Liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s, military reform.

By the 1860s Russia has changed radically. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom - there were many free peasants and impoverished landowners in the country, the number of cities grew and new cities were built. All this required new reforms and changes. A kind of compensation from the government to the nobility was the implementation of the zemstvo reform of local government bodies, allowing representatives of all classes to participate in these bodies, but the main role belonged to the nobility. New local government bodies were also created in cities - City Dumas and Councils. All these bodies resolved issues of agriculture and urban management, as well as current problems of human settlements. Another great reform was the judicial reform of the Russian Empire, which brought the Russian judicial system to a qualitatively new level. You will learn about all this in more detail from this lesson.

As a result, AlexanderII carried out a reform of local government bodies - zemstvos. According to the government's idea, all layers of Russian society should have been involved in participation in local government bodies. However, in reality, the nobles played the main role, since they suffered the greatest losses during the peasant reform and the authorities wanted to partially compensate them for the losses. In addition, the government of Alexander II was confident that participation in the economic life of the regions would help distract the most radical forces of Russian society from activities destructive to the state.

On January 1, 1864, by imperial decree, the Regulations on provincial and zemstvo institutions were introduced. Only men, who were elected through three curiae, had the right to take part in zemstvo bodies. The first curia is landowners - the richest people, the second - the urban population, the third - free peasants who received the right of representation in zemstvo bodies. Money for zemstvo activities had to be collected using a special tax, which was introduced on all real estate in the counties: factories, plots, houses (Fig. 2), etc.

Rice. 2. Factory in Russia in the 19th century. ()

Zemstvo bodies were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative bodies were zemstvo assemblies that met once a year. They were attended by deputies - vowels chosen from three curiae. Administrative bodies met for a short period of time to solve the most important economic problems of the region. The rest of the time, the executive bodies of zemstvos - zemstvo councils - acted. They were much smaller in number of deputies, but zemstvo councils were permanent local government bodies that resolved the daily issues of the population.

Zemstvos dealt with a fairly wide range of issues. They built schools and hospitals (Fig. 3), provided them with supplies, created new routes of communication, and resolved issues of local trade (Fig. 4). The sphere of administration of zemstvos also included charity, insurance, veterinary affairs and much more. In general, it is worth saying that the zemstvos did a lot. Even opponents of the reforms of Alexander II admitted that the old bureaucratic apparatus of local self-government would not have been able to resolve as many issues as the new zemstvo bodies did.

Rice. 3. Rural school of the 19th century. ()

Rice. 4. Rural trade in the 19th century. ()

In 1870, a city reform of local government bodies was carried out on the model of the zemstvo. According to it, the old city authorities were replaced by new all-estate councils and councils. Now residents of all social strata could be involved in the management of the city. This made the authorities fear the new city governments and tightly control them. Thus, the city mayor could be appointed only with the consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs or the governor. In addition, these two officials could veto any decision of the City Duma (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. City Duma of the 19th century. ()

Men at least 25 years of age could participate in city government bodies and must pay taxes to the treasury. The city councils resolved a number of issues related to the development of the city: business and trade activities, improvement, maintenance of the police and prisons.

Urban reform has become an important stage in the development of Russian cities as a whole.

In the conditions of post-reform Russia, a huge number of free people appeared, but they were disoriented and did not understand how to live in the country. Before Alexander's government IIa serious problem arose with the courts. The old courts of the Russian Empire were fairly corrupt; power in them belonged to representatives of the nobility or local administration. All this could lead to deep social upheaval.

In connection with the above circumstances, one of the most systematic and consistent reforms of Alexander IIwas judicial reform. According to the plan of this reform, two types of courts were created: general and magistrates.

Magistrates' courts operated in cities and counties. They tried minor civil and criminal cases. Justices of the peace (Fig. 6) were elected by officials of the City or Zemstvo government. They were the sole arbiters of justice in their area and tried their best to resolve problems between the residents of their locality amicably.

Rice. 6. Justice of the Peace ()

The general courts were divided into district courts and judicial chambers. They were located in provincial cities and resolved a large number of issues. The district courts heard civil, criminal and political cases. An important distinguishing feature of district courts was the presence of jurors in them. These were people who were chosen by lot from among ordinary townspeople. They rendered a verdict: whether the accused was guilty or not. The judge only determined the measure of restraint in case of his guilt or released the innocent person to freedom.

If dissatisfied with the verdict, the convicted person could file an appeal to the Trial Chamber. The supreme authority of the Russian judicial system became the Senate, where an appeal could be filed if there was a complaint about the actions of the Judicial Chamber. The Senate also exercised general management of the judicial system of the Russian Empire.

Among other things, other changes have occurred in the judicial system. For example, such positions as a prosecutor, who headed the prosecution, and a lawyer, who defended the interests of the defendant, appeared. Court hearings were henceforth held in an atmosphere of openness: representatives of the press and inquisitive citizens were allowed into the courtroom.

All of the above has made the Russian judicial system more flexible.

In general, we can say that the Russian judicial system after the reform of Alexander II became the most effective and most advanced in the world. City and zemstvo reforms of self-government bodies also allowed the country's public administration to reach a new, qualitative level.

Bibliography

Zayonchkovsky P.A. Abolition of serfdom in Russia. - M., 1964.
Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.
Lonskaya S.V. World justice in Russia. - Kaliningrad, 2000.
Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.
History of state and law of Russia: textbook / ed. Yu.P. Titova. - M.: Prospekt, 1998.
After the reforms: government reaction // Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century: a course of lectures. - M.: Higher School, 1997.

Russian Military Historical Society ().
History.ru ().
Grandars.ru ().
Studopedia.ru ().

Homework

Describe the zemstvo reform of local governments. How did it go? What was the impact of this reform?
How did the city reform of local governments proceed? What did this reform lead to?
How did the judicial system of the Russian Empire change after the judicial reform of 1864?

Reforms of the 60-70s

		Meaning
	Zemstvos are elected representative institutions that deal with local economic issues (in provinces, districts)	Zemstvos played a significant role in solving local economic and cultural problems: organizing medical and veterinary care, the emergence of educational institutions
Judicial	Senate - considered political affairs; highest appellate system. District Court with jurors. Magistrate Court - heard small civil claims and minor offenses, without a jury with one judge.	The court became classless, transparent, adversarial, independent from the administration
	Universal conscription for men from the age of 20. The length of service depended on the conscript's level of education. Rearmament of the army. New military educational institutions.	Increasing the combat effectiveness of the Russian army due to the possibility of replenishing it during the war with reserves trained in military affairs.

1). Local government reforms.

· equality of all classes before the law;

· classlessness - representatives of all classes are tried by one court;

· publicity of the court – court hearings are open to everyone;

· adversarial - in a trial two parties: the accusing - the prosecutor and the defending - the lawyer “compete”; interest in advocacy arose in society - the lawyer and the prince became famous;

· independent from the administration, i.e. a judge could not be dismissed for issuing a verdict that was undesirable to the authorities.

According to the new judicial statutes, two types of courts were created - magistrates and general.

3) Military reforms.

Military regulations approved on January 1 1874. The author of the reform is the Minister of War, Count.

***Filling out the table: third line: Military reform.

Main provisions of the reform:

· recruitment was cancelled;

· universal military service was introduced for all classes from the age of 20;

· service life has been reduced (6-7 years);

The army and navy were being rearmed. All soldiers were taught to read and write during their service. As a result of the reform, Russia received a modern mass army.

4) Reforms in the field of education. 1864

· Regulations on primary public schools: primary schools of various types were created - state, parochial, Sunday. The duration of training was 3 years.

· Gymnasiums have become the main type of secondary education institutions. They were divided into real and classic.

Real

They prepared “for employment in various branches of industry and trade.” Training – 7 years. The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed. They could continue their studies in technical universities

Classic

A large place was given to ancient languages - Latin and Ancient Greek. They prepared young people to enter universities. The duration of study since 1871 is 8 years. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion.” But the tuition fees were very high.

· A new charter for universities was approved, which restored the autonomy of these educational institutions.

· Women's education developed - women's gymnasiums, higher women's courses.

5) Constitutional throwing. "Dictatorship of the heart."

Many innovations that appeared in Russia as a result of reforms came into conflict with the principles of autocracy. Alexander II was convinced that autocratic power was the most acceptable form of government for the multinational and vast Russian Empire. He stated “that he opposes the establishment of a constitution not because he values his power, but because he is convinced that it would be a misfortune for Russia and would lead to its collapse.”

Nevertheless, Alexander II was forced to make concessions to supporters of constitutional government. The reason was terror against senior officials and constant attempts to assassinate the emperor himself by revolutionary organizations.

After the second assassination attempt on Alexander II in April 1879, the tsar appointed popular military leaders, generals, Melikov, as governors general in order to calm the population and cool the heads of the revolutionaries.

In February 1880, a new attempt was made to assassinate the Emperor in the Winter Palace. Alexander II established the Supreme Administrative Commission and appointed its head the Kharkov Governor-General Melikov.

Activities -Melikov:

· All security agencies were concentrated in the Ministry of Internal Affairs - the number of assassination attempts began to decline.

· Relaxed censorship.

· Insisted on the dismissal of the Minister of Public Education, Count.

“Dictatorship of the Heart”: the number of terrorist attacks has decreased, the situation in the country has become calmer.

Project “Constitution of Loris-Melikov”:

1. To develop laws, it is necessary to create two temporary commissions from representatives of zemstvos and cities - administrative, economic and financial.

2. He proposed sending draft laws for discussion to the General Commission, composed of elected representatives of zemstvo and city self-government.

3. After approval in the General Commission, the bill would go to the State Council, in the meeting of which 10-15 elected representatives who worked on the General Commission would also participate.

On the morning of March 1, 1881, Alexander II approved the Loris-Melikov project and scheduled a meeting of the Council of Ministers for March 4 for its final approval. But a few hours later the emperor was killed by terrorists.

Fill out the table.

	Liberal nature of the reform	Limitations of reform

Urban
Judicial

Rice. 2. Factory in Russia in the 19th century. ()

Rice. 3. Rural school of the 19th century. ()

Rice. 4. Rural trade in the 19th century. ()

Rice. 5. City Duma of the 19th century. ()

Urban reform has become an important stage in the development of Russian cities as a whole.

Rice. 6. Justice of the Peace ()

All of the above has made the Russian judicial system more flexible.

Bibliography

Zayonchkovsky P.A. Abolition of serfdom in Russia. - M., 1964.
Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.
Lonskaya S.V. World justice in Russia. - Kaliningrad, 2000.
Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.
History of state and law of Russia: textbook / ed. Yu.P. Titova. - M.: Prospekt, 1998.
After the reforms: government reaction // Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century: a course of lectures. - M.: Higher School, 1997.

Russian Military Historical Society ().
History.ru ().
Grandars.ru ().
Studopedia.ru ().

Homework

Describe the zemstvo reform of local governments. How did it go? What was the impact of this reform?
How did the city reform of local governments proceed? What did this reform lead to?
How did the judicial system of the Russian Empire change after the judicial reform of 1864?

Alexander II is one of the most famous Russian emperors, a representative of the Romanov dynasty, who freed the peasants from serfdom. Alexander II was brought up by prominent artists, and Zhukovsky was responsible for his education, instilling in the future monarch liberal democratic standards of thinking.

In the future, Alexander Nikolaevich managed to implement all those reforms and projects that his predecessor, the monarch’s father Nicholas I, failed.

Characteristics of the reform	results
	*pros*	*Minuses*
Zemstvo reform of 1864 Reform of city government in 1870	Zemstvo bodies became all-class. Zemstvos were in charge of issues of local economy, trade, industry, distribution of state taxes, assignment of local taxes, healthcare, public education, and the organization of charitable institutions. Subsequently, zemstvo institutions became centers of liberal opposition to the government. in accordance with the new “City Regulations”, all-class public self-government bodies were created - city Dumas. The reform contributed to the development of urban economy, industry and trade.	Inter-provincial associations of zemstvos were prohibited. For the maintenance of zemstvo institutions, as well as their employees, a special tax was introduced - zemstvo tax.
Stabilization of the financial system	1860 - foundation of the State Bank. V.A. Tatarinov insisted on transparency of the budget and implemented “treasury unity,” which meant that all government payments and receipts were made through one structure—the Ministry of Finance. since 1863 Instead of a tax system, an excise tax was introduced, which meant the sale of wine subject to the payment of excise duty. centralization of the financial and budget sphere, establishment of budget transparency and financial control, progressive changes in the tax system.	popular unrest - the “temperance movement” of 1858-1859.
Judicial reform of 1864	the lack of class of the court, the equality of all subjects before the law. independence of the court from the administration. creation of a jury court and the institution of sworn attorneys (lawyers). An institute of notaries was created.	Measures aimed at limiting judicial reform: investigations in cases of state crimes are transferred to the gendarmerie authorities (1871). a special presence of the Governing Senate was established (1872) to consider this category of cases
Military transformations of the 1860-1870s.	in 1862-1864 15 military districts were formed. excessive centralization of control was eliminated, the Ministry of War was freed from consideration of military-administrative issues of a local level and nature → efficiency in command and control of troops increased. 1867 – creation of permanent military judicial bodies. reform of military educational institutions. entry into service of the Russian army of rifled weapons. introduction from January 1874 universal conscription, which applied to the entire male population over 20 years of age, the service life was 6 years in the ground forces, 7 years in the navy.
Reform of the public education system	June 16, 1863 a new University Charter was approved (the university was formed by 4 faculties). Secondary education became open to all classes. Women could receive higher education through private courses opening of secondary schools.	The charter deprived students of the right to create various types of associations. The fees established for education in gymnasiums made it unaffordable for children of insolvent parents to attend.
Censorship reform 1865	preliminary censorship was abolished for publications of more than 10 printed pages. Government and scientific publications were exempted from censorship.

Emperor Alexander II went down in history under the name of the Liberator, which is associated not only with the liberation of peasants from serfdom, but also with the implementation of a number of liberal reforms aimed at eliminating internal political problems in the country.

Alexander II's reforms were not limited to the abolition of serfdom. During his 20 years in power, the ruler was able to carry out quite competent financial and military reforms and change the position of the courts. While working on new reforms, Alexander II used international experience, but did not forget the historical features of the country's development. Like many great monarchs, Alexander II was not understood by his contemporaries, and was eventually shot dead in 1881. However, the liberal reforms he carried out had a significant impact on the appearance of Russia in the future.

The peasant reform of 1861 led to changes in the economic structure of society, which necessitated the transformation of the political system. The new bourgeois reforms, wrested from the government during the period of democratic upsurge, were a by-product of the revolutionary struggle.

Reforms in Russia were not a cause, but a consequence of the development of socio-economic processes. At the same time, after implementation, the reforms objectively had the opposite effect on these processes. The reforms carried out were contradictory in nature - tsarism tried to adapt the old political system of autocracy to new conditions without changing its class essence. The reforms (1863-1874) were half-hearted, inconsistent and unfinished. They were designed during the years of the revolutionary situation, and some of them were carried out 10-15 years later in the context of the decline of the revolutionary wave. The tasks of organizing local self-government were to be solved by zemstvo and city reforms. In accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” (1864), elected local government bodies - zemstvos - were introduced in the districts and provinces. Formally, zemstvo institutions consisted of representatives of all classes, but suffrage was determined by property qualifications. Members of zemstvo assemblies (vocals) were elected in three curiae: landowners, urban voters and electors from rural societies (in the last curia elections were multi-level). The chairman of the meetings was the leader of the nobility. Executive bodies were also created - provincial and district zemstvo councils. Zemstvos did not have political functions and did not have executive power; they resolved mainly economic issues, but even within these limits they were controlled by governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Zemstvos were introduced gradually (until 1879) and not in all regions of the empire. Already at this time their competence was increasingly limited by the government. However, despite the restrictions, zemstvos in Russia played a significant role in resolving issues of both economic and cultural nature (education, medicine, zemstvo statistics, etc.). The new system of city government institutions (city councils and councils), created on the basis of the “City Regulations” (1870), was based on the bourgeois principle of a single property qualification. Elections took place in curiae, which were determined in accordance with the amount of tax paid. The overwhelming majority of residents who do not have an established property qualification were excluded from the elections. As a result of the reform of local government bodies, the dominant position in zemstvos (especially at the provincial level) was occupied by the nobility, and in city councils - by representatives of the big bourgeoisie. City government bodies were also under the constant control of the government and mainly resolved issues related to the management of the city economy.

The Russian legal system remained the most archaic in the mid-19th century.

The trial was class-based, the sessions were private and were not covered in the press. The judges were completely dependent on the administration, and the defendants had no defense lawyers. The bourgeois principle was most clearly manifested in the new judicial statutes of 1864, which were based on the main principles of bourgeois law: the lack of class of the court, the adversarial nature of the process, publicity and independence of judges. The result of judicial reform was the introduction of two systems in Russia: crown and magistrate courts. The Crown Court had two jurisdictions: the district court and the trial chamber. During the trial, the prosecutor brought the charge, and the defense was conducted by lawyers (sworn attorneys). The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by elected jurors. The punishment was determined by the judge and two members of the court. Magistrates' courts tried minor crimes; legal proceedings here were conducted by magistrates elected by zemstvo assemblies or city dumas. However, the new system of legal proceedings also bore the imprint of old feudal remnants. Thus, special courts for certain categories of the population were retained (for example, volost courts for peasants). The transparency of legal proceedings and the independence of judges from the administration were also limited. Military reforms. The need to increase the combat capability of the Russian army, which became obvious already during the Crimean War and clearly declared itself during the European events of the 60-70s, when the Prussian army demonstrated its combat capability (the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870) , demanded the implementation of fundamental military reforms. These reforms were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. In 1864, he introduced a system of military districts, and somewhat later centralized military administration. The system of military educational institutions was reformed, and new military regulations were adopted. The army was being rearmed. In 1874, all-class military service with a limited period of military service was introduced in Russia. Military service, instead of 25 years, was established for a period of 6 years (in active service) and 9 years in reserve. They served in the navy for 7 years and 3 years in the reserves. These periods were significantly reduced for persons with education. Thus, a mass army of the bourgeois type was created in the country, with limited personnel in peacetime and large human resources in case of war. However, as before, the cadre of officers of the Russian army consisted mainly of nobles, while the soldiers, who came from the peasant masses, had no rights.

Zemstvo reform. After the adoption of the Peasant Reform, there was a need to transform local government bodies. In 1864, zemstvo reform began to be introduced in the Russian Empire. In districts and provinces, zemstvo institutions were formed, which were elected bodies. Zemstvos did not have political functions; their competence primarily included solving local problems, regulating the work of schools and hospitals, building roads, and controlling trade and small industrial facilities. Zemstvos were controlled by local and central authorities, who had the right to refute the decisions of these bodies or suspend their activities. In cities, city councils were created, which had the same powers as zemstvos. The dominant role in zemstvos and city dumas belonged to representatives of the bourgeois class. Despite the fact that the reforms had a very narrow structure and did not actually solve the problems of socio-economic life, they became the first step towards the introduction of liberal democracy in the Russian Empire. Further introduction of reforms was completely stopped by the death of the emperor. His son Alexander II saw a completely different path of development for Russia. Financial reforms. The development of capitalist relations led to the reorganization of the financial system of the empire, which was greatly upset during the war. Among the most important measures to streamline finances was the creation of the State Bank (1860), streamlining the process of forming the state budget, and transforming state control. The consequence of the “sober” movement was the abolition of wine farming. Despite the fact that the financial reforms were bourgeois in nature, they did not change the class nature of the taxation system, in which the entire burden of taxes fell on the tax-paying population. Reforms in the field of education and press. The needs of the country's economic and political life made changes in the organization of public education necessary. In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” was published, which expanded the network of primary educational institutions. According to the “Regulations,” public institutions and even private individuals were allowed to open primary schools, but all of them were under the control of school councils. They taught writing, reading, the rules of arithmetic, the law of God and church singing in elementary school. Most primary schools were zemstvo (created by zemstvos), parochial and “ministerial” (established by the Ministry of Public Education). In 1864, a new charter of gymnasiums was introduced, which began to be divided into classical (focused on noble and bureaucratic children) and real (mainly for children of the bourgeoisie). We studied in gymnasiums for 7 years. In classical gymnasiums, emphasis was placed on a thorough study of ancient languages (Latin and Greek); in real ones, instead of “classical” languages, extended courses in natural sciences were taught. Graduates of classical gymnasiums could enter universities without exams; “realistically” they mainly went to technical higher educational institutions. The number of primary and secondary educational institutions in Russia increased rapidly during the post-reform period. At the end of the 50s there were about 8 thousand, at the beginning of the 80s - over 22 thousand, and by the mid-90s over 78 thousand. However, by the end of the 19th century. Russia remained a country of illiterate people; there were almost 80% of them. In 1863, a new university statute came into force, which restored and expanded the autonomy of universities. New higher educational institutions were opened in the country, including technical ones, as well as women's courses in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kyiv. During the reforms, the government was forced to make a number of concessions in the field of censorship. “Temporary Rules for the Press” (1865) partially abolished preliminary censorship in the capitals, but at the same time established judicial liability for persons who violated the legislation in this area. Thus, despite the opposition of conservative circles, a whole complex of bourgeois reforms was implemented in Russia in the 60-70s. Many of them were contradictory and inconsistent, but in general they were a step forward towards the transformation of the Russian feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy, contributed to the development of capitalist relations in the country, the growth of the economy and culture, and raised the prestige of Russia in the field of international relations. The revolutionary situation in the country did not develop into a revolution. Having reformed the political superstructure of society, the autocracy managed to retain its main positions; this created the preconditions for a possible turn, a reversal, which manifested itself during the period of reaction and counter-reforms of the 80-90s of the 19th century. The development of capitalism and the formation of the industrial proletariat in Russia in the 60s - mid-90s of the XIX century. After the abolition of serfdom, the development of capitalism in the country began at an unprecedented pace. Capitalist relations covered all spheres of the economy and contributed to the acceleration of the pace of development of the Russian national economy. For the period 60-90s of the XIX century. There are such important phenomena in the country's economy as the completion of the industrial revolution and the rapid development of a number of important industries, the gradual restructuring of the agricultural sector in a new capitalist way, the formation of the proletariat and the Russian industrial bourgeoisie.