Travel to the East. Greek army

The main task of the young king was to prepare for a military campaign in Persia. He inherited a powerful army from Philip. Ancient Greece, but Alexander understood that defeating the huge Achaemenid power would require the efforts of all of Hellas. He managed to create a Pan-Hellenic (pan-Greek) union and form a united Greek-Macedonian army.

The elite of the army consisted of the king's bodyguards (hypaspists) and the Macedonian royal guard. The basis of the cavalry were horsemen from Thessaly. The foot soldiers wore heavy bronze armor, their main weapon was the Macedonian spear - the sarissa. Alexander improved his father's fighting tactics. He began to build the Macedonian phalanx at an angle; this formation made it possible to concentrate forces to attack the enemy’s right flank, traditionally weak in the armies of the ancient world. In addition to the heavy infantry, the army had a considerable number of lightly armed auxiliary detachments from different cities of Greece. The total number of infantry was 30 thousand people, cavalry - 5 thousand. Despite the relatively small number, the Greeks Macedonian army was well trained and armed.

Battles of Granicus and Issus

In 334, the army of the Macedonian king crossed the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles), and a war began under the slogan of revenge on the Persians for the desecrated Greek shrines of Asia Minor.

At the first stage of military operations, Alexander was opposed by the Persian satraps who ruled Asia Minor. Their 60,000-strong army was defeated in 333 at the Battle of the Granik River, after which the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated. However, the Achaemenid state had enormous human and material resources. Tsar Darius III, having gathered the best troops from all over his country, moved towards Alexander, but in the decisive battle of Issus near the border of Syria and Cilicia (the region of modern Iskanderun, Turkey), his 100,000-strong army was defeated, and he himself barely escaped.

Alexander in Egypt

Alexander decided to take advantage of the fruits of his victory and continued his campaign. The successful siege of Tire opened the way for him to Egypt, and in the winter of 332-331 the Greek-Macedonian phalanxes entered the Nile Valley. The population of the countries enslaved by the Persians perceived the Macedonians as liberators. To maintain stable power in the captured lands, Alexander took an extraordinary step - declaring himself the son of the Egyptian god Ammon, who was identified by the Greeks with Zeus, he became the legitimate ruler (pharaoh) in the eyes of the Egyptians.

Another way to strengthen power in conquered countries was the resettlement of Greeks and Macedonians, which contributed to the spread of the Greek language and culture over vast territories. Alexander specifically founded new cities for the settlers, usually bearing his name. The most famous of them is Alexandria (Egyptian).

Defeat of the Achaemenid Empire

After carrying out financial reform in Egypt, Alexander continued his campaign to the East. The Greco-Macedonian army invaded Mesopotamia. Darius III, having gathered all possible forces, tried to stop Alexander, but to no avail; on October 1, 331, the Persians were finally defeated in the battle of Gaugamela (near modern Irbil, Iraq). The winners occupied the ancestral Persian lands, the cities of Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. Darius III fled, but was soon killed by Bessus, satrap of Bactria; Alexander ordered the last Persian ruler to be buried with royal honors in Persepolis. The Achaemenid state ceased to exist.

Alexander was proclaimed<царем Азии>. After occupying Ecbatana, he sent home all the Greek allies who wanted it. In his state, he planned to create a new ruling class from Macedonians and Persians, and sought to attract the local nobility to his side, which caused discontent among his comrades. In 330, the oldest military leader Parmenion and his son, the chief of the cavalry Philotas, were executed, accused of involvement in a conspiracy against Alexander.

Trek to Central Asia and India

Having crossed the eastern Iranian regions, Alexander's army invaded Central Asia (Bactria and Sogdiana), the local population of which, led by Spitamen, put up fierce resistance; it was only suppressed after the death of Spitamenes in 328.

Alexander tried to observe local customs, wore Persian royal clothes, and married the Bactrian Roxana. However, his attempt to introduce Persian court ceremonial (in particular, prostrating before the king) met with the rejection of the Greeks. Alexander mercilessly dealt with the dissatisfied. His foster brother Cleitus, who dared to disobey him, was immediately killed.

After the Greco-Macedonian troops entered the Indus Valley, the Battle of Hydaspes took place between them and the soldiers of the Indian king Porus (326). The Indians were defeated, and in pursuit, Alexander's army descended down the Indus to the Indian Ocean (325). The Indus Valley was annexed to Alexander's empire. The exhaustion of the troops and the outbreak of rebellions among them forced Alexander to turn west.

Alexander in Babylon

Returning to Babylon, which became his permanent residence, Alexander continued the policy of uniting the multilingual population of his state, rapprochement with the Persian nobility, which he attracted to govern the state. He arranged mass weddings of Macedonians with Persian women, and he himself married (in addition to Roxana) two Persian women at the same time - Statira (daughter of Darius) and Parysatis.

Alexander was preparing to conquer Arabia and North Africa, but this was prevented by his sudden death from malaria. His body, taken to Alexandria Egypt by Ptolemy (one of the great commander’s associates), was placed in a golden coffin.

Fate of the Empire

Alexander's newborn son and his half-brother Arrhidaeus were proclaimed the new kings of the huge power. In fact, the empire began to be controlled by Alexander's military leaders - the Diadochi, who soon began a war to divide the state among themselves.

The political and economic unity that Alexander the Great sought to create in the occupied lands was fragile, but Greek influence in the East turned out to be very fruitful and led to the formation of the Hellenistic culture.

The personality of Alexander the Great was extremely popular both among European peoples and in the East, where he is known under the name Iskander Zulkarnain (or Iskandar Zulkarnain, which means Alexander the Two-horned).

Campaigns of Alexander the Great.

1. Battle on the river Granik.

The campaigns of Alexander the Great open with the battle on the river. Granik. Here is its traditional version (stated with least amount controversial details) Alexander and his army approached the river. The Persians fortified themselves on the steep right bank of the river. The generals advised Alexander not to attack the enemy who occupied comfortable position , to which they would have to cross the river, but Alexander himself led the cavalry into the attack, they crossed the river under the enemy’s arrows, climbed the slope, broke into the location of the enemy troops while the rest of the army was crossing. The Persian military leader Mithridates (one of the satraps who participated in the battle) rushed at Alexander. Alexander defeated him. After this, the Persians fled, and the crossed army approached the Greek mercenaries who did not take part in the battle, surrounded them and cut them all down, and took 2000 prisoners. And Alexander gave 300 shields to the Athenians - his allies. The Greeks lost 60 horsemen and 25 infantry, and the Persians lost 20 thousand infantry and 2 thousand cavalry. To further assess the reliability of the descriptions of certain battles, it is necessary to find out to what extent, how and exactly what moment can be distorted. This is especially true for those battles where we have evidence from only one side - either the losers or the vanquished. In later, especially intra-European wars, as a rule, there is evidence of both, but about the Greco-Persian wars or about the campaigns of Alexander - only Greek evidence, about the Roman conquests - only Roman, about the invasions of the Huns or Mongols - only evidence from peoples , conquered by them. This must be taken into account. What is the first thing that causes strangeness in a presentation? Loss ratio. The Greeks climb the steep slope of the river under fire, the first ranks grapple with the superior forces of the Persians - and there are almost no casualties. This cannot be explained by any of Alexander’s talents (only by divine origin). Well, if we do not take into account the version of Alexander’s divinity, then we can trace such relationships to the present day (“100 militants were killed, we have one wounded in the little finger”). The Persians cannot speak out in their own defense. We will have to work as defenders of the Persians - “let the other side be heard.” Alexander rushes into the river and carries the army along with him. And on the other side there are Persian archers standing and shooting arrows at the swimmers. Let the Persians be very bad shooters. And they shoot at only 20 steps (this is almost the range of today's children's toy bow). Generally speaking, they (it is believed) had Scythian bows that aimed at 100 steps (approx. 50 m), but the empire was in decline, talents were lost... Taking into account the rise (Persians on the high bank), even 20 steps turn into at 30 (even if the shore is only 10-15 m high). Moreover, the Greeks must take these 30 steps along the water and uphill. Moreover (especially if the Persians are very bad shots), most of the arrows should hit the horses. And even if every tenth shooter hits the target, and there are 20 thousand archers (as is currently believed - 20 thousand cavalry, the main weapon of the Persian cavalryman is the bow) - then the first salvo will be incapacitated (even if not killed, but deprived of the ability to fight) 2000 horsemen. And the Persians will have time to give a second one, almost point-blank. In total, out of 4.5, only 500 horsemen will reach the infantry. But they won’t get there instantly. 5 thousand horsemen will not be able to cross to the other side at once. Even if the crossing is a kilometer wide, no more than 1000 horsemen will go at once (although the Greeks have a clear goal - to cross as many as possible at once in order to quickly reach the enemy). Thus, the first row will be taken out. The first to die were horses especially, these are not knightly Dextriers, for whom arrows are a scratch, these are still quite small horses, and arrows for them are a significant nuisance. Even without killing, she will drive them out of control. The first ranks will be shot and upset, they will prevent others from crossing, who will also come under fire... The commanders must understand this, they understand - and dissuade Alexander. But he, this brilliant commander, does not understand this - and wins the battle. You can’t kill an arrow with your spirit - if there are really as many Persians as is believed (I will keep silent about Plutarch’s data, but let modern reconstructions or Arrian’s data - the numbers of both sides are approximately equal), they will destroy Alexander’s cavalry before it enters the water. You can just imagine how Alexander winces - but, brushing aside the arrows, he still climbs the mountain. So, ONE volley of archers - point-blank, while the cavalry is climbing the cliff, from the worst bow - is enough to sweep away the entire cavalry of Alexander (about 4.5 thousand people, and archers are believed to be about 20 thousand). And after this Alexander is still considered a great commander? Him, who almost destroyed the army - and would have destroyed it if not for an obvious miracle? And yet, if a person has not lost a single battle for several years, this is no longer a miracle, and not a coincidence, but obvious talent. How then did he dare? Why? For what? The most difficult aspect to take into account is the balance of forces. How many Persians were there really? Well, it’s somehow not respectable for him, the son of Zeus, to defeat an army smaller in number than Alexander’s. Meanwhile, the figures that are close to reality about the losses of the Persians are 2000 prisoners, and another 300 shields from the loot. 300 shields is, albeit, a small part of the loot. 1/10. Sending less to the Athens Temple does not seem to be very good. Then there were no more than 3000 shield owners. Generally speaking, the Persians used to own both a spear and a shield, and a bow, but our empire is in decline, talents have been lost - let archers also rely on spearmen, separately. How many could there be? Well, one spearman can protect one archer. Actually, modern historians write this way: the ratio is 1:1. If there are 3000 spearmen, then there are about that many archers. With all the same ratios (they shoot very poorly), they will take out 300 Greek horsemen in one salvo. Of these, every fifth will be mortally wounded. So we get losses - 60 killed horsemen. Then the archers fled, dispersed by the cavalry, the Persian cavalry rushed to the battlefield, the leader of which came face to face with Alexander, died - after which the Greek infantry also climbed the cliff, entered into battle with the fleeing Persians and captured 2000 prisoners. Actually, here it is. The estimate of the number of Persians from below is 300 people (archers and spearmen combined. You can also add 2000 prisoners - then from 2300 people. True, these 300 shields can be taken from the same 2000 prisoners, so - 2000). The estimate from above is 6-8 thousand, approximately horsemen and infantrymen 1:1. The same estimate - 6-8 thousand - is obtained from the classic ratio that for “successful offensive actions triple superiority is necessary." The Greeks - about 30 thousand infantry and 4.5 thousand cavalry. Accordingly, the enemy - no more than 8-10 thousand. Considering the convenient position of the Persians, they could win with a successful defense. Then - then Alexander looks, of course, not divine, knowing in advance about the outcome of the battle - but a reasonable strategist. His army approaches the Granik River. In front of them is the vanguard of the Persians, or an outpost at the fords, or reinforcements coming to the aid of Darius (most likely, an outpost at fords from the forces of local satraps - it was not in vain that Alexander had to attack head-on, because it turned out to be difficult to get around). best position, and the cautious commanders prefer not to take risks, but Alexander, realizing that it is better to beat the enemy in parts, decides to deal with this detachment before the others arrive. True, there is a certain risk - the enemy has more strong position- but the risk is worth it. Alexander himself leads the attack, breaking through the sparse formation of archers. The Persian cavalry rushes towards him (also, apparently, not numerous, since the leaders almost immediately met in battle). Alexander starts a battle with her, while the rest of the troops are being transported. No ability to fight or march in formation can explain the victory at Granik. Not a single commander - neither before nor after Alexander - managed to maintain formation while raising an army over a cliff. And in hand-to-hand combat, a Persian warrior saving his life can fight back no worse than a Greek. And if there were many of them, the Greeks would not have managed with such a small number of killed (also, most likely, underestimated, but it is impossible to say by how much, so we will have to be satisfied with these data). One thing is clear: a tenfold exaggeration of the Persian forces is commonplace for the Greeks.(By the way, this also applies to all other battles between other peoples, in which we have evidence of only one side.) The constant participation in battles on the side of the Persians by Greek mercenaries, constantly simply fleeing from battle (well, who would use weapons that didn’t fire three times?). Most likely they were. We were at the Battle of Issus, where the maximum forces were gathered. And from there they were “reconstructed” into the rest of the battles (and now historians, when reconstructing the course of the battle, use analogies from other battles). In drawing conclusions about which details are significant and plausible, and which are subject to the greatest variation, we can say the following. Little things like Alexander's knocked-down helmet, a steep slope, 300 shields as a gift - these are exactly those details that are practically not subject to distortion. But such significant indicators as the number of the enemy or his and his losses are the most difficult to take into account, and, accordingly, the most easily distorted aspects.

Battle of Issus

This is, of course, the main battle between Alexander and Darius. Darius gathered all his troops. And, as you can see, relatively reliable numbers (Macedonian troops - 35 thousand infantry and 5 thousand horsemen, Persian troops - from 10 to 30 thousand Greek mercenaries and about 20 thousand Persian infantry and cavalry) are approximately equal. The rest consists of the Persian militia, which no one ever counted :) The militia, driven from other nations, was unlikely to be numerous and unlikely to exceed the main forces. That., full numbers The Persian army can be estimated from 30 (if the militia was very small) to 60-80 thousand people. Enormous forces with which Darius could well expect to win. Large forces could not maneuver, cutting off Alexander. Smaller ones would hardly have forced Alexander to hide in the mountains. The course of the battle itself is quite suitable for such numbers. The first ranks of the Persian army are Greek mercenaries and the Persians themselves, cavalry and infantry. The number of Greek mercenaries can be estimated from the number of Macedonians opposing them - 16-20 thousand in 8 ranks. Apparently, there were about the same number of mercenaries. Maybe a little more - they were able to push back the Macedonians. After the defeat of the first line, the militia naturally fled.

Battle of Gaugamela.

Last major battle Alexandra with Darius. Darius had a "piecemeal of the world" collected, and the number of his troops was almost certainly less than that of Alexander, for there were the last remnants, collected "by the sussex." There are figures that can be considered reliable - 200 chariots and 15 elephants. Most likely, there were so many of them somewhere. However, the chariots were precisely pulled out from the king’s storerooms - even in their crew, instead of the required two, they had one person each. Taking into account the depth of the formation of the phalanx (16 rows) - and the number of Macedonians, the front will be exactly 1-2 km. And all of Alexander’s opponents fit on this front. If there were significantly more of them, they would clearly move out in both directions (fortunately, the terrain allowed) to cover the flanks (at least the Persian cavalry), but in reality the opposite happens: Alexander makes a circuit around the Persian flank, which also says about a fairly narrow front. The chariots cover their entire formation, the distance between them is 5-10 m (which is quite “adequate”) Before the battle, Darius ran away from Alexander throughout his entire empire. Even if at the beginning of his escape he had the strength that is attributed to him, during his wandering across the steppe most of they should have been left behind and scattered (especially taking into account the militia nature of the army). Thus, if the number of Macedonians is approx. 40 thousand infantry and 7 thousand cavalry - to be taken as truth (if this is an exaggeration, it is a small one), - then taking into account the “hodgepodge” that the Persians had, when each nation sent 1-2 thousand people ( what is known about the Massagetae - about 2 thousand) - the total number of Persians can be estimated from 20 to 50 thousand people. Most likely, it is also necessary to accept approximately equal numbers (about 50 thousand people), otherwise Darius would not have risked entering into battle. Actually, the Persian losses - 30 thousand - are also plausible, given the weak combat effectiveness of the army, it was almost completely destroyed (especially when its right flank was surrounded). But this was already “finishing off”. The presence of Greek mercenaries in battle is unlikely (especially in the amount of 20 thousand). Literature. 1. 100 Great Battles. 2. Plutarch, Comparative Lives. 3. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%93 %D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5 4. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82 %D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%98%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5 5.http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ %D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B3%D0 %B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85

Most people live simple and unremarkable lives. After their death, they leave practically nothing behind them, and the memory of them quickly fades. But there are also those whose name is remembered for centuries, or even millennia. Even if some people do not know about the contribution of these individuals to world history, their names are forever preserved in it. One of these people was Alexander the Great. The biography of this outstanding commander is still full of gaps, but scientists have done a lot of work to reliably reproduce the story of his life.

Alexander the Great - briefly about the deeds and life of the great king

Alexander was the son of the Macedonian king Philip II. His father tried to give him the best and raise a reasonable, but at the same time decisive and unshakable person in his actions, in order to keep in submission all the peoples that he would have to govern in the event of the death of Philip II. And so it happened. After his father died, Alexander, with the support of the army, was elected as the next king. The first thing he did when he became ruler was to brutally deal with all claimants to the throne in order to guarantee his safety. After this, he suppressed the rebellion of the rebel Greek city-states and defeated the armies of nomadic tribes that threatened Macedonia. Despite such a young age, twenty-year-old Alexander gathered a significant army and went to the East. Within ten years, many peoples of Asia and Africa submitted to him. A sharp mind, prudence, ruthlessness, stubbornness, courage, bravery - these qualities of Alexander the Great gave him the opportunity to rise above everyone else. The kings were afraid to see his army near the borders of their possessions, and the enslaved peoples meekly obeyed the invincible commander. The empire of Alexander the Great was the largest state formation of that time, spanning three continents.

Childhood and early years

How did you spend your childhood, what kind of upbringing did young Alexander the Great receive? The biography of the king is full of secrets and questions to which historians have not yet been able to give a definite answer. But first things first.

Alexander was born into the family of the Macedonian ruler Philip II, who was from the ancient Argead family, and his wife Olympias. He was born in 356 BC. e. in the city of Pella (at that time it was the capital of Macedonia). Scientists argue about exact date Alexander's birth, some of whom talk about July, while others prefer October.

Since childhood, Alexander was interested in Greek culture and literature. In addition, he showed interest in mathematics and music. As a teenager, Aristotle himself became his mentor, thanks to whom Alexander fell in love with the Iliad and always carried it with him. But above all, the young man proved himself to be a talented strategist and ruler. At the age of 16, due to the absence of his father, he temporarily ruled Macedonia, managing to repel the attack of barbarian tribes on northern borders states. When Philip II returned to the country, he decided to take another woman named Cleopatra as his wife. Angry at such a betrayal of his mother, Alexander often quarreled with his father, so he had to leave with Olympias to Epirus. Soon Philip forgave his son and allowed him to return back.

New king of Macedonia

The life of Alexander the Great was filled with the struggle for power and maintaining it in his own hands. It all started in 336 BC. e. after the assassination of Philip II, when it was time to choose a new king. Alexander gained the support of the army and was eventually recognized as the new ruler of Macedonia. In order not to repeat the fate of his father and to protect the throne from other contenders, he brutally deals with everyone who could pose a threat to him. Even his cousin Amyntas and the little son of Cleopatra and Philip were executed.

By that time, Macedonia was the most powerful and dominant state among the Greek city-states within the Corinthian League. Hearing about the death of Philip II, the Greeks wanted to get rid of the influence of the Macedonians. But Alexander quickly dispelled their dreams and, using force, forced them to submit to the new king. In 335, a campaign was organized against the barbarian tribes threatening the northern regions of the country. The army of Alexander the Great quickly dealt with the enemies and ended this threat forever.

At this time they rebelled and rebelled against the power of the new king of Thebes. But after a short siege of the city, Alexander managed to overcome the resistance and suppress the rebellion. This time he was not so lenient and almost completely destroyed Thebes, executing thousands of citizens.

Alexander the Great and the East. Conquest of Asia Minor

Philip II also wanted to take revenge on Persia for past defeats. For this purpose, a large and well-trained army was created, capable of posing a serious threat to the Persians. After his death, Alexander the Great took up this matter. The history of the conquest of the East began in 334 BC. e., when Alexander's 50,000-strong army crossed into Asia Minor, settling in the city of Abydos.

He was opposed by an equally large Persian army, the basis of which was formed by united formations under the command of satraps western borders and Greek mercenaries. The decisive battle took place in the spring on the eastern bank of the Grannik River, where Alexander’s troops destroyed enemy formations with a swift blow. After this victory, the cities of Asia Minor fell one after another under the onslaught of the Greeks. Only in Miletus and Halicarnassus did they encounter resistance, but even these cities were eventually captured. Wanting to take revenge on the invaders, Darius III gathered a large army and set out on a campaign against Alexander. They met near the city of Issus in November 333 BC. e., where the Greeks showed excellent preparation and defeated the Persians, forcing Darius to flee. These battles of Alexander the Great became a turning point in the conquest of Persia. After them, the Macedonians were able to subjugate the territories almost unhindered huge empire.

Conquest of Syria, Phenicia and the campaign against Egypt

After a crushing victory over the Persian army, Alexander continued his victorious campaign to the South, subjugating the territories adjacent to the coast to his power Mediterranean Sea. His army encountered virtually no resistance and quickly subjugated the cities of Syria and Phenicia. Only the inhabitants of Tire, which was located on an island and was an impregnable fortress, were able to give a serious rebuff to the invaders. But after a seven-month siege, the city’s defenders had to surrender it. These conquests of Alexander the Great were of great strategic importance, as they made it possible to cut off Persian fleet from its main supply bases and protect itself in case of attack from the sea.

At this time, Darius III twice tried to negotiate with the Macedonian commander, offering him money and lands, but Alexander was adamant and rejected both offers, wanting to become the sole ruler of all Persian lands.

In the autumn of 332 BC. e. Greek and Macedonian armies entered Egyptian territory. The inhabitants of the country greeted them as liberators from the hated Persian power, which Alexander the Great was pleasantly impressed with. The biography of the king was replenished with new titles - pharaoh and son of the god Amon, which were assigned to him by the Egyptian priests.

The death of Darius III and the complete defeat of the Persian state

After the successful conquest of Egypt, Alexander did not rest for long; already in July 331 BC. e. his army crossed the Euphrates River and moved towards Media. These were to be the decisive battles of Alexander the Great, in which the winner would gain power over all Persian lands. But Darius learned about the plans of the Macedonian commander and came out to meet him at the head of a huge army. Having crossed the Tigris River, the Greeks met the Persian army on a vast plain near Gaugamela. But, as in previous battles, the Macedonian army won, and Darius left his army in the midst of the battle.

Having learned about the flight of the Persian king, the inhabitants of Babylon and Susa submitted to Alexander without resistance.

Having placed his satraps here, the Macedonian commander continued the offensive, pushing back the remnants of the Persian troops. In 330 BC. e. They approached Persepolis, which was held by troops of the Persian satrap Ariobarzanes. After a fierce struggle, the city surrendered to the onslaught of the Macedonians. As was the case with all places that voluntarily did not submit to Alexander's authority, it was burned to the ground. But the commander did not want to stop there and went in pursuit of Darius, whom he overtook in Parthia, but already dead. As it turned out, he was betrayed and killed by one of his subordinates named Bess.

Advancement into Central Asia

The life of Alexander the Great has now changed radically. Although he was a big fan of Greek culture and the state government system, the permissiveness and luxury with which they lived Persian rulers, conquered him. He considered himself the rightful king of the Persian lands and wanted everyone to treat him like a god. Those who tried to criticize his actions were immediately executed. He did not even spare his friends and loyal comrades.

But the matter was not over yet, because the eastern provinces, having learned about the death of Darius, did not want to obey the new ruler. Therefore, Alexander in 329 BC. e. again set out on a campaign - to Central Asia. In three years he managed to finally break the resistance. Bactria and Sogdiana offered him the greatest resistance, but they also fell before the might of the Macedonian army. This was the end of the story describing the conquests of Alexander the Great in Persia, the population of which completely submitted to his power, recognizing the commander as the King of Asia.

Trek to India

The conquered territories were not enough for Alexander, and in 327 BC. e. he organized another campaign - to India. Having entered the territory of the country and crossed the Indus River, the Macedonians approached the possessions of King Taxila, who submitted to the King of Asia, replenishing the ranks of his army with his people and war elephants. The Indian ruler hoped for Alexander's help in the fight against another king named Porus. The commander kept his word, and in June 326 the great battle on the banks of the Gadispa River, which ended in favor of the Macedonians. But Alexander left Porus alive and even allowed him to rule his lands, as before. On the sites of the battles, he founded the cities of Nicaea and Bucephala. But at the end of the summer, the rapid advance stopped near the Hyphasis River, when the army, exhausted from endless battles, refused to go further. Alexander had no choice but to turn south. Having reached the Indian Ocean, he divided the army into two parts, half of which sailed back on ships, and the rest, together with Alexander, advanced overland. But it became big mistake commander, because their path ran through hot deserts, in which part of the army died. The life of Alexander the Great was in danger after he was seriously wounded in one of the battles with local tribes.

The last years of life and the results of the actions of the great commander

Returning to Persia, Alexander saw that many satraps had rebelled and decided to create their own powers. But with the return of the commander, their plans collapsed, and all those who disobeyed faced execution. After the massacre, the King of Asia began strengthening the internal situation in the country and preparing for new campaigns. But his plans were not destined to come true. June 13, 323 BC e. Alexander dies of malaria at the age of 32. After his death, the commanders divided among themselves all the lands of the huge state.

This is how one of the greatest commanders, Alexander the Great, passed away. The biography of this person is filled with so many bright events that sometimes you wonder - is it possible? to an ordinary person? The young man with extraordinary ease subjugated entire nations who worshiped him as a god. The cities he founded have survived to this day, recalling the deeds of the commander. And although the empire of Alexander the Great fell apart immediately after his death, at that time it was the largest and powerful state, which stretches from the Danube to the Indus.

Dates of Alexander the Great's campaigns and places of the most famous battles

1. 334-300 BC e. - conquest of Asia Minor.
2. May 334 BC e. - a battle on the banks of the Grannik River, victory in which made it possible for Alexander to easily subjugate the cities of Asia Minor.
3. November 333 BC e. - a battle near the city of Issus, as a result of which Darius fled from the battlefield, and the Persian army was completely defeated.
4. January-July 332 BC e. - the siege of the impregnable city of Tire, after the capture of which the Persian army found itself cut off from the sea.
5. Autumn 332 BC e. - July 331 BC e. - annexation of Egyptian lands.
6. October 331 BC e. - battle on the plains near Gaugemal, where the Macedonian army was again victorious, and Darius III was forced to flee.
7. 329-327 BC e. - campaign in Central Asia, conquest of Bactria and Sogdiana.
8. 327-324 BC e. - trip to India.
9. June 326 BC e. - battle with the troops of King Porus near the Gadis River.

Among the battles Alexander the Great The battle of Issus was the second in terms of the number of participants and the largest in terms of the amount of booty captured. As I wrote Plutarch :

“The Macedonians then for the first time learned to value gold, silver, women, tasted the charm of the barbarian way of life and, like dogs who sensed a scent, hurried to find and seize all the wealth of the Persians.”

Alexander (who was not yet the Great) positioned his campaign against the Persian Achaemenid power as revenge for the devastation of Hellas committed by the Persians a century and a half earlier. In reality, this temperamental 22-year-old commander was driven by the desire to conquer the ecumene, by which the ancient Hellenes meant the entire inhabited part of the land. The Persian power seemed so huge to the Greeks that they didn’t even really know where it actually ended.

Cilicia is the key to Asia

IN 334 BC Alexander crossed the Hellespont (Dardanelles) with his army, landing in Asia Minor. The satraps of the western Persian provinces who tried to stop him were defeated in the Battle of Granicus.

It is worth noting that there were a fair number of Greeks in the opposing armies. Alexander controlled Hellas as the protector of the Corinthian League, although the policies that were part of this alliance dreamed of restoring their independence. Those who were categorically dissatisfied with the Macedonian power fled to the Persians. And in the Achaemenid Empire itself, the Greeks made up a fair portion of the population.

Among those who served Darius III Hellenic military leaders stood out Memnon , who with his fleet invaded the Aegean Sea and launched a war behind Alexander's rear. The Macedonian ruler himself, after the Battle of Granicus, was clearing Asia Minor and was very alarmed at the prospect of being cut off from Hellas. However, the death of Memnon, who died in August 333 BC during the siege of Mytilene, nullified the strategy of war of attrition adopted by the Persians. It became clear that Greece would not rise up against Alexander, and then Darius III decided to personally lead the army and defeat the enemy in a general battle.

Meanwhile, having not completely conquered Asia Minor, Alexander decided to invade what was located in the southeast Cilicia, separated from the rest of the peninsula by a narrow gorge called the Cilician Gate.

Having captured the port cities, the Macedonians would have deprived the Persian fleet of the bases necessary for operations against Hellas.

The Cilician satrap Arzam put up a small barrier in the gorge, which fled at the first appearance of the enemy. Alexander, not yet fully believing his luck, sent the Illyrian light infantry forward. Having climbed the steep slopes to the top of the gorge, the mountaineers covered the march of his army, which, according to Alexander himself, could have been stopped by simply organizing rockfalls.

Having captured Cilicia almost without resistance, the Macedonians stopped in Tarsus. Their young king almost died, contracting pneumonia after swimming in a mountain river.

Balancing between life and death, he still managed to give orders and send forward a 15,000-strong army Parmenion , which blocked the Baylan Pass, through which Darius III could appear.

Wait or advance?

Darius, however, was in no hurry. With all the courtiers, relatives, servants and relatives of servants, his army slowly crawled in a huge camp from Mesopotamia to Syria and stopped near the city of Sokhi.

The Persian ruler took into account that in this valley, firstly, it was possible to somehow feed himself, and secondly, to use his numerical advantage over the enemy. He had no intention of breaking through the pass occupied by Parmenion.

However, in October, Darius learned about Alexander’s illness and that he did not seem to be going to leave Cilicia. It was problematic for Darius to survive the winter with such a huge army. It turned out that he should either be disbanded or go forward with him to the enemy. The choice was made when it became clear that
Cilicia can also be invaded through the Lion Pass, which has not yet been occupied by the Macedonians.

Having sent the treasury and most of the courtiers to Damascus, Darius moved forward. Meanwhile, Alexander, who had recovered, also went into battle, but along a slightly different route. Instead of a direct attack on Sokhi, he first turned south, along the coastal valleys more convenient for marching, and only then was going to turn east, into Syria. As a result, the opponents missed each other.

Alexander was still walking south when Darius appeared in his rear and, having determined the location of the enemy, turned to follow him.

Alexander the Great during the Battle of Issus. Ancient Roman mosaic

In essence, the Persians were walking into a trap themselves, since the decisive battle was to take place on the coast, where they could not realize their numerical superiority by enveloping the enemy from the flanks. But Darius, apparently, decided that he could do without this, and relied on a deeper battle formation. The decisive meeting took place near the city Issa.

On the sea coast

Ancient historians write that the number of the Persian army reached 200 thousand, and about 30 thousand were Greek mercenaries. Based on logistical considerations, modern historians cut these figures in half, noting that the bulk of the army consisted of Kardak infantrymen recruited from various Asian peoples. Particular hopes were placed on the satrap's cavalry Nabarzana , staffed primarily by heavily armed horsemen.

Alexander, although he was eager to go into battle, still managed to annex Parmenion, who was standing at the Bailan Pass. Main blow he decided to attack on his right flank; where the plain meets the mountains. The bet, as usual, was made on the selected cavalry phalanx of hetayrs, led by the tsar himself. Here they had to overthrow the Kardaks lined up in a phalanx, and Alexander’s reconnaissance discovered that the Persians had prepared a surprise for them: on the mountain slope Darius placed a shock detachment of infantrymen, to repel whose attack the Macedonians had to put up something like a barrier.

Darius himself was positioned in the center, behind the Greek mercenaries, who were supposed to repel the attack of their compatriots and the bulky Macedonian phalanx of hypaspists.

Nabarzan's cavalry concentrated on the coastal flank, and the forces deployed here by Alexander were very modest - about 1800 Thessalian and about 600 Greek horsemen under the command of Ptolemy And Meleager , supported from behind by about 10 thousand light infantry from the Thracians and Illyrians.

The total battle front was about seven kilometers.

In general, such a disposition looks controversial and very risky. It turned out that while Alexander and strike force will smash the left flank of the Persians adjacent to the mountains, the selected Asian cavalry will inevitably overturn the left coastal flank of the Macedonians. After this, the outcome of the battle was determined by whether Darius or Alexander would be able to defeat the rear and reach the opposite flank of the enemy army.

Theoretically, by concentrating his hetaira near the sea, Alexander could make the outcome of the battle dependent on the outcome cavalry battle, in which much depended on the reckless pressure so characteristic of the Macedonian commander: this tactics had already helped him win the Battle of Granicus.

But Alexander did not always act based on the same logic, and the commander’s intuition never let him down.

The bravest one wins

The battle began at two o'clock in the afternoon. Alexander with the hetaira and the phalanx of hypaspists advancing to the left without much difficulty overthrew the Kardaks and repelled the attack from the mountains of the enemy infantry sitting in ambush. However, the Greek mercenaries who served Darius fought to the death, successfully hiding behind the small river Pinar.

The hypaspists slipped from the low bank, and soon gaps formed in their ranks, into which enemy hoplites immediately began to wedge. Meanwhile, Alexander and the hetairas got too far ahead, actually breaking away from his infantry.

Meanwhile, on the coastal flank, Nabarzan quite predictably overthrew the Thessalians and began to deploy his cavalry for a flank attack on the hypaspists. Even having launched the Illyrian infantry on the offensive, Parmenion would hardly have had time to prevent this blow, despite the fact that he did not demonstrate much activity.

The Thessalians saved the situation. Being lighter armed than the Persian cavalry, they were able to break away from the enemy, restored order and again rushed into battle, thwarting Nabarzan’s attack that already seemed inevitable.

Meanwhile, having overthrown the Kardaks, Alexander went to the rear of the Persians and, turning left, began to make his way to Darius’s headquarters. The Persian ruler had only a small detachment of mounted bodyguards at hand, who were quickly chopped up and hacked to pieces by the hetaira. According to description Diodora , they crowded in front of the king’s chariot and soon turned into a pile of bloody bodies, under the cover of which the frightened Darius managed to escape.

Other historians and writers write that the last of the Achaemenids fled, afraid of the mere sight of Alexander with his burning gaze and blood-stained armor (he was slightly wounded by a sword in the thigh).

Apparently, at this climactic moment the two kings were separated by only some 20-30 meters, and the matter could well have ended in their single combat. But the duel between the rulers for power over the world did not take place.

Darius became cowardly, although the battle as such was not lost at all. The Macedonian phalanx was able to overthrow the Greek mercenaries only after Darius fled, and his entire panic-stricken Asian army rushed after him.

By the way, even in this situation, the Greeks never lost formation and retreated relatively safely to the mountains. Later, some of them went to Egypt, some to Cyprus, but they no longer wanted to fight for Darius.

The king of Persia himself retreated with a 4,000-strong detachment. The general panic turned out to be fatal for the huge army, which had lost the ability to resist. Participants in the battle recalled that the entire plain was strewn with the bodies of Asians, and through small crevices the victors climbed over the corpses, as if across bridges.

Fabulous booty

The losses of the victors were insignificant, and the booty they captured in the enemy camp turned out to be truly fabulous. The mother, wife and children of the king of Persia, as well as many other noble captives, were captured. Considering Darius dead, they were in despair, but Alexander calmed the unfortunate ones by providing them with guards and ensuring good treatment. Daughter of the Persian lords of Stateira subsequently she became one of the winner’s wives, and Memnon’s widow Barsina became her favorite concubine.

The family of King Darius at the feet of Alexander. Painting by Paolo Veronese (XVI century)

Darius's flight across the Euphrates turned out to be so rapid that he did not even have time to grab the treasury left in Damascus, the capture of which removed all financial problems from Alexander. The exact amount of booty is unknown, but according to Parmenion’s report, the winners captured in Damascus as a bonus: 329 musicians, 46 wreath makers, 306 cooks, 13 confectioners, 17 winemakers, 70 cupbearers and 40 incense-makers. It is not surprising that with such loot the winners decided to have a blast. For almost the next two years, the Macedonians fought, so to speak, half-heartedly, capturing Phenicia and Egypt.

Among the "nine heroes"
Alexander's humane treatment of high-ranking captives gave rise to the medieval legend of him as an ideal knight - brave in battle and generous to a defeated enemy.
In the 14th century, a cult of “nine heroes” was formed in Europe: three pagan (Hector, Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar), three Jewish (Joshua, King David, Judah Maccabee) and three Christian (King Arthur, Charlemagne and Godfrey of Bouillon).

However, the pleasure from the acquired wealth still did not discourage Alexander from completing what he started. And when Darius sent him a letter with a peace proposal, expressing his readiness to cede Asia Minor, he received a click on the nose:

“Don’t even think about addressing me as an equal in your letters. If you need anything, then contact me as your master. If you don't do this, I will punish you. If you want to challenge my kingdom, then stand and fight for it. But don’t run, for wherever you are, I will find you.”

They had another battle ahead of them.

Dmitry Mityurin

Even more interesting articles

The World History. Volume 4. Hellenistic period Badak Alexander Nikolaevich

Campaigns of Alexander the Great

In the spring of 334 BC, the Greco-Macedonian army crossed the Hellespont. It was small, but perfectly organized. It consisted of 30 thousand infantry and 5 thousand horsemen. The basis of the army was made up of heavily armed infantry - the Macedonian phalanx, Greek allies and mercenaries. Alexander left part of the heteros and several thousand infantry in Macedonia under the command of one of outstanding commanders older generation - Antipater.

In May 334 BC, the first meeting with the enemy took place on the Granicus River near the Hellespont. Decisive role The Macedonian cavalry played in it. Alexander enslaved the captured Greek mercenaries, about 2 thousand people who were in the service of the Persians, and sent them to Macedonia, since by the decisions of the Corinthian Congress the Greeks who were in the service of the Persians were considered traitors to the common cause.

The victory at Granicus made possible the further advance of the Macedonian army along the coast of Asia Minor. Most of the Hellenic cities voluntarily submitted to Alexander. However, there were exceptions. Halicarnassus and Miletus resisted the Macedonians especially stubbornly. The external orientation of the Hellenic cities in Asia Minor was determined by the struggle of parties in these cities, as well as by the presence or absence of Persian garrisons and Greek mercenaries.

Alexander the Great. Sculpture of Lysippos. Second half of the 4th century. BC e.

Battle of the Greeks with the Persians. Relief of the so-called sarcophagus of Alexander the Great from Sidon. End of the 4th century BC e.

The mercenaries offered fierce resistance to Alexander's troops. Only gradually, as a result of the success of the campaign of the Macedonian army, did the Greek mercenaries realize that it was more profitable for them to serve Alexander than to fight against him. In relation to the Hellenic city-states in Asia Minor, which submitted to him, Alexander pursued a “liberation” policy, guided primarily by tactical considerations.

The democratic system was restored in the liberated policies, and the Persian henchmen were expelled. However, the “freedom” of the poleis in Asia Minor turned out to be even more illusory than in Greece. The liberated policies of Asia Minor were not even included in the Union of Corinth. The conquest of Asia Minor was reduced mainly to the seizure of the coast, the main military and trade routes, as well as the establishment of general control over local government and finances.

Through the mountain passes the Macedonian army moved into Northern Syria. The meeting with the Persians and a new major battle took place in the fall of 333 BC at Issus, in a narrow valley between the sea and the mountains. The position of the Persian troops, led by Darius himself, was strong, since it cut off the Macedonian army from its rear, and the difficult terrain facilitated the defense, although, on the other hand, it prevented the Persians from using their numerical superiority.

With a swift attack from the right flank, the Macedonians achieved decisive success. The frightened Darius fled, abandoning his entire baggage train. His mother, wife and children were at the mercy of Alexander. Huge booty fell into the hands of the winners. The Persian king turned to Alexander with peace proposals. However, Alexander rejected them and quickly moved his troops south - into Southern Syria, Palestine and the Nile Valley.

The large trading centers of Phenicia and Palestine - Tire and Gaza - put up stubborn resistance to the Macedonians. It was impossible to take such a fortress as Tyre on the move. Alexander began a systematic siege. Siege engines were brought in, large-scale siege operations were carried out, and a large embankment was built that connected Tire, located on the island, with the mainland.

In 332 BC, after a seven-month siege, Tire was taken by storm. The rich city was sacked male population Almost everyone was killed, and women and children were sold into slavery. Some time later, Gaza suffered the same fate.

In Egypt, which was always burdened by Persian rule, Alexander met no resistance.

The Persian satrap gave him the fortress in Memphis, the state treasury and surrendered himself with his army. The Egyptian priesthood welcomed the new ruler. Alexander made an expedition to the oasis. Amon, where in the temple of this deity the priests declared him the son of Ra - “loving Amon.” Thus, the subjugation of Egypt received religious sanction. Alexander's power was vested in traditional ancient egypt forms.

In Egypt, Greco-Macedonian troops spent the winter of 332–331 BC. In the Nile Delta, between the sea and the vast Lake Mareotis, Alexander founded new town, which was named after him Alexandria. The location for Alexandria turned out to be unusually well chosen. Already by the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd centuries BC, Alexandria became the largest center of trade and craft, the most important cultural center Hellenic world. The capture of Egypt and the founding of Alexandria contributed to the establishment of complete Macedonian dominance over the Eastern Mediterranean.

In the spring of 331 BC, the Macedonians left Egypt along the ancient route through Palestine and Phenicia and further to the Euphrates. Darius made no attempt to delay the advance of the Macedonian army and prevent its crossing of the Euphrates and Tigris. Only on the other side of the Tigris, in the territory ancient Assyria, near the village of Gaugamela, a new battle took place between the Persians and Hellenes.

The Battle of Gaugamela in September 331 BC was one of the largest battles of antiquity. A successful attack by superior Central Asian and Indian cavalry on the left flank of the Macedonian troops could not prevent Darius' defeat. This time the center of the Persian army could not withstand the onslaught of the heteros and phalanx.

The entire huge Persian camp with convoys, elephants, camels, and money fell into the hands of the winners. The defeat was crushing. Darius fled to Media, and then to mountainous, sparsely populated and inaccessible areas south of the Caspian Sea. The path to the capitals of Babylonia and Susiana was open to the Macedonians. With the seizure of Darius's treasury at Gaugamela and especially the treasures that were stored in Babylon and Susa, Alexander's monetary resources increased many times over.

By order of Alexander, in revenge for the devastation of Hellas during the campaign of Xerxes in 480 BC, the magnificent palace of the Persian kings was burned in Persepolis. From Persepolis, the Macedonians moved through the mountain passes to Media, to its capital Ecbatana. There, in connection with the end of the war “for revenge on the Hellenes,” Alexander released the Thessalian horsemen and other Greek allies to their homeland. However, many of the Greek soldiers remained in the service of Alexander, since participation in the further campaign promised enormous benefits.

Alexander's immediate task was to pursue Darius. But after the defeat at Gaugamela, Darius became a hindrance to the rulers eastern regions, which have long been loosely connected with the Central Asian satrapies of the Achaemenid monarchy. Therefore, in the summer of 330 BC, they killed the last Achaemenid, and they themselves went further east.

Soon after this, the satrap of Bactria, Bessus, proclaimed himself the "great king", taking the name of Artaxerxes IV. Alexander declared Bessus a usurper, considering himself henceforth the only legitimate successor to the power of the Persian kings. Continuing his campaign to the east, Alexander with the most mobile parts of the army headed to Hyrcania, where Darius’s Greek mercenaries had retreated.

The Macedonian offensive forced the mercenaries to stop resistance and surrender. This circumstance was also facilitated by the fact that Alexander’s policy towards Greek mercenaries had changed. He released those who served the Persians before the Corinthian Congress to their homeland. Alexander included those Greeks who entered the service of the Persians after the congress into his army. The former contingent of this army quickly melted away in continuous battles. The Macedonians needed more and more reinforcements.

From Hyrcania the Macedonian army moved to Parthia and Areia. Having captured the main centers, taken possession of colossal treasures, and subjugated the most populated, rich and cultural part of the Persian kingdom, the Greco-Macedonian army continued to move further and further into desert or mountainous regions.

This aggressive movement was explained by a change in the composition and character of the army. The success of Alexander's campaign at first and, especially, the capture of the treasures of the Persian kings caused a large influx into the Macedonian army not only of new warriors, but also of businessmen who enjoyed great influence in the troops. They all thirsted for new conquests and booty.

Many Persian satraps and other representatives of the Iranian nobility with the military detachments accompanying them went over to the side of the Macedonian king. Alexander had already conquered the western part of the territory of the Achaemenid state. Now he sought complete mastery of her heritage. However, he did not clearly understand the vastness of the remaining territory and the difficulty of conquering it.

At the same time, the possibility of a further offensive in the East largely depended on the situation in the West. By 331 BC, the main center of the anti-Macedonian movement on the Balkan Peninsula was Sparta. The Spartan king Agis managed to win over some other states of the Peloponnese to his side.

The battle of Alexander the Great with the Persian king Darius III Kodoman. Mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii. First century AD, copy from a Greek original from the 3rd century BC. National Gallery Capodimonte in Naples.

The growth of this movement could become a serious threat to Macedonian hegemony in Greece. However, the victory of the Macedonian governor Antipater over his allies at Megalopolis and the death of Agis provided Alexander with a strong rear in the West. He had complete freedom actions in the East.

Moving deeper into Asia, the Macedonians first of all sought to seize military and trade routes, as well as the main centers of the country. The exploited population, scattered over a vast territory and loosely connected with these centers, did not offer serious resistance to the invaders.

However, in the regions of Eastern Iran and Central Asia, which were still predominantly inhabited by free communalists and retained strong vestiges of military democracy, the Macedonians had to face significant difficulties. Alexander had to spend three years, filled with fierce struggle with the local population, to conquer the Central Asian regions.

The warlike mountain and desert tribes fought hard to defend their independence, raising uprisings again and again. As soon as the main forces of the Macedonian army left the conquered region, detachments of local residents attacked small Macedonian garrisons, exterminating them almost completely, and disrupted communications.

So, in Areya, the satrap Satibarzan laid down his arms and submitted to Alexander. But as soon as the main forces of the Macedonian army headed for Bactria, Satibarzan again rebelled. Alexander had to return to Areia to suppress the uprising.

In the winter of 330–329 BC, Alexander, pursuing Bessus, entered Bactria and descended through the Hindu Kush to the Oxus (Amu Darya) valley. Having devastated the country, Bess retreated across the river, but neither the local population nor other leaders supported him. Ptolemy, sent forward with a small detachment, surrounded the village where Bessus was located and captured it without difficulty. The “Great King” Bessus was tortured and then sent to Ecbatana, where he was executed.

Coin-medal depicting the battle of Alexander the Great with Porus.

The Macedonian army advanced further into the fertile valley of Yaxartes (Syr Darya). On the banks of this river the city of Alexandria Eskhata was founded, which became Alexander’s stronghold in Sogdiana. The main motives for founding new settlements or expanding existing ones were considerations of a social and strategic nature. These were military colonies in which older warriors, disabled people, mercenaries settled, and local residents also settled. A mixed population lived here - Macedonians, Greeks, Iranians.

To successfully complete the conquest of Central Asia, Alexander needed not only to capture all the cities, but also to suppress stubborn resistance local population. In 329 BC, the Macedonian army encountered strong resistance in the Kuresati area. Somewhat later, the Sogdians and Sakas destroyed the two thousand Macedonian detachment. The nomadic tribes of Central Asia - the Massagetae and Dahi - also opposed Alexander.

The local population was led by an energetic, tireless and capable leader - the Sogdian ruler Spitamen. Spitamenes did not engage in battle with Alexander's main forces. He talentedly used guerrilla warfare tactics, attacking individual detachments of the Macedonian army and exterminating them without exception. Spitamenes again occupied the settlements already captured by the Macedonians.

The fight against the elusive enemy required Alexander a lot of time and effort. On his orders, the Macedonians carried out brutal reprisals against the local population. In Sogdiana, during the capture of Gaza, all the men were killed, and the women and children were enslaved. The population of six other cities was also enslaved. After the defeat inflicted on Spitamen by the Macedonians, the Massagetae, who had previously supported him, fell away from the rebels. They treacherously plundered the convoy of Bactrians and Sogdians, cut off the head of Spitamen and sent it to Alexander.

At the beginning of 327 BC, Alexander besieged a fortress in which one of the noblest Sogdian nobles, Oxyartes, and his family were located. The besieged felt confident in what seemed to them a completely impregnable mountain stronghold. They heaped ridicule on the Macedonians and declared that only men with wings could capture their fortifications.

However, the very next night, 300 Macedonian volunteers climbed up using ropes. In the morning, the besieged discovered enemies on the rocks above the fortress and, amazed by the suddenness of their appearance, capitulated. Alexander captured Oxyartes and his daughter Roxana, who was distinguished by her extraordinary beauty. Soon Roxana became Alexander's wife.

During the fighting in Central Asia, Alexander, even more than before, sought to win over to his side the local nobility and military contingents, which he desperately needed. At the same time, Alexander introduced the ritual of “proskynesa,” earthly veneration before the king, and began to use royal Median clothing. All this testified to Alexander’s desire to achieve rapprochement with the East.

During Alexander's stay in Eastern Iran and Central Asia, Bactrian and Sogdian cavalry were included for the first time in the Macedonian army. Later, dahi and saki were also included in its composition.

This policy of Alexander had some success. Part of the local nobility began to gradually change their orientation, although another part continued to be hostile towards Alexander, or as he was also called “Iskander the Two-Horned”. In an effort to gain new allies, Alexander returned the possessions to those representatives of the local nobility who, from the opposition, went over to his side. He made Oxyartes satrap of Bactria.

The campaign of the Macedonian army also affected those areas of Central Asia that remained outside the borders of Alexander’s power. In the winter of 329–328 BC, when Alexander lived in Bactras, a delegation of ambassadors from the king of the “Scythians” came to him. The Hellenes called Scythians a variety of northern peoples, including the Saks. At the same time, the Khorezmian king Pharasman arrived in Bactra with 1,500 horsemen, who promised Alexander to be his guide if he decided to make a trip to the west, to the shores of the Euxine.

During the conquest of Eastern Iran and Central Asia in the environment command staff The Macedonian army showed the first open signs of discontent. This discontent took the form of conspiracies against Alexander. These oppositional sentiments had roots in the old struggle between separate factions of the Macedonian nobility. Now they intensified primarily in those circles that feared that they would be relegated to the background in the new huge monarchy, which was increasingly taking on the features of eastern despotism.

Even during Alexander's stay in Egypt, a conspiracy arose between Philotas, the commander of the Heteri, the son of one of the oldest and most experienced commanders of the Macedonian army - Parmenion. When the Macedonian army was in Eastern Iran, Philotas was arrested, tortured and put on trial, which took place in the assembly of the Macedonian army. Philotas was awarded death penalty and shot with arrows. Following the execution of the sentence, Alexander ordered Parmenion to be killed.

Gold coin of Alexander the Great with the image of the head of Athena and the figure of Nike.

In connection with the discovery of this conspiracy, Alexander changed the organization of the heteros. He divided them into two parts, at the head of which he appointed Hephaestion and Klieg. In the autumn of 328 BC, during the stay of the Macedonian army in Maracanda, at a royal feast, in a fit of anger, Alexander killed one of his most loyal commanders, Cleitus, who accused him of having exchanged his father Philip for the god Amun, and that at his feasts there is now no place for a free Greek, but only for slaves and barbarians.

Soon a conspiracy of pages is organized against Alexander. These were noble Macedonian youth who carried out personal service to protect the king’s person. The initiator of the conspiracy was the page Hermolai. The pages, having constant access to the king, were going to kill him in bed. However, the plot was discovered. The Macedonian court sentenced the conspirators to death. They were stoned.

Callisthenes, the court historiographer who accompanied Alexander on his campaigns, was also involved in the case of the page conspiracy. Previously, Callisthenes was enthusiastic about Alexander, but, being brought up in Hellenic concepts of freedom, he could not come to terms with Alexander’s policies. When an attempt was made to introduce proskynesa, Callisthenes did not hide his negative attitude towards this ceremony. For this, Callisthenes was imprisoned and interrogated, and executed in 327 BC.

Troubles in the ranks of the Macedonian nobility, as well as changes in the conditions of warfare, forced Alexander to carry out reforms in the army. From now on, different types of weapons were combined into one tactical unit. Alexander placed his closest associates at the head of the heteros and combined units. Former commanders who were hostile to Alexander either died or were removed from their posts. Alexander gave the Macedonian phalanx greater mobility. He also increased the cavalry and created special units of mounted spearmen and archers.

Already during his stay in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander had the idea of ​​a new great campaign of conquest and the conquest of India, which was famous for its untold riches. The conditions in which the campaign was carried out, the composition of the army, strategic and tactical techniques - everything was completely different compared to the conquest of Asia Minor and even Iran. The success of the conquest led to expansion material base enterprises and a surge of new strength. For Alexander, the trip to India was a new stage in the grandiose movement to the East.

In the spring of 327 BC, the Macedonian army set out from Bactria towards India. From the very beginning of this campaign, the Macedonians met stubborn resistance from the tribes that lived in the territory of modern Afghanistan. To achieve success in this war, Alexander did not disdain any means - not even insidious violation of this word, neither by cunning, nor by threats, nor by merciless reprisals. As a result, when the Macedonians approached, local residents often fled to the mountains in horror.

In India, Alexander faced a numerous but scattered enemy - these were free tribes that still largely retained the forms of the primitive communal system, or small kingdoms. Fierce struggles continued between these tribes and kingdoms, as well as within them.

Ruler of the city of Taxila - an important shopping center on ancient way from India to Central Asia, entered into an alliance with Alexander. The powerful ruler of the neighboring kingdom of Porus, in alliance with the ruler of another large kingdom, Abisara, decided to resist the Macedonians.

Nike of Samothrace is a monument to the victory of Demetrius Poliorcetes over the fleet of Ptolemy. Beginning III V. BC. Marble.

Through the city of Taxila, Alexander moved to a tributary of the Indus - the Hydaspes River. There the Macedonian army was already waiting for opposite bank with large forces - numerous horsemen and elephants - King Porus. Abisara did not provide the promised assistance to his ally. In the bloody battle that took place at Hydaspes, Porus' troops suffered a crushing defeat.

However, Alexander left Porus his kingdom, as he counted on his support in the future. In memory of the victory of the Macedonian weapons, two cities were founded on both banks of the Hydaspes - Nicaea and Bucephalia. After this, the Macedonian army moved further south and approached the Hyphasis River. When the city of Sangali was captured, many inhabitants were killed by the invaders, others were enslaved, and the city itself was razed to the ground.

Alexander's intentions also included advancing beyond the Hyphasis. However, this was prevented by the discontent of the soldiers, which was increasingly intensifying. The warriors had to advance in difficult conditions, through unhealthy terrain, overcoming the resistance of the enemy, who used a new type of weapon for the Macedonians - war elephants.

The Macedonians were very tired from long marches and continuous battles. There were ominous signs of disobedience in the army. Meetings began to gather in the military camp, at which complaints were heard about the difficulties of the campaign and demands to abandon its continuation. Alexander convened a meeting of military leaders. However, this time even his closest aides advocated a return.

Then Alexander announced that the sacrifices to continue the campaign were displeasing to the gods, and gave the order to retreat. Two satrapies were formed from the lands conquered in India. The return from the Indian campaign took a different route and actually turned into a new big campaign.

Returning to Hydaspes, Alexander decided to sail down the river with a significant part of the army. The rest of his troops were ordered to march along the shore. The tribes living at the confluence of Akesina and Hydaspes put up stubborn resistance to these parts of the Macedonian army. Finally, the army arrived in the city of Patala, which was located in the Indus delta.

From here, the fleet led by Nearchus was supposed to go by ocean to the Persian Gulf, to the mouth of the Euphrates. Alexander sent his other commander, Craterus, with part of the army through Arachosia and Drangiana. He himself and the rest of the army headed through Gedrosia and Karmania to Pereida and Susiana.

This part of the hike turned out to be the most difficult. The army found itself in a waterless desert. Suffering from terrible heat, thirst and hunger, drowning in hot sand, the army slowly advanced, losing people, horses and pack animals. The Macedonians were forced to abandon the sick and stragglers, since there were not enough carts and livestock to transport them. “Few of the stragglers,” wrote the Greek historian Plutarch, “who retained their strength, moving in the footsteps of the army, were saved; most of them, as if falling into the sea, died in the sand.” When the army finally reached the main point of Gedrosia - Pura, it was able to rest.

In Carmania, Alexander was met by Craterus with the rest of the army. Soon the fleet of Nearchus landed on the shores of Carmania. There was no news about him for a long time, so the Macedonians believed that their ships were lost. After Nearchus met with Alexander, the fleet continued its voyage and safely reached the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates.

Alexander instructed Hephaestion to lead the main forces with convoys and elephants along the seashore to Pereida, and he himself, with lightly armed infantry, getteras and part of the riflemen, went more hastily to Pasargadae, and from there to Persepolis and Susa. This ended the eastern campaign that lasted almost a decade.

After the end of the victorious military operations, Alexander was faced with a huge and difficult task - to retain in his hands a giant power conquered by force of arms. To do this, he needed to strengthen his power over the vast empire, organize effective management with it, to establish friendly relations between the Hellenes and the population of the eastern part of the new monarchy.

Alexander's goal was to unite Europe and Asia, the Persians and the Macedonians on an equal basis in a state that covered the population of almost the entire ecumene. In his policy there was a clear tendency to smooth out the sharp contradictions between the victors and the vanquished. An expression of the policy of “fusion” was the organization of a magnificent celebration in Susa on the occasion of the solemn marriage of Alexander, as well as the marriages of his friends and many Macedonians with Asian women.

At the same time, Alexander's policy in this regard was not entirely consistent. He attracted local nobility state machine and to command posts in the army, but at the end of his life in most regions he replaced satraps from the local population with Macedonians.

Alexander used the theory of divine origin royal power, which has been developed in the East since time immemorial. His prerogatives as the hegemon of the pan-Hellenic union and king of Macedonia faded into the background before the unlimited power of the deified ruler of a huge empire. However, the development of political ideas in Hellas went in the same direction and facilitated the application of the Eastern theory of power. In connection with the loss of independence by the poleis, glorification and deification became increasingly widespread. politicians, for example, Lysander, Timoleon.

The central administration of the huge state was in the hands of the king and the Macedonian nobility - Alexander's associates on campaigns and senior officials in civil administration. At the head of the financial department was one of Alexander’s friends, Harpalus, who subsequently fled to Athens with a huge amount of money. The highest position of "chiliarch", who was the king's closest assistant, in last years Alexander's reign was occupied by his friend Hephaestion. The royal correspondence, which was in charge of the chief secretary, gained great importance.

Alexander's special concern was further strengthening army - the main support of his dominance on both continents. By this time, major changes had occurred in the Macedonian army. It included 30 thousand Persian youths, the so-called “epigones”, who were equipped with Macedonian weapons and trained in Macedonian. The best Persian, Sogdian and Bactrian horsemen were included in the cavalry.

In Opis, Alexander gathered the Macedonian soldiers and gave the order to reward the sick and those who had served and to release them to their homeland. This order caused a storm of indignation. The soldiers demanded the dissolution of the entire army, generous rewards, and shouted to Alexander that he could continue to fight alone “with his father Amon.” The protest took sharp forms and embraced the entire mass of Hellenic warriors. Alexander resorted to extreme measures. By his order, the instigators were immediately captured and executed. However, at the same time, Alexander was forced to meet the demands of the army. A few days later, each soldier was given payment not only for past service, but also in advance - for the time needed to return home. Ten thousand Macedonians were sent home.

Another, no less important problem for Alexander was the settlement of relations with the Hellenic policies. Alexander's conquests had a profound impact on all of Hellas. She sent many warriors, craftsmen, and traders to the East. Many poor people found a way out in military service. A considerable part of the wealth that the Macedonians inherited in the East migrated to the Greek city-states.

However, this did not ease the contradictions between them and Macedonia. Although the anti-Macedonian groups were suppressed in the Hellenic cities, they waited for a more favorable set of circumstances to appear again. In 324, Alexander issued a decree according to which all policies were obliged to accept exiles and compensate them for damage associated with the confiscation and sale of their property. In this case, Alexander's intervention in internal relations policies pursued a specific tactical goal - to incite social conflicts in order to complicate the consolidation of anti-Macedonian forces.

Alexander's conquests had a favorable effect on economic life Hellas and the East. Broad prospects opened up for trade. Connections with Central Asia, India, Arabia and the regions located near the Caspian Sea became closer. The amount of precious metals in circulation increased greatly. The introduction of a unified monetary system for Hellas and Western Asia had a great influence on the development of exchange. Gold staters and silver tetradrachms of Alexander with his image received wide use. They continued to be minted for many years after his death.

The policy pursued by Alexander already outlined in its main outlines the economic program of the Hellenistic states - widespread military colonization, the strengthening of old and the founding of new autonomous urban centers, the strengthening of slave-owning systems in them, and the exploitation of non-urban agricultural territories.

During the Macedonian conquest, several new large centers arose in Asia, which soon acquired great importance. The most important among them were Alexandria in Egypt, Alexandria Ariana (Herat), Alexandria Arachosia (Kandahar), Alexandria Margiana, Alexandria Eskhata.

One of the results of the campaign was a significant expansion of the geographical horizons of the Greeks. Alexander's conquests were accompanied by a number of geographical discoveries which were of enormous importance. The journey of Nearchus's fleet from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates led to the discovery of new sea ​​routes. A special expedition was sent to study the coast of the Hyrcanian (Caspian) Sea.

In 324 BC, Alexander took part in an expedition to the mouth of the Euphrates. He came up with a plan to direct this river along a new course and irrigate new lands. The planned campaign across the Persian Gulf was also connected with economic goals. Three expeditions were sent to conduct a preliminary study of the route to Arabia.

In the spring of 323 BC, the busiest preparations for the campaign in Arabia were underway in Babylon. Troops from Caria and Lydia began to arrive here, and detachments of mercenaries appeared. Alexander conceived a new reorganization of the army, an even broader implementation of the principle of “merger.” In the midst of these preparations, Alexander suddenly fell ill and died on June 13, 423 BC.

Alexander's personality and his brilliant military successes made a huge impression on his contemporaries and subsequent generations. In ancient times, numerous legends were told about Alexander. A whole fantasy novel, whose hero was the Macedonian conqueror. The great poets Nizami and Navoi created poems in the center of which was the image of Alexander.

As a result of his ten-year campaign, a huge new empire arose, which included not only a number of regions in the East, which had already been forcibly united within one state more than once, but also the entire Aegean Sea basin, as well as a significant part of the Balkan Peninsula.

But the power of Alexander the Great belonged to those empires that were temporary and fragile military associations. The economically and culturally highly developed Hellenic city-states were very different from semi-barbarian Macedonia. The Nile Valley with its thousand-year-old culture and established complex system of governance - from the regions of Eastern Iran with their semi-nomadic tribes who still lived in conditions of primitive life. The rich, populous centers of Mesopotamia are from the sparsely populated regions of Persia and Media.

In this respect, the new power was similar to the Achaemenid kingdom, which was also a conglomerate that was formed from many heterogeneous parts. The Macedonian conquest was reduced mainly to the capture of rich urban centers, military strong points, strategically important roads. Alexander limited himself to demanding recognition of his supreme power and payment of taxes under the control of the Macedonian rulers. He did not at all strive to change or break the centuries-old foundations of local life.

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