Conduct a study aimed at determining the level of aggressiveness in children raised in an alcohol-dependent family.
Hypothesis:
Sample characteristics:
Methods research:
Observation;
Bass-Darkie "Aggressiveness" technique.
Chapter 1. Theoretical approaches to the problem of aggressiveness of adolescents from disadvantaged families
1.1 Psychological characteristics of adolescence
According to many periodizations of personal mental development, adolescence is determined by the period of a person’s life from 11-12 to 14-15 years - the period between childhood and adolescence. This is one of the most critical age periods, associated with the rapid development of all leading components of personality and physiological changes caused by puberty.
According to external signs, the social situation of development in adolescence is no different from that in childhood. Social status teenager remains the same. All teenagers continue to study at school and are dependent on their parents or the state. The differences are reflected rather in the internal content. The emphasis is placed differently: family, school and peers acquire new meanings and meanings.
Comparing himself with adults, the teenager comes to the conclusion that there is no difference between him and the adult. He claims equal rights in relations with elders and enters into conflicts, defending his “adult” position.
Of course, a teenager is still far from true adulthood - physically, psychologically, and socially. He objectively cannot join adult life, but strives for it and claims equal rights with adults. The new position manifests itself in different areas, most often in appearance and manners.
Simultaneously with the external, objective manifestations of adulthood, a feeling of adulthood also arises - the teenager’s attitude towards himself as an adult, the idea, the feeling of being, to some extent, an adult. This subjective side of adulthood is considered the central neoplasm of adolescence.
Along with a sense of adulthood, D.B. Elkonin examines the teenage tendency towards adulthood: the desire to be, appear and be considered an adult. The desire to look like an adult in the eyes of others intensifies when it does not find a response from others. The desire for adulthood and independence of a teenager often encounters the unpreparedness, reluctance or even inability of adults (primarily parents) to understand and accept this.
Increased criticality towards adults, an acute reaction to attempts by others to belittle their dignity, belittle their maturity, and underestimate their legal capabilities are the causes of frequent conflicts in adolescence.
Adolescence is often characterized by a certain alienation from adults and an increase in the authority of the peer group. This behavior has profound psychological meaning. To better understand yourself, you need to compare yourself with others like you. Active processes of self-knowledge arouse enormous interest among adolescents in their peers, whose authority for a certain period of time becomes very strong. In relationships with peers, adolescents practice relationships and go through a special school of social relations. In their environment, interacting with each other, teenagers learn to reflect on themselves. In the process of communicating with peers, skills of mutual understanding, interaction and mutual influence develop.
The style of relationships between a teenager and his parents, which exists in the family, has a great influence on the development of personality and on the formation of the teenager’s style of relationships with other people, in particular peers. Authoritarian type family education leads to the fact that a teenager, where, as it seems to him, he cannot be punished, communicates harshly with peers, clearly demonstrates his freedom by violating norms of behavior in public places. With strangers, such a teenager is either helplessly shy or laxly stupid and disrespectful. A teenager from a family with a permissive parenting style is dependent on others and on external influences in his behavior with peers. If a child ends up in an antisocial group, drug addiction and other forms of socially unacceptable behavior are possible. Democratic type of education the best way influences the formation of relationships with peers. This style most contributes to the development of independence, activity, initiative and social responsibility. By the end of adolescence, the emphasis changes again. So, by the age of 15, a teenager already becomes more mature and responsible. An adult begins to play the role of an assistant and mentor for him. Children already value not only personal qualities in teachers, but also professionalism and reasonable demands. Intra-group communication with peers begins to break down, and friendships deepen and differentiate based on the emotional and intellectual closeness of adolescents. In adolescence, the internal position in relation to school and learning changes. So, if in childhood, in the lower grades, the child was psychologically absorbed in the educational activity itself, now the teenager is more occupied with relationships with peers. It is relationships that become the basis internal interest in adolescence. However, while attaching special importance to communication, the teenager does not ignore educational activities. The teenager is already ready for those types of educational activities that make him more mature in his own eyes. Such readiness may be one of the motives for learning. Independent forms of study become attractive for teenagers. The teenager is impressed by this, and he learns ways of acting more easily when the teacher only helps him.
An important incentive for adolescents to study is the desire to occupy a certain position in the class and achieve peer recognition. At the end of adolescence, many adolescents feel the need for professional self-determination, which is associated with general trend of this age to find your place in life. Therefore, their incentive to study may be both a true interest in the subject and a pragmatic goal - the need to know certain subjects in order to enter other educational institutions.
Educational activities, as well as labor and social-organizational activities, are combined into socially significant activities, which, according to V.V. Davydov, become leading in adolescence. "Realizing the social significance of their own participation in the implementation of these types of activities, adolescents enter into new relationships with each other, develop means of communication with each other. Active implementation of socially significant activities helps to satisfy the need for communication with peers and adults, recognition from elders, independence, self-affirmation and self-respect, according to the chosen ideal." In communication activities, as well as socially significant activities, age-related psychological changes occur in a teenager.
Thus, the development of intelligence is characterized by the fact that a teenager acquires the ability for hypothetico-deductive reasoning (the stage of formal operations according to J. Piaget), which is little accessible to younger children. Often the period of formation of this ability is characterized by the phenomenon of theorizing. The task of a school psychologist is to show teachers and parents the significance of this phenomenon for the personal development of adolescents. This is due to the fact that it coincides with the period of development of self-awareness. At this time, teenagers begin to take an active interest in problems of communication, self-improvement, searching for the meaning of life, social justice, etc. They often reach the level of analysis of eternal philosophical truths, without finding a solution to the issues facing them.”
In adolescence, the child’s personality undergoes qualitative transformations: reflection develops, the content of self-esteem changes, a sense of adulthood is formed, etc.
The development of reflection is characterized by an increased tendency to introspection. The teenager is looking for an answer to the question: how is he compared to others? Self-awareness develops on the basis of reflection - the main feature of the psychology of a teenager compared to a younger child. school age.
One of the forms of manifestation of self-awareness is the feeling of adulthood - the desire to be and be considered an adult. An important indicator of a sense of adulthood is the presence in adolescents of their own line of behavior, certain views, assessments and their defense, despite the disagreement of adults, which often leads to conflicts in the family.
The teenager also develops the “I-concept” - a system of internally consistent ideas about himself. At the same time, the process of forming the “image of the Self” is accompanied by a strong affective experience. The emotional component of a teenager’s self-esteem deserves special attention. The development of self-esteem is associated with the analysis of one’s experiences, conditioned by both external and internal stimuli: one’s own thoughts, expectations, attitudes. For the first time, teenagers, studying their inner world as if from the outside, are convinced that they are unique and inimitable. Such thoughts increase their heightened sense of loneliness. At the end of adolescence, on the border with early adolescence, the idea of oneself stabilizes and forms an integral system - the “I-concept”. For some children, the “I-concept” may be formed later, at senior school age. But in any case, this is the most important stage in the development of self-awareness.
During adolescence, interests develop. However, they are still unstable and diverse. Adolescents are characterized by a desire for novelty. The so-called sensory thirst - the need to obtain new sensations, on the one hand, contributes to the development of curiosity, on the other - to quickly switching from one thing to another when studying it superficially.
Practice shows that only a small number of middle school students have interests that develop into persistent hobbies, which then develop in high school during the period of professional self-determination.
The emotional sphere of adolescents is characterized by worn-out sensitivity. Teenagers experience increased anxiety in communicating with peers and with adults.
Typical features Adolescents experiencing a pubertal crisis also experience irritability, excitability, and emotional lability. Teenagers' emotions are deeper and stronger than those of primary school children. Teenagers feel especially strongly about their appearance. The increased interest of adolescents in their appearance is part of the psychosexual development of a child at this age.
Psychological tasks of adolescence can be defined as tasks of self-determination in three areas: sexual, psychological (intellectual, personal, emotional) and social. Problems of this age can be associated with finding ways to satisfy six basic needs: a physiological need that gives impetus to the physical and sexual activity of adolescents; the need for security that adolescents find in belonging to a group; needs for independence and emancipation from the family; attachment needs; the need for success, to test one’s capabilities; finally, the need for self-realization and development of one’s own self.
The period of growing up, adolescence, being a crisis, can provoke the emergence of deep psychological problems, including the development of aggressiveness in children of this age.
Thus, adolescence is a period of active formation of a person’s worldview - a system of views on reality, oneself and other people. At this age, self-esteem and self-knowledge improve, which has a strong impact on the development of the individual as a whole. Self-esteem is the central new formation of adolescence, and the leading activity is communication and socially significant activities. Due to parents' misunderstanding of children, conflicts arise in communication. In this regard, dissatisfaction arises in communication, which is compensated for in communication with peers, whose authority plays a very significant role.
1.2 The problem of personality aggressiveness in modern psychology. Teenage aggression
Aggressiveness is “a hostility, quality, or personality trait that emphasizes a person’s tendency to cause trouble, attack, or harm other people and the world around them.”
Aggressiveness [from lat. aggressio - to attack] is also defined as a stable, stable characteristic, a property that reflects a person’s conscious or unconscious predisposition to fairly consistent aggressive behavior, the purpose of which is to cause physical or psychological harm to an object. Such physical or psychological damage that an aggressive person inflicts or is ready to inflict can be “partial”, “local”, and sometimes “absolute” when it comes to the destruction of the object of aggression, be it an individual or a community of people, or some an inanimate object of aggressive attack. Aggression in a number of cases can be considered not only as a stable personality trait, but also as a concrete current state, and aggressive behavior caused by it as an act carried out in a state of passion. In the logic of an unlawful act, in this case, to assess it, a forensic psychological examination is required. It is necessary to understand that aggression has played a decisive role in the process of human survival for thousands of years. Changing norms of response to manifestations of aggressiveness, the content and degree of severity of judgments regarding such behavioral activity were significantly reflected in what is traditionally considered in psychological science as the process of socialization. It is clear that aggressiveness as a stable personality trait manifests itself in real contact behavior. At the same time, it is equally obvious that the developing human individual does not initially possess such a characteristic as aggressiveness. It is in this regard that the problems of aggressiveness and aggressive behavior are most fully developed within the framework of the concept of social learning (A. Bandura and others).
It is important to distinguish between the concepts of “aggression” and “aggressiveness”.
Aggression, according to Fromm, is understood as “any action that causes or intends to cause harm to another person, group of people or animal.”
Aggression is understood as a personality trait expressed in readiness for aggression.
Thus, aggression is a set of certain actions that cause damage to another object; and aggressiveness ensures the readiness of the person at whom aggression is directed to perceive and interpret the behavior of another accordingly.
The difference between the concepts of “aggression” and “aggressiveness” leads to important conclusions. On the one hand, the aggressiveness of the individual is not really behind any aggressive actions of the subject. On the other hand, human aggressiveness does not always manifest itself in clearly aggressive actions. Manifestation - not the manifestation of aggressiveness as a personal property in certain acts of behavior is always the result of a complex interaction of trans-situational and situational factors.
In case of aggressive actions, do not aggressive personality These actions are based on the situational factor. In the case of aggressive actions of an aggressive person, primacy belongs to personal qualities. Aggression, therefore, can be situational and personal, stable and unstable. Situational aggressiveness manifests itself episodically, while personal aggressiveness is a stable individual behavioral trait that appears wherever and whenever conditions are suitable for it. Aggression as a personality trait can be measured, studied and, if necessary, psychologically corrected.
As a personality trait, aggressiveness may be closely related to, but not the same as, cruelty. If cruelty is always condemned, then aggressiveness often takes socially acceptable forms, for example in sports. Aggressive actions are also required from the military. Aggression as psychological phenomenon morally neutral in the sense that it can lead to both socially approved and illegal behavior.
An aggressive person may not be cruel if his actions do not have the motive of causing suffering and torment for their own sake. A cruel person is always aggressive.
Violent aggressive behavior can be realized both in the form of action and in the form of inaction, while non-violent aggressive behavior can only be realized in the form of action.
Aggression can vary in intensity and form of manifestation: from demonstrations of hostility and ill will to verbal insults (“verbal aggression”) and the use of brute physical force (“physical aggression”).
The following types of aggressive reactions are distinguished:
Physical aggression (attack);
Indirect aggression (vicious gossip, jokes, outbursts of rage);
Tendency to irritation (readiness to express negative feelings at the slightest excitement);
Negativism (oppositional behavior, from passive resistance to active struggle);
Resentment (envy and hatred of others, caused by real and fictitious information);
Suspicion ranging from mistrust and caution to the belief that all other people are causing or planning harm;
Verbal aggression (expression of negative feelings both through form - quarrel, screaming, screeching - and through content - threat, curse, swearing).
All the variety of forms of manifestation of aggression can be divided into aggression directed at others and auto-aggression - aggression directed at oneself.
Every person has a certain degree of aggression. Its absence leads to passivity and conformity. Its excessive development begins to determine the entire appearance of the personality, which can become conflicting and incapable of partnership and cooperation.
The theories of aggression existing today explain in different ways the causes and mechanisms of aggressive human behavior. Some of them associate aggression with instinctive drives (S. Freud, K. Lorenz), in others aggressive behavior is interpreted as a direct reaction to frustration (J. Dollard, L. Berkowitz), in others aggression is considered as a result of social learning (A. Bandura ), there are also many modifications and variations of these approaches. Existing experimental data to one degree or another confirm all the main theories of aggression. This speaks of the multidimensionality and diversity of the phenomenon of aggression, of the multifactorial conditionality of aggression as a behavioral act, and aggressiveness as a personality trait. However, the frustration theory of aggression and the social learning theory are the most experimentally confirmed.
Socialization of aggression, according to A. Rean’s definition, “is the process and result of mastering the skills of aggressive behavior and developing the aggressive readiness of the individual during the individual’s acquisition of social experience.”
The aggressiveness of an individual can be a way of protecting her self-attitude at the level of her social activity. A negative attitude towards oneself, one’s low self-esteem can be compensated by a person through his committing antisocial acts and acts of aggression. A person who defends his attitude towards himself with the help of aggression is not able to engage in interaction on an “equal” basis. The explanation for this is his lack of a stable personal position, absorption in the “defectiveness” of his own “I”.
The development of aggressive behavior is a complex and multifaceted process in which many factors operate. Aggressive behavior is determined by the influence of family, peers, and the media.
Adolescents learn aggressive behavior through direct reinforcement as well as through observing aggressive acts. With regard to the family, the development of aggressive behavior is influenced by the degree of family cohesion, closeness between parents and child, the nature of the relationship between siblings, and the style of family leadership. Children who have strong family discord, whose parents are distant and cold, are comparatively more prone to aggressive behavior.
A teenager also receives information about aggression from communication with peers. Children learn to behave aggressively by observing the behavior of other children. Playing with peers gives children the opportunity to learn aggressive reactions (for example, using fists or insults). Noisy games—in which teenagers push, chase, tease, kick, and try to hurt each other in some way—may actually be a relatively “safe” way to teach aggressive behavior. However, those who are extremely aggressive are likely to find themselves rejected by the majority of their age group. On the other hand, these aggressive adolescents are likely to find friends among other aggressive peers. Of course, this creates additional problems, since in an aggressive company there is a mutual reinforcement of the aggressiveness of its members.
In children, one of the main ways to learn aggressive behavior is by observing the aggression of others. Teenagers who experience violence at home and who become victims of violence themselves are prone to aggressive behavior.
One of the most controversial sources of aggression training is the media. After many years of research using a wide variety of methods and techniques, science still has not figured out the extent to which the media influences aggressive behavior.
Within adolescence, for both boys and girls, there are age periods with higher and higher low level manifestations of aggressive behavior. It has been established that boys have two peaks of manifestation of aggression: 12 years old and 14-15 years old. Girls also show two peaks: the highest level of aggressive behavior is observed at 11 years old and at 13 years old.
A comparison of the severity of various components of aggressive behavior in boys and girls showed that in boys the tendency to direct physical and direct verbal aggression is most pronounced, and in girls - to direct verbal and indirect verbal.
Thus, It is necessary to distinguish between aggression and aggressiveness. aggression is a set of certain actions that cause damage to another object; and aggressiveness ensures the readiness of the person at whom aggression is directed to perceive and interpret the behavior of another accordingly.
The theories of aggression existing today explain in different ways the causes and mechanisms of aggressive human behavior. The frustration theory of aggression and the social learning theory are the most experimentally confirmed.
The aggressiveness of an individual can be a way of protecting her self-attitude at the level of her social activity.
Aggressive behavior of adolescents is determined by the influence of family, peers, and the media.
1.3 Psychological problems of adolescents from families with alcohol addiction
The concept of “dysfunctional family” does not have a clear definition in the scientific literature. Synonyms for this concept are used: destructive family, dysfunctional family, at-risk families, inharmonious family.
A dysfunctional family is a family in which the structure is disrupted, basic family functions are devalued or ignored, and there are obvious or hidden defects in upbringing, resulting in the appearance of “difficult children.”
Dysfunctional families can be divided into two large groups:
1) families with a clear form of trouble, in which the forms of family trouble are clearly pronounced character: families with alcohol addiction, conflict families, problem families, asocial families, immoral-criminal families, families with a lack of educational resources (single-parent families);
2) families with a hidden form of disadvantage (internally dysfunctional): outwardly respectable families, but in them the value systems and behavior of parents diverge from universal moral requirements, which affects the upbringing of children.
A special group of dysfunctional families are families with alcohol addiction.
Alcoholism is “a painful addiction to alcohol that develops as a result of habitual use and leads to a person’s loss of socially valuable spiritual and physical qualities.”
A chronic, traumatic situation in the family of an alcoholic adversely affects the health of all its members. In such families, a situation develops that makes it impossible to fully raise and educate children: constant scandals, rudeness, violence from parents, lack of mutual understanding - all this leads to mental limitations and psychophysical underdevelopment of children. A study of children of parents who abuse alcohol showed that drunkenness, even in its most harmless form, has bad influence on the physical and mental development of the child. Cases where “completely normal” children are born to severe alcoholics do not prove the harmlessness of parental alcoholism, but only indicate that the drunkenness factor acts in conjunction with a large number of other factors.
In addition, a detailed analysis of the developmental features of these so-called “normal children” shows that they have deviations in the emotional-volitional and personal spheres.
Despite the wide variety of directions and nature of the mental and physical development of children in conditions of family alcoholism, its general patterns are also revealed.
First of all, parental alcoholism leads to somatic pathology: premature birth, delay in physical development child.
40-60% of children of alcoholics suffer from oligophrenia and mental retardation.
Impaired mental development of children whose parents suffer from alcoholism can be caused not only by mental retardation, but also by a delayed rate of development of the central nervous system. In these cases, children, although not mentally retarded, are behind their normally developing peers in terms of the pace of their mental development. This group of children in the domestic literature is designated as children with mental retardation (MDD), who have a delay in the development of such mental operations as analysis, comparison, synthesis.
The strengthening or appearance of genetic abnormalities in behavior in children is facilitated by improper upbringing or the absence of it as such. These are cases when children are abandoned to the mercy of fate by parents leading an immoral lifestyle, when the child is superfluous, rejected and sees constant examples of cruelty, conflicts and falsehood on the part of adults.
Such heredity and the social situation of the child’s development (lack of care and affection, unpredictability of parents’ behavior, life in a state of constant fear) provoke the formation of specific character traits caused by the child’s experiences and internal conflict in response to the action of psychological stress factors coming from outside. Internal conflict is the result of a collision in the child’s mind of opposing, affectively colored relationships towards close people. With family alcoholism, such experiences arise very often: it can be an ambivalent attitude towards a drinking father or mother, or a combination of resentment and love for parents who abuse alcohol.
Let us highlight what is common to children of alcoholics in terms of the development of their character as a combination of innate and external influences. First of all, children from families of alcoholics are very impressionable. Impressiveness contributes to remembering unpleasant events and recording them. The child remembers the insult, insult, fear for a long time, returns his experiences to the past and cannot build on the present in his actions and deeds. Almost all children of alcoholics are unable to identify or express their feelings
From birth, they feel the dissonance between their parents’ behavior and their assurances that “everything is fine,” “nothing happened.” They learn not to notice, not to react to the feelings of others, they try to keep their experiences to themselves.
Children experience especially hard the insult received from parents who, while intoxicated, insult, threaten with beatings, and often beat... But they will never tell their parents or their peers about their suffering. Children are convinced that what is not said out loud does not exist.
Children from alcoholic families have internal instability due to the presence of incompatible, oppositely directed feelings and experiences, a tendency to anxiety and excitement. The last quality is determined, according to L.I. Zakharov, increased emotional sensitivity, shocks and fears that sharpen emotionality, or the transmission of anxiety and worry on the part of parents, the intractability of any vital situation for the child, blocking of his urgent needs, interests and drives, inability to assert himself, lack of internal unity.
Unsolvable experiences for children are caused by a chronic psychotraumatic situation, a source of constant mental stress. Against this background, additionally acting mental trauma increase the pathogenicity of the life situation, since the child cannot cope with them. Along with internal conflict and unfavorable confluence life circumstances in general, this allows us to talk about the emergence of unsuccessful, traumatic life experiences.
The situation is complicated by the fact that children and adolescents can, due to their limited and already deformed experience, conditions of upbringing and family relationships, react emotionally to the accumulating neuropsychic stress. When long-term stress exceeds the adaptive capabilities of children and prevents them from expressing themselves and resolving a traumatic situation in a timely manner, it undermines the ability to adequately perceive themselves, accompanied by a decrease in self-esteem, lack of confidence in their strengths and capabilities, fears and anxiety, a feeling of helplessness and impotence, i.e. e. development of ideas of self-destruction, inferiority, inability to be oneself among others.
All these disorders lead to various forms of abnormal behavior in children and adolescents. EAT. Mastyukova identifies the following forms of behavior in children of alcoholics. First of all, these are protest reactions. Such reactions most often occur when one of the parents has alcoholism. The child becomes rude, disobedient, and strives to do everything out of spite. Along with active reactions out of protest, passive reactions may appear when a teenager leaves home, afraid of his parents, then gradually begins to avoid communication with peers. Against this background, the child easily develops neurotic disorders: sleep disturbances, mood instability. A more dramatic manifestation of passive protest are suicide attempts, which are based on an overly expressed feeling of resentment, a desire for revenge, and to scare. In some cases, these attempts are demonstrative in nature.
Another form of behavioral disorder in children and adolescents with family alcoholism is imitation behavior. Due to their general neuroticism, increased suggestibility, and emotional-volitional instability, adolescents have an increased tendency to develop socially negative forms of imitative behavior, such as foul language, hooliganism, petty theft, vagrancy, and various forms of aggressive behavior.
In a chronically difficult family environment, these behavioral difficulties gradually increase and acquire the character of a habitual behavioral stereotype for the child.
All of these disorders can become the basis for the formation of persistent pathological personality traits that complicate its social adaptation.
Thus, family alcoholism is currently a particular problem, because Drinking parents harm not only their health, but also the health of their children. Almost all teenagers from alcoholic families suffer from alcoholism disorders. mental development, since they are brought up in conditions of constant fear, scandals, unbalanced behavior of parents, and often cruelty and violence on their part. As a result, teenagers grow up nervous, emotionally unstable, with low self-esteem, and with various forms of pathological behavior. All these disorders significantly complicate the upbringing and education of children, and the limited and deformed life experience does not allow them to successfully adapt to the social environment.
Chapter 2. Study of aggression in adolescents from alcohol-dependent families
2.1 Description of the research methodology
Target research - to study the characteristics of the manifestation of aggressive behavior of adolescent children brought up in a dysfunctional family, where the parents (one of the parents) suffer from alcohol addiction.
Item research - psychological characteristics of aggressive behavior of adolescents growing up in a family with alcohol addiction.
An object research - teenage children from disadvantaged families (families with alcohol addiction).
Hypothesis: The level of aggressiveness will be higher in children who are raised in an alcohol-dependent family than in children raised by parents who do not abuse alcohol.
Sample characteristics: The study involved 5 adolescents aged 14 - 15 years from alcohol-dependent families and 5 adolescents aged 14 - 15 years from families who do not abuse alcohol.
Method "Aggressiveness" Bass - Darkie
The technique is used to study the level of manifestation and main types of aggression and hostility in interpersonal interactions at home, during training or work.
The technique allows you to qualitatively and quantitatively characterize manifestations of aggression and hostility. The authors of the methodology understand aggressiveness as a personality trait characterized by the presence of destructive tendencies, mainly in the field of subject-object relations. Hostility is understood as a reaction that develops negative feelings and negative evaluations of people and events.
The questionnaire is intended to study the aggressiveness of adolescents, young adults and adults.
Differentiating manifestations of aggression and hostility, the authors identify the following 8 types of reactions:
Physical aggression is the use of physical force against another person.
Indirect - aggression directed in a roundabout way at another person or directed at no one.
Irritation is a readiness to express negative feelings at the slightest excitement (hot temper, rudeness).
Negativism is an oppositional behavior from passive resistance to active struggle against established customs and laws.
Resentment is envy and hatred of others for real and fictitious actions.
Suspicion ranges from distrust and wariness of people to the belief that other people are planning and causing harm.
Verbal aggression is the expression of negative feelings both through form (screaming, screeching) and through the content of verbal responses (curses, threats).
Guilt - expresses the subject's possible belief that he is a bad person, that he is doing evil, as well as the remorse of conscience he feels.
The questionnaire consists of 75 statements. Answers are assessed on 8 scales.
As a result, an index of hostility and an index of aggressiveness are revealed.
The hostility index includes scales 5 and 6, and the aggressiveness index includes scales 1, 3, and 7. The norm for aggressiveness is its index value equal to 21±4, and for hostility - 7±3.
2.2 Research results
The results of the study showed a tendency for all indicators of aggressiveness to predominate in children from alcohol-dependent families (See Appendix).
As a result of diagnosing using the Bass-Darka Method, we received results for two main indicators:
The hostility index, which includes scales 5 - resentment and 6 - suspicion. This is a reaction that develops negative feelings and negative evaluations of people and events.
Aggression index, which includes scales 1 - physical aggression, 3 - irritation, 7 - verbal aggression. This is the expression of negative feelings at the slightest excitement, verbally or physically.
Children from families where alcohol is abused have an average hostility index of 8.2.
In 20% of children from alcohol-dependent families, the hostility index exceeds the norm, in 80% it is normal.
In children from families where alcohol is abused, the aggressiveness index exceeds the norm - 26.4
60% of children from alcohol-dependent families have scores that exceed the norm, 40% have an index value that does not exceed the norm.
Children from ordinary families have a normal hostility index on average - 8.2.
Children from ordinary families have an average aggression index of 26.4.
20% of children have scores above the norm, 80% have an index value that is normal.
Thus, Children from alcohol-dependent families have, on average, a normal hostility index and a high aggressiveness index; Children from families in which alcohol is not abused have normal hostility index and aggressiveness index.
Children from alcohol-dependent families are more hostile (by 20%) and aggressive (by 40%).
Conclusion
Aggression is any form of behavior aimed at insulting or harming another living being who does not want such treatment.
This definition emphasizes that aggression is a pattern of behavior and not an emotion or motive.
Adolescent aggressiveness is a complex personal formation, and the causes of aggressive behavior can be both psychological (violations of the motivational, emotional, volitional or moral spheres) and socio-psychological factors (disintegration of the family, including as a result of its alcoholism, disruption of emotional ties in the system child-parent relationships, features of parenting style).
A study of aggressiveness in children from alcohol-dependent families revealed that on average they had a normal index of hostility and a high index of aggressiveness; Children from families in which alcohol is not abused have normal hostility index and aggressiveness index.
Children from alcohol-dependent families are more hostile and aggressive.
Children with increased aggressiveness are characterized by anger, self-confidence, and lack of restraint. When communicating with them, the teacher must be emphatically gentle, restrained, patient, and show by his appearance that he perfectly understands the internal state of an aggressive teenager: after all, while terrorizing others, he himself often suffers from his own incontinence. Even after inflicting pain on another, having calmed the outburst of his anger, he continues to experience a feeling of annoyance and dissatisfaction. An adult must feel the child’s inner experiences, help him feel that he is loved, appreciated, that they want to see him more restrained, generous, able to control himself, that he needs to get rid of bad deeds.
A teacher, working with children with increased aggressiveness, must be attentive, predict the child’s actions, and also structure his work in such a way as to help the child in every possible way in overcoming a difficult situation for him. Must pay attention to the slightest changes in the behavior and mood of children.
Comprehensive work by a psychologist, social worker, etc. with an alcohol-dependent family is also necessary.
Bibliography
1. Bandura, A. Teenage aggression. - M., 1999.
2. Age-related psychological approach to counseling children and adolescents: / Ed. G.V. Burmenskaya, E.I. Zakharova, O.A. Karabanova and others - M.: “Academy”, 2002.
3. Enikeev M.I. General and social psychology. - M.: Publishing house gr. NORMA-INFA M, 2000.
4. Kon I.S. Psychology of high school students. - M.: Education, 1980.
5. Kon I.S. Psychology of early youth. - M.: Ast - Press, 1989.
6. Kulagina I.Yu. Developmental psychology (child development from birth to 17 years. - M.: “URAO”, 1998
7. Mozhginsky Yu.B. Adolescent aggression: emotional and crisis mechanism. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.
8. Mukhina V.S. Developmental psychology: phenomenology of development, childhood, adolescence. - M.: “Academy”, 1997.
9. Parens G. Aggression of our children. - M., 1997.
10. Human psychology from birth to death./ Ed. A.A. Reana - St. Petersburg: “Prime-EVROZNAK”, 2002.
11. Rean A.A. Aggression and aggressiveness of the individual // Psychological Journal. - 1996. - No. 5. pp. 3-18.
12. Remschmidt X. Adolescence and adolescence. Problems of personality development. - M., 2004.
13. Rozhdestvenskaya N.A. How to understand a teenager. - M.: Russian Psychological Society, 1998.
14. Semenyuk L.M. Psychological characteristics of aggressive behavior of adolescents and conditions for its correction. - M., 1996.
15. Furmanov I.A. Children's aggression. - Mn.: 1996.
16. Yaroslavtsev I.V. Alcohol and family. – M.: Progress, 2003.
Application
Method "Aggressiveness" Bass - Darkie
Children from alcohol-dependent families
Children from families where alcohol is not abused
| Rozhdestvenskaya N.A. How to understand a teenager. - M.: Russian Psychological Society. 1998. P. 18. |
In modern psychology, much attention is paid to the problem of aggression in adolescents. There are various theories that explain the origin of aggressiveness, the causes of aggressive behavior, methods of its prevention and correction.
Aggression is understood as a personality trait characterized by the presence of destructive tendencies. The destructive component of human activity is necessary in creative activity, since the needs of individual development inevitably form in people the ability to eliminate and destroy obstacles, to overcome what opposes this process (25). A.V. Petrovsky believes that aggression is an individual or collective behavior, an action aimed at causing physical or psychological harm, damage or destruction of another person or group of people. Aggression is often accompanied by emotional states of anger, hostility, hatred and resentment. Exists hostile aggression, characterized by purposefully conscious intentions to harm another, and instrumental aggression, where the goal of the subject’s action is neutral, and aggression is used as a means of achieving it. Aggressive actions can be directed by a person towards himself, taking the form of auto-aggression (for example, suicidal behavior). Some manifestations of aggression and auto-aggression can serve as a sign of developing pathopsychological changes in personality, such as excitable psychopathy, epilepsy, etc. (16).
In the works of the famous domestic psychologist, the author of many works on the problem of aggressiveness A. A. Rean, gives the following understanding of aggression. Aggression is a deliberate action that causes or intends to cause harm to another person, group or animal. E. Fromm adds to this concept the causing of damage to any inanimate object in general (18).
D. Myers defines aggression as physical or verbal behavior aimed at causing harm to someone. The source of hostile aggression is anger. Its only purpose is to cause harm. In the case of instrumental aggression, any goal, including a positive one, can be achieved (14). J.J. Rousseau sees the cause of aggression in society, and not in human nature. T. Hobbes views social restrictions as necessary to curb the animal manifestations of human nature, which requires strict control. Hobbes's views that aggressive manifestations are innate and therefore inevitable were shared in their time by S. Freud and K. Lorenz.
Zilman identifies aggression “caused by an irritant” (actions aimed at eliminating unpleasant situation) and “behavioral” (actions taken to achieve external benefits).
Researchers Dodge and Coy introduced the concepts of “reactive” and “proactive” aggression. The first is associated with the implementation of actions in response to a real or expected threat, the second is aimed at achieving positive result (18).
However, the most widespread division in psychology is the division of aggression into hostile and instrumental.
Analyzing the causes of hostile and instrumental aggression, psychologists put forward three important theoretical concepts:
1) there are innate aggressive impulses,
2) aggression is a natural reaction to frustration,
3) aggressive behavior is the result of learning.
The theory of instinctive aggression. Psychoanalysts, including S. Freud, believe that the source of human aggression is the individual’s transference of the energy of the primitive death drive from himself to external objects. Aggression is a disorganizing, destructive force. M. Klein and M. Mailer insist on the predominance of destructive drives in early childhood (11). The relationship between an infant and his mother is built on ambivalent feelings of love and hate, and overcoming them is important stage in a child's life. K. Lorenz, who studied animal behavior, viewed aggression as adaptive rather than self-destructive behavior (14). However, the views of these scientists agree that aggressive energy is instinctive in nature. If the energy is not discharged, it accumulates until it explodes or until a suitable stimulus releases it. L. Szondi interprets the aggressive nature of man as a conflict between good and evil - “Abel” and “Cain”. The main tendencies of the human psyche are refracted, in his opinion, in the conflict between the ethical and moral component of consciousness and human behavior (24).
Research by psychologists in the mid- to late-twentieth century led to the fact that the view of aggression as an instinct has undergone some changes, but attention is still paid to the biological nature of aggression. Aggression is a complex behavioral complex, and therefore it is impossible to talk about the existence of a clearly localized “center of aggression” in the brain. However, areas of the nervous system responsible for the manifestation of aggression have been discovered. Blood chemistry is another factor that influences the sensitivity of the nervous system to stimulation of aggression. For example, a person who is intoxicated is easier to provoke into aggressive behavior. Alcohol increases aggressiveness, reducing the level of personal sanity and control over behavior, as well as weakening the ability to consider the consequences of actions taken. A large number of teenage crimes occur during the stage of alcohol intoxication. Aggression is also influenced by genetic predisposition. Heredity affects the sensitivity of the nervous system to agents of aggression (14). Human temperament, which determines the lability and reactivity of the nervous system, is innate. Appearing in early childhood, temperament usually does not change throughout life. Often, an impulsive and fearless child develops behavioral disorders during adolescence.
As practice shows, many aggressive children whose parents seek help have birth injuries or disorders during pregnancy that lead to brain hypoxia and, as a consequence, disturbances in the child’s behavior towards increased impulsiveness and aggressiveness. Often aggressive children were born by caesarean section (about 20% of cases).
All these indicators allow us to conclude that there are significant biological, genetic and biochemical factors that contribute to the occurrence of aggression.
The theory of aggression as a reaction to frustration. Within the framework of this theory, frustration is believed to interfere with goal achievement and increases when our goal orientation is very strongly motivated, and this goal-directed behavior is blocked. Frustration is a mental state caused by objectively insurmountable obstacles that arise on the way to achieving a goal. It manifests itself in the form of emotions: anger, irritation, anxiety, fear, guilt, etc. The energy of aggression is not necessarily discharged at the root cause. Gradually, a person learns to suppress anger and take it out indirectly, especially when intemperance can lead to disapproval or punishment from others. In such cases, frustration causes the aggressive impulse to be shifted to someone else or to the frustrated person himself. For example, parents who have troubles at work and feel discomfort from it often take their aggression out on their children at home (14).
L. Berkowitz suggests that frustration causes anger and an emotional readiness to react aggressively. Bitterness increases in the presence of stimuli associated with aggression (for example, weapons in 70% of cases accompany the open expression of aggression among criminals who have committed murders) (14).
Thus, theories of aggression based on the concepts of “frustration” and “instinct” assume that hostile impulses have a deep nature, and human emotions push them to the surface. They have a different opinion social psychologists, explaining aggression from the point of view of social learning theory.
Social learning theory. According to this theory, we learn social behavior through observation and imitation, as well as under the influence of rewards and punishments. A. Bandura is convinced that we learn aggression not only because it is beneficial, but also adopt it as a model of behavior by observing other people (1). If a child observes the aggressive behavior of his parents from childhood, he often manifests it in conversation and play. Adolescent open behavior is influenced by both personal factors (belief, expectation, self-perception) and environmental actions (reward, punishment) (29). Everyday life often shows us aggressive behavior patterns in the family, subculture and media. If parents achieve obedience from teenagers with the help of shouting, spanking and other harsh methods, then they give them lessons in aggression as a method of solving problems. Often such parents themselves were subjected to physical punishment from their parents.
The media also often provokes teenagers into aggression. Recently, there has been an increase in the number of programs on television promoting violence, forceful behavior, and aggression as the best means of standing up for oneself. Teenagers who strive to be self-confident accept this model as the norm. Meanwhile, their behavior in the real situation of relationships with parents, friends and strangers often takes the form of brutal violence. According to studies conducted in the United States at the end of the twentieth century, the fact that eight-year-old children regularly watched television programs with scenes of violence was a harbinger of serious criminal offenses committed by them by the age of 30. The rate of committing serious crimes among those who rarely watched such programs as children is 18%, and among those who often watch them is 48%. Thus, there is a clear relationship between aggressive behavior and the influence of the media on it (14).
The social determinants of aggressive behavior are numerous. Surveys of juvenile offenders conducted by I. Strakinaru showed that the factors influencing illegal behavior in 55% of cases are social influences, in 30% - organic brain damage, in 15% - genetic factors (25).
Analysis of research data allows us to draw a conclusion about the importance of working with the social environment as a source of aggressive behavior for adolescents.
Modern theories and views on aggressiveness. An interesting concept of aggressiveness is developed by scientists V.S. Rotenberg and S.M. Bondarenko. They are based on the theory of search activity - activity aimed at changing an unacceptable situation, or changing attitudes towards it, or maintaining a favorable situation, despite the influence of factors and circumstances that threaten it. Search activity is innate in nature, although it is formed in the process of life. Deviant behavior of adolescents, including unmotivated attacks of cruelty, in some cases may be a manifestation of incorrectly oriented search activity. And if you change the direction of search activity, you can reduce aggressiveness (23). German psychotherapist G. Almon believes that every person is born with the potential for constructive aggressiveness, that is, with the desire to master and change the world, creatively realize yourself. With defective upbringing, constructive aggression is transformed into destructive, since regardless of the sign - positive or negative - the potential of aggression must find a way out to preserve physical and mental health (25).
V.V. Lebedinsky is of the opinion that periods of pronounced aggressiveness in adolescents, disrupting his harmonious relationships with others, observed in the process of normal development, mainly coincide with the experience of age-related affective and personal crises. In cases of affective disorders, aggression becomes a habitual form of adolescent behavior (20).
The authors of the well-known test for determining the level of aggression, A. Bass and A. Darkey, distinguish between the concepts of hostility and aggressiveness. Hostility is an attitude reaction that is accompanied by negative feelings and a negative assessment of people and events. If hostile intentions are verbalized, they take the form of negative and derogatory statements. Aggression is a response containing stimuli that can cause harm to another. Hostility, in turn, is divided into indignation (resentment) and suspicion; aggression has five types: physical, indirect, verbal aggression, negativism and irritation (25).
Psychologist G. Miller puts forward the theory of displaced aggression. It is based on the idea of transferring aggression to another object, discharging an aggressive impulse onto a person who is less dangerous to attack (although he is not the true source of the aggressive impulse) (18). G. Parens also says that teenagers try to manage their feelings of hostility. This is manifested in the facts of replacement of the object of aggression with loved one to those less loved, authoritative and significant (15).
Analyzing the literature on the problem of aggressiveness, we can conclude that most modern authors one way or another view aggressiveness as hostile and instrumental. Among the large number of theories, three main ones can be distinguished - instinctive; frustration and social learning theory.
The reasons that prompt aggressive reactions are:
Constant aggressive behavior of parents, which the teenager imitates, “infecting” their aggressiveness. This is due to the fact that the self-regulation system of a younger teenager is built according to the type of emotional self-regulation of parents;
Showing dislike for the child, creating in him a feeling of danger and hostility of the world around him;
Long-term and frequent frustrations, the source of which are parents or any circumstances (failure in education, conflicts with peers, stress, etc.).
Humiliation and insults of a teenager from parents or peers.
In addition, it is important to remember that instrumental aggression carries a positive charge, it allows a person to achieve his goals, can manifest itself in persistence and determination, and promotes dynamics and changes that are not necessarily negative.