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brief information
Poland is of great interest to tourists, because this country has a large number of architectural and historical monuments, beautiful nature with lakes and ancient forests, the Baltic Sea, numerous balneological and ski resorts. This is why tens of millions of tourists come to Poland every year...
Geography of Poland
Poland is located in Eastern Europe. In the west, Poland borders with Germany, in the south with the Czech Republic and Slovakia, in the east with Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania, and in the north with Russia ( Kaliningrad region). In the north, Poland is washed by the Baltic Sea. total area this country is 312,679 sq. km
Poland is dominated by low-lying landscapes. Hills and plateaus are located in the south of the country.
In the south-eastern part of Poland there are the Sudeten Mountains, in which the highest peak is Mount Snezka (1,602 m). Southern Poland is occupied by the Carpathian Mountains and the Tatras, which are divided into the High and Western Tatras. The most high peak in Poland - Rysy in the Tatras, its height reaches almost 2,500 meters. In the east of the country there are the Pieniny and Bieszczady mountains.
The main Polish rivers are the Vistula, Odra, Watra and Bug, flowing across the plain from south to north.
An important element of the Polish landscape are lakes, of which there are more than 9,300 in this country. The largest number of lakes in Poland are located in the Masurian Lake District. This area also has beautiful, majestic ancient forests with many rare animals and unique plants.
Capital
The capital of Poland since 1791 is Warsaw, which is now home to more than 1.82 million people. Historians believe that human settlements on the territory of modern Warsaw appeared at the beginning of the 10th century.
Official language
The official language in Poland is Polish, which belongs to the West Slavic languages of the Indo-European language family. Now the Polish language has 4 dialects (Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Masovian, and Silesian).
Religion
About 90% of Polish residents are Catholics belonging to the Roman Catholic Church. Poles have always been considered the most zealous (ie, devoted) Catholics. In addition, many Orthodox Christians and Protestants live in Poland.
Government structure of Poland
Poland is a parliamentary republic. According to the 1997 Constitution, executive power belongs to the head of state - the President, and legislative power - to the bicameral parliament National Assembly, consisting of the Senate (100 people) and the Seimas (460 people).
Basic Polish political parties– liberal-conservative “Civic Platform”, conservative “Law and Justice”, social-liberal “Palikot Movement”, social-democratic “Union of Democratic Left Forces” and centrist “Polish Peasant Party”.
Climate and weather
The climate in Poland is mostly temperate. Average annual temperature in Poland it is +8C and varies depending on the region and distance from the Baltic Sea. The average temperature in summer is +18C, and in winter in January -4C.
Sea in Poland
In the north, Poland is washed by the Baltic Sea. Length coastline is 788 kilometers. The largest Polish port is Gdansk. Poland includes several islands. The largest of them are Volin and Usnam.
Rivers and lakes
Four large rivers flow through Poland from south to north: the Vistula (1,047 km), the Odra (854 km), the Warta (808 km) and the Western Bug (772 km).
Poland also has more than 9,300 lakes. The largest number of Polish lakes are located in the Masurian Lake District. This lake district includes lakes such as Śniardwy, Mamry and Niegocin.
In Polish rivers and lakes there are trout, salmon, pike, pike perch, whitefish, tench, bleak, carp, roach, bream, crucian carp, catfish, etc. In the Baltic Sea, Poles catch herring, sprats, salmon, cod and flounder.
History of Poland
Greater Poland was founded in 966 BC. The first Polish king was Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty. The tribes of southern Poland then form Lesser Poland. In the middle of the 11th century Polish king Casimir I the Restorer managed to unite Greater and Lesser Poland.
In 1386, Poland entered into a union with Lithuania (Polish-Lithuanian Union). Thus, the Polish-Lithuanian state was formed, which became the strongest in Eastern Europe for several centuries.
In the 15th century, Poland waged wars with the Teutonic Order, the Moscow State and the Ottoman Empire. Famous Battle of Grunwald 1410 ended with the defeat of the troops Teutonic Order.
In 1569, according to the Union of Lublin, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed - union state Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Throughout the 17th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth waged wars with its neighbors - the Turks, Ukrainians and Russians. Suffice it to recall the campaigns of the Cossacks and Poles against Moscow and the uprising of Bogdan Khmelnitsky.
Ultimately, Poland suffered a series of defeats, and in 1772 the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place between Russia, Prussia and Austria. The second partition of Poland took place in 1792, and the third in 1795.
After this, the Polish state did not exist for more than 100 years, although the Poles made several attempts to restore it (uprisings of 1830-31 and 1861).
Only in October 1918 was the independent state of Poland restored. Marshal Józef Pilsudski became the head of Poland, and the famous pianist Ignacy Paderewski was elected prime minister.
In 1926, as a result of a coup d'etat, power in Poland was seized by Józef Pilsudski, who ruled the country until his death in 1935.
In 1934, Poland and Germany signed a non-aggression pact. However, despite this, on September 1, 1939, a war broke out between these states, which led to World War II.
After the end of World War II, the Polish Republic was proclaimed, and in 1952 - the Polish People's Republic.
In December 1989, under the influence economic factors(Poland took out too many loans that it could not repay) and due to interference in the internal affairs of the Polish People's Republic some Western states formed the Polish Republic, and communist party after some time it was outlawed.
In 1999, Poland became a member of the NATO military bloc, and in 2004 it was admitted to the European Union.
Culture
The unique character of Polish culture comes from Poland's location at the crossroads of East and West. Poland's rich culture is manifested primarily in its local architecture. Many polish palaces, fortresses and churches are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
The most famous Polish painters are Jacek Malczewski (1854-1929), Stanislaw Wyspiański (1869-1907), Josef Mehoffe (1869-1946), and Josef Czelmonski (1849-1914).
The most famous Polish writers and poets are Adam Mickiewicz, Henryk Sienkiewicz, Boleslaw Prus, Stanislaw Lem, and Andrzej Sapkowski.
As for traditions, they differ in Poland depending on the region. In the mountainous regions of the country, many ancient traditions are still preserved.
Some Polish traditions originate from Catholicism, while others have their origins in paganism. The most important Religious holidays in Poland – Christmas and Easter.
Poles, like other peoples, have their own legends and myths. The oldest and most popular of them are “The Legend of Boleslaw and his Knights” (it turns out that Poland had its own King Arthur), “The Dragon of Krakow”, “The Polish Eagle” and “Janusik” (the Polish Robin Hood).
Polish cuisine
Polish cuisine has been influenced by several cuisines. First of all, Polish cuisine was influenced by Hungarians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Tatars, Armenians, Italians, and the French.
In northern Poland, the favorite dish is fish. In addition, traditional Polish dishes include duck, soup sauerkraut, and also cheese. Traditional Polish dishes are bigos made from sauerkraut and meat, pork cutlet “kotlet schabowy”, dumplings, and cabbage rolls.
Sights of Poland
Poland has always treated its history with care. Therefore, there are a lot of different attractions here, and it is difficult to select the best of them. In our opinion, the top ten most interesting Polish attractions include the following:
Lancut Castle
Palace of Culture and Science in Warsaw
Czartoryski Museum in Krakow
Malbork Castle
Lazienki Park in Warsaw
Pauline Monastery
Słowinski National Park
Wilanow Palace in Warsaw
Warsaw Uprising Museum
Masurian lakes
Cities and resorts
The largest cities in Poland are Warsaw (more than 1.82 million people), Lodz (790 thousand people), Krakow (780 thousand people), Wroclaw (640 thousand people), Poznan (620 thousand people). ), Gdansk (630 thousand people), and Szczecin (420 thousand people).
Ski resorts in Poland are, of course, less popular than, for example, Austria, Italy and Switzerland, but they are more affordable. In addition, Polish ski resorts are distinguished by their beauty. Therefore, every year hundreds of thousands of foreign tourists come to Poland to ski at local ski resorts.
The most popular Polish ski resorts are Swieradow-Zdroj, Zakopane, Kotelnica, Uston, Szczyrk, and Szklarska Poreba.
Poland is also famous for its health resorts with mineral water and healing mud. The most popular of them are Połczyn-Zdrój, Bysko-3drój, Kołobrzeg, Świnoujście, Uston, Szczawno-Zdrój, and Krynica.
The first reliable information about Poland dates back to the second half of the 10th century. Poland was already relatively big state, created by the Piast dynasty by uniting several tribal principalities. The first historically reliable ruler of Poland was Mieszko I (reigned 960–992) from the Piast dynasty, whose possessions, Greater Poland, were located between the Odra and Vistula rivers. Under the reign of Mieszko I, who fought against German expansion to the east, the Poles were converted to Latin rite Christianity in 966. In 988 Mieszko annexed Silesia and Pomerania to his principality, and in 990 – Moravia. His eldest son Bolesław I the Brave (r. 992–1025) became one of Poland's most prominent rulers. He established his power in the territory from Odra and Nysa to the Dnieper and from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathians. Having strengthened Poland's independence in the wars with the Holy Roman Empire, Bolesław took the title of king (1025). After the death of Boleslav, the strengthened feudal nobility opposed central government, which led to the separation of Mazovia and Pomerania from Poland.
Feudal fragmentation
Bolesław III (r. 1102–1138) regained Pomerania, but after his death the territory of Poland was divided among his sons. The eldest - Władysław II - received power over the capital Krakow, Greater Poland and Pomerania. In the second half of the 12th century. Poland, like its neighbors Germany and Kievan Rus, fell apart. The collapse led to political chaos; The vassals soon refused to recognize the king's sovereignty and, with the help of the church, significantly limited his power.
Teutonic Knights
In the middle of the 13th century. The Mongol-Tatar invasion from the east devastated most of Poland. No less dangerous for the country were the continuous raids of pagan Lithuanians and Prussians from the north. To protect his possessions, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226 invited Teutonic knights from the military-religious order of the Crusaders to the country. Within a short time, the Teutonic Knights conquered part of the Baltic lands, which later became known as East Prussia. This land was settled by German colonists. In 1308, the state created by the Teutonic Knights cut off Poland's access to the Baltic Sea.
Decline of central government
As a result of the fragmentation of Poland, the state's dependence on the highest aristocracy and the small landed nobility began to increase, whose support it needed to protect against external enemies. The extermination of the population by the Mongol-Tatars and Lithuanian tribes led to an influx of German settlers to the Polish lands, who either themselves created cities governed by the laws of Magdeburg Law, or received land as free peasants. In contrast, Polish peasants, like the peasants of almost all of Europe at that time, gradually began to fall into serfdom.
The reunification of most of Poland was carried out by Władysław Lokietok (Ladisław the Short) from Kuyavia, a principality in the north-central part of the country. In 1320 he was crowned Vladislav I. However national revival V to a greater extent associated with successful reign his son, Casimir III the Great (r. 1333–1370). Casimir strengthened royal power, reformed management, legal and monetary system according to the Western model, promulgated a set of laws called the Wislica Statutes (1347), eased the situation of the peasants and allowed Jews - victims of religious persecution in Western Europe - to settle in Poland. He failed to regain access to the Baltic Sea; he also lost Silesia (which went to the Czech Republic), but captured Galicia, Volhynia and Podolia in the east. In 1364 Casimir founded the first Polish university in Krakow - one of the oldest in Europe. Having no son, Casimir bequeathed the kingdom to his nephew Louis I the Great (Louis of Hungary), at that time one of the most influential monarchs in Europe. Under Louis (reigned 1370–1382), the Polish nobles (gentry) received the so-called. Koshitsky privilege (1374), according to which they were exempted from almost all taxes, having received the right not to pay taxes above a certain amount. In return, the nobles promised to transfer the throne to one of the daughters of King Louis.
Jagiellonian Dynasty
After the death of Louis, the Poles turned to him youngest daughter Jadwiga with a request to become their queen. Jadwiga married Jagiello (Jogaila, or Jagiello), Grand Duke of Lithuania, who reigned in Poland as Władysław II (r. 1386–1434). Vladislav II adopted Christianity himself and converted the Lithuanian people to it, founding one of powerful dynasties in Europe. Vast territories of Poland and Lithuania were united into a powerful state union. Lithuania became the last pagan people in Europe to convert to Christianity, so the presence of the Teutonic Order of Crusaders here lost its meaning. However, the crusaders were no longer going to leave. In 1410, the Poles and Lithuanians defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald. In 1413 they approved the Polish-Lithuanian union in Gorodlo, and in Lithuania appeared public institutions Polish sample. Casimir IV (r. 1447–1492) tried to limit the power of the nobles and the church, but was forced to confirm their privileges and the rights of the Diet, which included senior clergy, aristocracy and small nobility. In 1454 he granted the nobles the Neshawian Statutes, similar to the English Charter of Liberty. The Thirteen Years' War with the Teutonic Order (1454–1466) ended in victory for Poland, and according to the Treaty of Toruń on October 19, 1466, Pomerania and Gdansk were returned to Poland. The Order recognized itself as a vassal of Poland.
Golden Age of Poland
16th century became a golden age Polish history. At this time Poland was one of largest countries Europe, it predominated in Eastern Europe, and its culture flourished. However, the emergence of a centralized Russian state, which laid claim to the lands of the former Kievan Rus, the unification and strengthening of Brandenburg and Prussia in the west and north and the threats of the warlike Ottoman Empire in the south posed a great danger to the country. In 1505 in Radom, King Alexander (reigned 1501–1506) was forced to adopt a constitution “nothing new” (Latin nihil novi), according to which the parliament received the right to an equal vote with the monarch in making government decisions and the right of veto on all issues, concerning the nobility. The parliament, according to this constitution, consisted of two chambers - the Sejm, in which the small nobility was represented, and the Senate, which represented the highest aristocracy and the highest clergy. Extended and open borders Poland, as well as frequent wars, forced it to have a powerful, trained army in order to ensure the security of the kingdom. The monarchs lacked the funds necessary to maintain such an army. Therefore, they were forced to obtain parliamentary approval for any major expenditures. The aristocracy (mozhnovladstvo) and the small nobility (szlachta) demanded privileges for their loyalty. As a result, a system of “small-scale noble democracy” was formed in Poland, with a gradual expansion of the influence of the richest and most powerful magnates.
Rzeczpospolita
In 1525, Albrecht of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, converted to Lutheranism, and the Polish king Sigismund I (r. 1506–1548) allowed him to transform the domains of the Teutonic Order into the hereditary Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty. During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572), the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Poland reached its greatest power. Krakow has become one of the largest European centers humanities, architecture and art of the Renaissance, Polish poetry and prose, and for a number of years - the center of the Reformation. In 1561 Poland annexed Livonia, and on July 1, 1569, at the height of Livonian War with Russia, the personal royal Polish-Lithuanian union was replaced by the Union of Lublin. The unified Polish-Lithuanian state began to be called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish for “common cause”). From this time on, the same king was to be elected by the aristocracy in Lithuania and Poland; there was one parliament (Sejm) and general laws; general money was introduced into circulation; Religious tolerance became common in both parts of the country. The last question had special meaning, since significant territories conquered in the past Lithuanian princes, were inhabited by Orthodox Christians.
Elected kings: the decline of the Polish state.
After the death of the childless Sigismund II, central power in the huge Polish-Lithuanian state began to weaken. At a stormy meeting of the Diet, a new king, Henry (Henrik) Valois (reigned 1573–1574; later became Henry III French). At the same time, he was forced to accept the principle of “free election” (election of the king by the gentry), as well as the “pact of consent” to which each new monarch had to swear. The king's right to choose his heir was transferred to the Diet. The king was also prohibited from declaring war or increasing taxes without the consent of Parliament. He should have been neutral in religious matters, he should have married on the recommendation of the Senate. The council, consisting of 16 senators appointed by the Sejm, constantly gave him recommendations. If the king did not fulfill any of the articles, the people could refuse to obey him. Thus, Henryk's Articles changed the status of the state - Poland moved from a limited monarchy to an aristocratic parliamentary republic; chapter executive power, elected for life, did not have sufficient powers to govern the state.
Stefan Batory (ruled 1575–1586). Weakening supreme power in Poland, which had long and poorly defended borders, but aggressive neighbors whose power was based on centralization and military force, largely predetermined the future collapse of the Polish state. Henry Valois reigned only 13 months, and then left for France, where he received the throne, vacated after the death of his brother Charles IX. The Senate and the Sejm could not agree on the candidacy of the next king, and the gentry finally elected Prince Stefan Batory of Transylvania (reigned 1575–1586) as king, giving him a princess from the Jagiellonian dynasty as his wife. Batory strengthened Polish power over Gdansk, ousted Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic states and returned Livonia. Domestically, he gained the loyalty and assistance in the fight against the Ottoman Empire from the Cossacks, fugitive serfs who established a military republic on the vast plains of Ukraine - a kind of "border strip" stretching from southeastern Poland to the Black Sea along the Dnieper. Batory gave privileges to the Jews, who were allowed to have their own parliament. He reformed the judicial system, and in 1579 founded a university in Vilna (Vilnius), which became an outpost of Catholicism and European culture in the east.
Sigismund III Vase. A zealous Catholic, Sigismund III Vasa (reigned 1587–1632), son of Johan III of Sweden and Catherine, daughter of Sigismund I, decided to create a Polish-Swedish coalition to fight Russia and return Sweden to the fold of Catholicism. In 1592 he became king of Sweden.
To spread Catholicism among the Orthodox population, the Uniate Church was established at the Brest Council in 1596, which recognized the supremacy of the Pope, but continued to use Orthodox rituals. The opportunity to seize the Moscow throne after the suppression of the Rurik dynasty involved the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into a war with Russia. In 1610, Polish troops occupied Moscow. Vacant royal throne was offered by the Moscow boyars to Sigismund's son, Vladislav. However, Muscovites rebelled, and with the help people's militia under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky, the Poles were expelled from Moscow. Sigismund's attempts to introduce absolutism in Poland, which at that time already dominated the rest of Europe, led to the rebellion of the gentry and the loss of prestige of the king.
After the death of Albrecht II of Prussia in 1618, the Elector of Brandenburg became the ruler of the Duchy of Prussia. From that time on, Poland's possessions on the Baltic Sea coast turned into a corridor between two provinces of the same German state.
Decline
During the reign of Sigismund's son, Vladislav IV (1632–1648), Ukrainian Cossacks rebelled against Poland, wars with Russia and Turkey weakened the country, and the gentry received new privileges in the form political rights and exemptions from income taxes. Under the reign of Władysław's brother Jan Casimir (1648–1668), the Cossack freemen began to behave even more militantly, the Swedes occupied most of Poland, including the capital Warsaw, and the king, abandoned by his subjects, was forced to flee to Silesia. In 1657 Poland renounced its sovereign rights to East Prussia. As a result of unsuccessful wars with Russia, Poland Andrusovo truce(1667) lost Kyiv and all areas east of the Dnieper. The process of disintegration began in the country. Tycoons creating alliances with neighboring states, pursued their own goals; the rebellion of Prince Jerzy Lubomirski shook the foundations of the monarchy; The gentry continued to engage in defense of their own “freedoms,” which was suicidal for the state. From 1652, she began to abuse the harmful practice of the “liberum veto,” which allowed any deputy to block a decision he did not like, demand the dissolution of the Sejm and put forward any proposals that were to be considered by its next composition. Taking advantage of this, neighboring powers, through bribery and other means, repeatedly disrupted the implementation of decisions of the Sejm that were unfavorable to them. King Jan Casimir was broken and abdicated the Polish throne in 1668, at the height of internal anarchy and discord.
External intervention: prelude to partition
Mikhail Vishnevetsky (reigned 1669–1673) turned out to be an unprincipled and inactive monarch who played along with the Habsburgs and lost Podolia to the Turks. His successor, Jan III Sobieski (reigned 1674–1696), led successful wars with the Ottoman Empire, saved Vienna from the Turks (1683), but was forced to cede some lands to Russia under the " Eternal peace"in exchange for her promises of assistance in the fight against Crimean Tatars and Turks. After Sobieski's death, the Polish throne in the new capital of Warsaw was occupied for 70 years by foreigners: Elector of Saxony Augustus II (reigned 1697–1704, 1709–1733) and his son Augustus III (1734–1763). Augustus II actually bribed the electors. Having united in an alliance with Peter I, he returned Podolia and Volhynia and stopped the grueling Polish-Turkish wars by concluding the Peace of Karlowitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1699. The Polish king unsuccessfully tried to recapture the Baltic coast from King Charles XII of Sweden, who invaded Poland in 1701. and in 1703 he took Warsaw and Krakow. Augustus II was forced to cede the throne in 1704–1709 to Stanislav Leszczynski, who was supported by Sweden, but returned to the throne again when Peter I defeated Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava (1709). In 1733, the Poles, supported by the French, elected Stanislav king for the second time, but Russian troops again removed him from power.
Stanisław II: the last Polish king. Augustus III was nothing more than a Russian puppet; patriotic Poles tried with all their might to save the state. One of the factions of the Sejm, led by Prince Czartoryski, tried to abolish the harmful “liberum veto”, while the other, led by the powerful Potocki family, opposed any restriction of “freedoms”. In desperation, Czartoryski's party began to cooperate with the Russians, and in 1764 Catherine II, Empress of Russia, achieved the election of her favorite Stanisław August Poniatowski as King of Poland (1764–1795). Poniatowski turned out to be the last king of Poland. Russian control became especially obvious under Prince N.V. Repnin, who, as ambassador to Poland, in 1767 forced the Polish Sejm to accept his demands for equality of faiths and the preservation of the “liberum veto”. This led in 1768 to a Catholic uprising (Bar Confederation) and even to a war between Russia and Turkey.
Partitions of Poland. First section
At the height of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768–1774, Prussia, Russia and Austria carried out the first partition of Poland. It was produced in 1772 and ratified by the Sejm under pressure from the occupiers in 1773. Poland ceded to Austria part of Pomerania and Kuyavia (excluding Gdansk and Torun) to Prussia; Galicia, Western Podolia and part of Lesser Poland; eastern Belarus and all lands north of the Western Dvina and east of the Dnieper went to Russia. The victors established a new constitution for Poland, which retained the "liberum veto" and an elective monarchy, and created a State Council of 36 elected members of the Sejm. The division of the country awakened social movement for reforms and national revival. In 1773 the Jesuit Order was dissolved and a commission was created public education, the purpose of which was to reorganize the system of schools and colleges. The four-year Sejm (1788–1792), led by enlightened patriots Stanislav Malachovsky, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kollontai, adopted a new constitution on May 3, 1791. Under this constitution, Poland became a hereditary monarchy with a ministerial executive system and a parliament elected every two years. The principle of “liberum veto” and other harmful practices were abolished; cities received administrative and judicial autonomy, as well as representation in parliament; peasants, the power of the gentry over whom remained, were considered as a class under state protection; measures were taken to prepare for the abolition of serfdom and the organization regular army. The normal work of parliament and reforms became possible only because Russia was involved in a protracted war with Sweden, and Turkey supported Poland. However, the magnates who formed the Targowitz Confederation opposed the constitution, at the call of which Russian and Prussian troops entered Poland.
Second and third sections
On January 23, 1793, Prussia and Russia carried out the second partition of Poland. Prussia captured Gdansk, Torun, Greater Poland and Mazovia, and Russia captured most of Lithuania and Belarus, almost all of Volyn and Podolia. The Poles fought but were defeated, the reforms of the Four Year Diet were repealed, and the rest of Poland became a puppet state. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko led a massive popular uprising that ended in defeat. The third partition of Poland, in which Austria participated, was carried out on October 24, 1795; after that, Poland as an independent state disappeared from the map of Europe.
Foreign rule. Grand Duchy of Warsaw
Although the Polish state ceased to exist, the Poles did not give up hope of restoring their independence. Each new generation fought, either by joining the opponents of the powers that divided Poland, or by starting uprisings. As soon as Napoleon I began his military campaigns against monarchical Europe, Polish legions were formed in France. Having defeated Prussia, Napoleon created in 1807 the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815) from the territories captured by Prussia during the second and third partitions. Two years later, the territories that became part of Austria after the third partition were added to it. Miniature Poland, politically dependent on France, had a territory of 160 thousand square meters. km and 4350 thousand inhabitants. The creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was considered by the Poles as the beginning of their complete liberation.
Territory that was part of Russia. After Napoleon's defeat Congress of Vienna(1815) approved the partitions of Poland with the following changes: Krakow was declared a free city-republic under the auspices of the three powers that divided Poland (1815–1848); the western part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was transferred to Prussia and became known as the Grand Duchy of Poznan (1815–1846); its other part was declared a monarchy (the so-called Kingdom of Poland) and annexed to Russian Empire. In November 1830, the Poles rebelled against Russia, but were defeated. Emperor Nicholas I abolished the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland and began repression. In 1846 and 1848 the Poles tried to organize uprisings, but failed. In 1863 a second uprising broke out against Russia, and after two years guerrilla warfare The Poles were again defeated. With the development of capitalism in Russia, the Russification of Polish society intensified. The situation improved somewhat after the 1905 revolution in Russia. Polish deputies sat in all four Russian Dumas (1905–1917), seeking autonomy for Poland.
Territories controlled by Prussia. In the territory under Prussian rule, intensive Germanization of the former Polish regions was carried out, the farms of Polish peasants were expropriated, and Polish schools were closed. Russia helped Prussia suppress the Poznań uprising of 1848. In 1863, both powers concluded the Alvensleben Convention on mutual assistance in the fight against the Polish national movement. Despite all the efforts of the authorities, at the end of the 19th century. the Poles of Prussia still represented a strong, organized national community.
Polish lands within Austria
In Austrian Polish lands the situation was somewhat better. After the Krakow Uprising of 1846, the regime was liberalized and Galicia received administrative local control; schools, institutions and courts used Polish; Jagiellonian (in Krakow) and Lviv universities became all-Polish cultural centers; by the beginning of the 20th century. Polish political parties emerged (National Democratic, Polish Socialist and Peasant). In all three parts of divided Poland, Polish society actively opposed assimilation. Preservation of the Polish language and Polish culture has become main task the struggle waged by the intelligentsia, primarily poets and writers, as well as the clergy of the Catholic Church.
World War I
New opportunities to achieve independence. The First World War divided the powers that liquidated Poland: Russia fought with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This situation opened up life-changing opportunities for the Poles, but also created new difficulties. First, the Poles had to fight in opposing armies; secondly, Poland became the arena of battles between the warring powers; thirdly, disagreements between Polish political groups intensified. Conservative national democrats led by Roman Dmowski (1864–1939) considered Germany the main enemy and wanted the Entente to win. Their goal was to unite all Polish lands under Russian control and obtain autonomy status. Radical elements led by the Polish socialist party(PPS), on the contrary, considered the defeat of Russia as the most important condition for achieving Polish independence. They believed that the Poles should create their own armed forces. Several years before the outbreak of World War I, Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935), the radical leader of this group, began military training for Polish youth in Galicia. During the war he formed the Polish legions and fought on the side of Austria-Hungary.
Polish question
On August 14, 1914, Nicholas I, in an official declaration, promised after the war to unite the three parts of Poland into an autonomous state within the Russian Empire. However, in the fall of 1915 most Russian Poland was occupied by Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on November 5, 1916, the monarchs of the two powers announced a manifesto on the creation of an independent Polish Kingdom in the Russian part of Poland. March 30, 1917, after February Revolution In Russia, the Provisional Government of Prince Lvov recognized Poland's right to self-determination. On July 22, 1917, Pilsudski, who fought on the side of the Central Powers, was interned, and his legions were disbanded for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the emperors of Austria-Hungary and Germany. In France, with the support of the Entente powers, the Polish national committee(PNK) led by Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski; The Polish army was also formed with commander-in-chief Józef Haller. On January 8, 1918, US President Wilson demanded the creation of an independent Polish state with access to the Baltic Sea. In June 1918, Poland was officially recognized as a country fighting on the side of the Entente. On October 6, during the period of disintegration and collapse of the Central Powers, the Council of Regency of Poland announced the creation of an independent Polish state, and on November 14 transferred full power to Pilsudski in the country. By this time, Germany had already capitulated, Austria-Hungary had collapsed, and there was a civil war in Russia.
State formation
New country faced great difficulties. Cities and villages lay in ruins; there were no connections in the economy, which long time developed within three different states; Poland had neither its own currency nor government institutions; finally, its borders were not defined and agreed upon with its neighbors. Nevertheless, state building and economic recovery proceeded at a rapid pace. After transition period, when the socialist cabinet was in power, on January 17, 1919, Paderewski was appointed prime minister, and head Polish delegation at the Versailles Peace Conference - Dmovsky. On January 26, 1919, elections to the Sejm were held, the new composition of which approved Pilsudski as head of state.
The question of boundaries
Western and northern borders the countries were determined at the Versailles Conference, by which Poland was given part of Pomerania and access to the Baltic Sea; Danzig (Gdansk) received the status of a “free city”. At the conference of ambassadors on July 28, 1920, the southern border was agreed upon. The city of Cieszyn and its suburb Cesky Cieszyn were divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Fierce disputes between Poland and Lithuania over Vilna (Vilnius), ethnically Polish but historically Lithuanian city, ended with its occupation by the Poles on October 9, 1920; annexation to Poland was approved on February 10, 1922 by a democratically elected regional assembly.
On April 21, 1920, Piłsudski entered into an alliance with the Ukrainian leader Petliura and launched an offensive to liberate Ukraine from the Bolsheviks. On May 7, the Poles took Kyiv, but on June 8, pressed by the Red Army, they began to retreat. At the end of July, the Bolsheviks were on the outskirts of Warsaw. However, the Poles managed to defend the capital and push back the enemy; this ended the war. What followed next Treaty of Riga(March 18, 1921) represented a territorial compromise for both sides and was officially recognized by a conference of ambassadors on March 15, 1923.
Foreign policy
The leaders of the new Polish Republic tried to secure their state by pursuing a policy of non-alignment. Poland did not join the Little Entente, which included Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania. On January 25, 1932, a non-aggression pact was concluded with the USSR.
After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in January 1933, Poland failed to establish allied relations with France, while Great Britain and France concluded a “pact of agreement and cooperation” with Germany and Italy. After this, on January 26, 1934, Poland and Germany concluded a non-aggression pact for a period of 10 years, and soon the validity of a similar agreement with the USSR was extended. In March 1936, after military occupation Germany's Rhineland, Poland again unsuccessfully tried to conclude an agreement with France and Belgium on Poland's support for them in the event of war with Germany. In October 1938, simultaneously with the annexation Hitler's Germany Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, Poland occupied the Czechoslovak part of the Cieszyn region. In March 1939, Hitler occupied Czechoslovakia and made territorial claims to Poland. On March 31, Great Britain and on April 13, France guaranteed the territorial integrity of Poland; In the summer of 1939, Franco-British-Soviet negotiations began in Moscow aimed at containing German expansion. In these negotiations, the Soviet Union demanded the right to occupy the eastern part of Poland and at the same time entered into secret negotiations with the Nazis. On August 23, 1939, a German-Soviet non-aggression pact was concluded, the secret protocols of which provided for the division of Poland between Germany and the USSR. Having ensured Soviet neutrality, Hitler freed his hands. On September 1, 1939, World War II began with an attack on Poland.
Useful information for tourists about Poland, cities and resorts of the country. As well as information about the population, currency of Poland, cuisine, features of visa and customs restrictions in Poland.
Geography of Poland
Poland is a state in Eastern Europe. In the north it is washed by the Baltic Sea, borders with Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, as well as Russia.
The north of the country is occupied by the long uplands of the Baltic ridge and vast coastal lowlands with big amount glacial lakes, southwest - the Sudeten Mountains, the southern part of the country is surrounded by the Carpathians with the Tatras, Beskids and Bieszczady Mountains. Highest point- Rysy town (2499 m) in the Tatras. central part Poland is flat, dissected by many rivers and reservoirs, and abundantly covered with forest. The Baltic coast is lined with dune-covered beaches, numerous bays and lakes.
State
State structure
Democratic parliamentary republic. The head of state is the president. The head of government is the prime minister. The highest legislative body is bicameral People's Assembly.
Language
Official language: Polish
German, English, Russian and ethnic languages are also used.
Religion
Catholics - 98%.
Currency
International name: PLN
A zloty is divided into 100 groschen. In circulation there are coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 50 groschen, 1, 2 and 5 zlotys, as well as banknotes in denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 zlotys.
Currency can be exchanged at specialized exchange offices ("Kantor"), no commission is charged. Exchange offices in banks are rare and the exchange rate in them is usually less favorable, exchange with hands is prohibited. The circulation of foreign currencies in the country is officially prohibited.
Credit cards are accepted in many hotels and restaurants, car rental companies, etc. ATMs are widely available in bank branches and large retail outlets. In some banks, ATMs are open 24 hours a day, but the entrance to the bank is usually locked with an electronic lock, to open which you need to insert a credit card into the lock slot and swipe it from top to bottom. Traveler's checks are accepted almost everywhere.
History of Poland
The Polish state emerged in the 10th century, and for many centuries Poland was one of the most powerful countries Central Europe. But to XVIII century perennial heavy wars led to the decline of the country, it lost its independence and was subject to several divisions between Russia, Prussia and Austria-Hungary. The Polish state was recreated only in 1918, and Poland existed within its modern borders after the Second World War.
Popular attractions
Tourism in Poland
Where to stay
Today in Poland you can find a great variety of comfortable hotels - from inexpensive to luxurious, there are also hotels from global chains.
The most luxurious and, accordingly, expensive hotels are located in buildings from the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Here you will find not only high-quality service, but also elegant antique interiors, restored to the smallest detail. If you are a fan of a homely atmosphere and comfort, small modern hotels, of which there are quite a few in Poland, will fully satisfy your needs. In addition, prices for accommodation here are quite affordable.
Very popular in Lately uses rural tourism or, as it is also called, agrotourism. The features of this type of accommodation will appeal to those who are fed up with city life. Cozy rooms in rural estates, environmentally friendly clean products, the opportunity to take part in agricultural work is attracting more and more city residents. The cost of living depends on the region, as well as the level of services provided.
If you want to relax with children, then in Poland many hotels have a special pricing policy for such accommodation. So, some hotels allow free accommodation children under 3 years old, in some hotels up to 14. However, this information should be confirmed in advance. In addition, in restaurants, as a rule, you can find a special children's menu.
Hostels are very popular among young people and can be found throughout Poland. Since such hostels are completely full in the spring-autumn period and especially during the holidays, it is worth booking a place in advance.
Campsites of various ranks can be found throughout Poland. As a rule, this is a fenced area, on its territory there is electricity, water supply, sewerage, service staff. Most campsites are open from May to September, but there are also year-round ones.
Hiking in Poland has been very popular for many years now, so finding so-called “mountain shelters” can be found without problems. Such a shelter can offer both ascetic rooms for overnight stays and quite comfortable rooms.
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Popular hotels
Excursions and attractions in Poland
Poland is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Central Europe. Amazing natural landscapes, wonderful resorts and protected areas, an abundance of architectural attractions, a huge cultural and historical heritage Every year they attract many tourists from all over the world.
The capital of Poland is the city of Warsaw - an important economic and Cultural Center countries. Unfortunately, during the Second World War the city was almost completely destroyed. Thanks to the surviving drawings and plans, the Poles were able to restore the historical center, or the so-called “ Old city", with extraordinary precision and return Warsaw to the title of one of the most beautiful cities Europe. Among the most interesting sights of the capital, it is worth highlighting the Royal Palace, Lazienki Palace (Lazienki), Presidential Palace (Radziwill Palace), Cathedral St. John's, Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Jesuit Church of the Virgin Mary, Dominican Church of St. Jacek, Carmelite Church, Peter and Paul Church, Royal Arsenal, Sigismund's Column and Market Square. No less interesting are the Uzyadowski Castle, the Ostrogski Palace, the Branicki Palace, the Church of St. Anne, the Church of the Visitation, the National Museum, the Museum of the History of Warsaw, the Saxon Gardens, Defilade Square and Moliere Street. In the vicinity of Warsaw in Wilanow there is a magnificent palace and park complex of John III Sobieski.
Krakow is one of the most colorful and most visited cities in Poland. It is rightfully considered the cultural capital of the country. Historical Center The city is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Krakow is famous for its abundance of stunning architectural monuments, among which the most impressive are Wawel Castle, the Cathedral of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslas, the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (St. Mary's Church), the Dominican Church of St. Wojciech, the Church of St. Andrew, the Jagiellonian University, etc. The National Museum of Krakow is definitely worth a visit. Archaeological Museum, Czartoryski Museum, Jan Matejka's House, Kosciuszko Mound, Kazimierz, the famous Cloth Row and Market Square. Walking through the unusually beautiful Volsky Forest, which is located right within the city, will also bring special pleasure. Not far from Krakow are the famous Wieliczka salt mines, known since ancient times.
The port city of Gdansk is also very popular among tourists. It is interesting for its centuries-old history, beautiful architectural structures, museums, various cultural events and, of course, the beautiful Baltic beaches. The most visited resorts in Poland also include Sopot, Gdynia, Kolobrzeg, Krynica Morska, Ustka and Swinoujscie. Among Polish resorts, the ski resorts of Zakopane, Zielenets and Karpacz, a popular health resort and ski resort Krynica-Zdroj, as well as mineral springs Kudovy-Zdroj. You will find a lot of interesting sights and opportunities for pleasant leisure activities in Lublin, Lodz, Szczecin and Poznan. No less interesting for travelers are such Polish cities like Katowice, Torun, Zamosc, Malbork, Kielce, Czestochowa, as well as the infamous Auschwitz (Auschwitz).
Among the natural attractions of Poland, it is worth highlighting the stunningly beautiful Tatra Mountains, the majestic Sudeten Mountains and the famous Beskydy Mountains, on the territory of which there are a huge number of resorts and various health resorts. The famous Masurian Lakes with their magnificent parks and protected areas are also worth a visit.
Polish cuisine
Many dishes of Polish cuisine are similar in preparation technology and set of products to dishes of Ukrainian and Russian cuisines.
Among appetizers and cold dishes in Polish cuisine, all kinds of salads from fresh, pickled and salted vegetables, seasoned with mayonnaise, sour cream or curdled milk, meat, fish products and poultry, served with various vegetables as a side dish, are popular. They prepare stuffed eggs, eggs with mayonnaise, as well as a spicy snack made from cottage cheese, to which chopped parsley, dill, green onions, pepper, and salt are added.
Kefir and yogurt are often served for breakfast, and hot boiled potatoes are usually served with yogurt. First courses are most often represented by borscht, cabbage soup, pickles, beetroot soup, solyanka, and mashed potato soups. In Poland, it is customary to serve borscht and cabbage soup with hot boiled potatoes instead of bread. Favorite dishes in Polish cuisine are tripe dishes (Warsaw-style flaki, flaki in sauce, tripe soup).
Polish cuisine offers a variety of fruit and berry sweet dishes (fruit salads, ice cream, sweet pancakes), confectionery and bakery products.