Pacifism (from Latin pacificus - peacemaker) is the ideology of resistance to violence for the sake of its disappearance. Pacifist movement, peace movement - anti-war social movement, opposing war and violence through peaceful means, mainly by condemning their immorality. Pacifism often merges with the anti-militarist and anti-imperialist movement.
Pacifists condemn all war, denying the very possibility of wars being legitimate, liberating, sacred, etc. They believe in the possibility of preventing wars only through persuasion and peaceful manifestations.
Pacifists use various shapes protest against war and violence, including such unusual ones as “Die-in” (imitation death).
In the 1920s the governments of the great powers that won the world war managed to find mutual language and develop a coordinated line in solving the most major international problems. The consensus reached became the basis further development Versailles-Washington system.
Despite all its contradictions, the post-war world order, legally formalized in Paris and Washington, was not only preserved, but also in a certain sense strengthened In any case, centripetal and constructive forces at this time prevailed over centrifugal and destructive tendencies.
Another characteristic feature of the period under review was wide use pacifist ideas and sentiments. Perhaps never before have so many peacekeeping projects been put forward and so many conferences been held to ensure peace and international security as in the twenties.
It is no coincidence that in historical literature third decade of the 20th century often called the "era of pacifism".
The activities of pacifists have led to the fact that in the legislation of many countries where there is military duty, the possibility of replacing it with an alternative civil service was provided for.
Left a reply Guest
In the 1920s The governments of the great powers that won the world war managed to find a common language and develop an agreed line in solving the most major international problems. The consensus reached became the basis for the further development of the Versailles-Washington system. Despite all its contradictions, the post-war world order, legally formalized in Paris and Washington, was not only preserved, but also, in a certain sense, strengthened. In any case, centripetal and constructive forces at this time prevailed over centrifugal and destructive tendencies.
Another characteristic feature of the period under review was the widespread dissemination of pacifist ideas and sentiments. Perhaps never before have so many peacekeeping projects been put forward and so many conferences been held to ensure peace and international security as in the twenties. It is no coincidence that in historical literature the third decade of the 20th century. often called the "era of pacifism".
The unprecedented popularity of pacifist plans and programs was explained by the action various factors: the tragic consequences of the First World War and the general desire to prevent similar military conflicts in the future; the need to restore the destroyed economy and financial system, which assumed the quality the most important condition stabilization international relations; activation peacekeeping activities liberal and democratic intelligentsia, as well as the rise to power of politicians in a number of European countries, the foreign policy concept was based on the principles of pacifism (E. Herriot in France, J.R. MacDonald in England, etc.).
However, most significant reason The surge in pacifist aspirations lay in the very nature of the international situation that had developed by the mid-1920s. Its uniqueness lay in the fact that the government circles of all the great powers, without exception, although for different reasons, were interested in maintaining the peaceful status quo. The leading victorious powers (USA, England, France) opposed any attempts to forcefully deform the Versailles-Washington system, the creators of which they were. The defeated states (primarily Germany), as well as powers that considered themselves “unjustly deprived” of the decisions of the Paris and Washington conferences (Italy and Japan), did not at that time have sufficient power for a military revision of the established international order and used diplomatic, i.e. peaceful means and methods for realizing their foreign policy goals. As for the Soviet Union, its party and state leadership, without abandoning the slogans of proletarian internationalism, concentrated its efforts on strengthening international positions USSR based on the principles of peaceful coexistence. Not last role The defeat of the “anti-party group” led by L.D. played a role in the formation of this course. Trotsky, condemnation of its revolutionary maximalism, which denied the very possibility of building socialism in the USSR without the victory of the world revolution. J.V. Stalin, proclaiming the Soviet Union as a “lever” and “base” for the development of the world revolutionary process, defended the independent significance of socialist transformations in the country, which, in turn, required the creation of favorable foreign policy conditions for maintaining “world peace” and normalization of relations capitalist powers. These were real premises"era of pacifism".
1929 ranks in the history of the country special place. This year there have been so many changes in all spheres of life of Soviet society that various terms in order to determine the essence of the events that took place. Some call what happened then a “revolution from above,” others call it a “Thermidorian coup.” Stalin called 1929 the year of the “great turning point.”
In area domestic policy The main event was the completion of the struggle for power in the leadership of the Communist Party and the establishment of the regime of Stalin’s personal power in the USSR. After the defeat of the “right”, new people came to the leadership of the country, personally loyal to Stalin. V.M. became the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. Molotov, Stalin’s deputy in the party - L.M. Kaganovich, member of the Politburo - G.K. Ordzhonikidze.
The Soviet leadership verbally advocated compliance with the norms of Soviet and party democracy and collegial leadership. In the late 20s - first half of the 30s. Congresses of Soviets, congresses and Plenums were systematically held Communist Party. In 1936, the Constitution of the USSR was adopted, declared the most democratic constitution in the world. Indeed, this document listed all human rights and formulated new principles of legal proceedings. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR was created, which had legislative functions. In 1937-1938 popular elections to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR were held and Supreme Councils union republics.
At the same time, the punitive authorities of the Soviet state received greater powers.
In the early 30s. The practice of holding closed trials, as well as extrajudicial killings, was widely used. The legislative basis for such “legal proceedings” was laid during the beginning of mass collectivization. Already at the end of 1929, on the initiative of local party and local bodies, “troikas” began to be created from top officials, including the head of the GPU, which were actually legalized by the resolution of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of February 1, 1930 “On measures to strengthen the socialist reorganization of agriculture in areas of complete collectivization and the fight against the kulaks.” This practice, when the “troikas” carried out legal proceedings, was soon extended not only to the kulaks, but also to the Nepman elements of the city, persons who served in the tsarist and white armies, persons who were members of various political parties, representatives of the intelligentsia. From 1930 to 1933 fabricated trials took place against the Industrial Party, the Peasant Labor Party, the Mensheviks, specialists from the Metropolitan-Vickers company, bacteriologists, historians, senior officials of the food industry, state farms, the People's Commissariat of Agriculture, etc.
Since the flow of convicts was constantly increasing in the early 30s. a reorganization of correctional labor institutions that existed in Soviet Russia and in the 20s. In 1930, they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the OGPU, and the Main Directorate of Camps (GULAG) was created, headed by G. Yagoda. The OGPU of the USSR carried out not only matters of a political nature, but the police were transferred to its jurisdiction. At the same time, Soviet legislation was tightened. In the resolution of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated August 7, 1932, “On the protection of the property of state enterprises, collective farms and cooperatives and the strengthening of public (socialist) property,” the term “enemy of the people” was used for the first time in a legislative act, to which the term “enemy of the people” was applied. capital punishment punishment or a term of 10 years with confiscation of property. On August 22, 1932, a new resolution was adopted higher authorities state authorities “On the fight against profiteering”, in which a term of 5 to 10 years without the right of amnesty was imposed for this crime. In December of the same year, a passport regime was introduced in the country, which was abolished Soviet power in 1923, which seriously limited freedom of movement for Soviet citizens, separate categories who did not receive passports at all. In March 1933, the OGPU authorities received the right to shoot people without trial or investigation.
In July 1934, a decree was issued approving the principle of hostage-taking. In November of the same year, special meetings of the NKVD were established, with the same powers as the previous bodies of the GPU. Finally, on December 1, 1934, in connection with the murder of S.M. Kirov, the law “On the procedure for conducting cases involving the preparation or commission of terrorist acts” was adopted, which simplified legal proceedings on political affairs and created a legislative basis for spinning the flywheel of repression.
In the mid-30s. 3 major political trials were carried out over the top of the Bolshevik leadership, possible opposition to Stalin in the Red Army was crushed, leadership cadres in industry, the party, were shaken up, public organizations etc. The scale of the repressions of this time, apparently, will never be established accurately, and the approximate estimates available from different authors vary over a very wide range. The number of prisoners in the Soviet Union at the end of the 30s. is defined in the range from 10 to 40 million people.
It was towards the end of the 30s. Stalin's personality cult reached its apogee during the entire pre-war period. His name was invariably associated with numerous successes in building a socialist society in the USSR. No one could encroach on his authority, for there was no figure next to him, not only equal to Stalin in popularity, but even close to it. This allowed Stalin, on the eve of the Second World War, to significantly reduce the scale of repression and punish specific culprits of the “Great Terror.”
Already during the third Moscow trial, which took place in March 1938, G. Yagoda was among the convicted, former leader NKVD in 1934-1936 In 1938, the partial release of prisoners from the Gulag began. This concerned primarily party members and military personnel. In November 1938, a secret circular was circulated suspending further arrests. In December 1938, N.I. Ezhov was relieved of his post as People's Commissar of Internal Affairs and a new one was appointed - L.P. Beria. However, repressions continued in 1939-1941, although not on the same scale as before.
Economic situation
At the end of the 20s. There was a change in the country's economic strategy. Instead of a new one economic policy A policy of accelerated industrialization began to be implemented. First five-year development plan National economy/1928/29 – 1932/33/ was developed and adopted taking into account the principles of the NEP and, in particular, was designed for the balanced development of all main sectors of the national economy. In 1929, Stalin announced the need to revise the tasks of the first five-year plan in the direction of their significant increase.
New governing bodies were created to manage the economy. In 1932, the Supreme Economic Council was liquidated, and instead of it, 4 sectoral People's Commissariats were first formed, and by the end of the 30s their number increased to 20. People's Commissariats with strict vertical structure subordination, reaching each individual enterprise, was an ideal form for introducing administrative-command management methods into the economy.
In the context of the economic crisis that gripped the capitalist world in 1929, Soviet country it was difficult to count on receiving external sources financing industrialization. I had to rely only on internal sources accumulation of funds and, above all, for agriculture. Forced industrialization and collectivization of agriculture must be considered as two sides of the same process aimed at accelerating the pace of socio-economic development. It is no coincidence that mass collectivization also began in 1929.
In the field of industry, the new indicators of the first five-year plan were as follows: for cast iron, instead of 10 million tons, 17 million tons were approved, for tractors, instead of 53 thousand - 170, for cars, instead of 100 thousand - 200.
In order to ensure the fulfillment of production tasks facing industry, it was necessary to “spur up” the pace of agricultural development to the same extent. In November 1929, the task was set to speed up the pace of socialist transformation of agriculture, and in January 1930 the collectivization schedule was approved. In accordance with it, by the end of the five-year plan, collective farms should have had not 20, but 80-90% peasant farms. Naturally, to achieve this in such short time It was possible only through violence against the peasant.
The results of the first five-year plan can be viewed in two ways. On the one hand, in the field of industry the country in 1928-1932. was experiencing a great upsurge. If in 1928 the USSR produced 3.3 million tons of cast iron, then in 1932 - 6.2 million tons, for tractors the increase was from 1.8 thousand units. up to 50.8 thousand units, for cars - from 0.8 thousand units. up to 23.9 thousand units But in the field of agriculture there was a clear rollback from the results available at the end of the NEP. If in 1928 the country produced 4.9 million tons of meat and lard, then in 1932 only 2.8 million tons, respectively, for milk the figures decreased from 31 million tons to 20.6, and for eggs - from 10.8 billion pcs. up to 4.4. As a result of mass collectivization, almost 15% of the country’s peasantry, including its most economic stratum, was “dispossessed.” The completion of this process led the country to terrible hunger 1932-1933, when in Peaceful time According to various estimates, from 3 to 10 million people died. Industrialization took place due to a decrease in the living standards of the urban population, a characteristic indicator of which was the existence in 1929-1933. card system supplying the population.
The Soviet leadership made serious conclusions from the lessons of the first five-year plan and at the XVII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks when discussing the indicators of the second five-year plan /1933 - 1937/ the course for further acceleration economic development countries has undergone significant adjustments. In the industrial sector, more than real tasks in terms of annual production growth, and in agriculture provided only for consolidation achieved level collectivization. There was a slight weakening of directive pressure on the economy, and its management bodies were reorganized.
In the 1920s The governments of the great powers that won the world war managed to find a common language and develop an agreed line in solving the most major international problems. The consensus reached became the basis for the further development of the Versailles-Washington system. Despite all its contradictions, the post-war world order, legally formalized in Paris and Washington, was not only preserved, but also, in a certain sense, strengthened. In any case, centripetal and constructive forces at this time prevailed over centrifugal and destructive tendencies.
Another characteristic feature of the period under review was the widespread dissemination of pacifist ideas and sentiments. Perhaps never before have so many peacekeeping projects been put forward and so many conferences been held to ensure peace and international security as in the twenties. It is no coincidence that in historical literature the third decade of the 20th century. often called the "era of pacifism".
The unprecedented popularity of pacifist plans and programs was explained by various factors: the tragic consequences of the First World War and the general desire to prevent similar military conflicts in the future; the need to restore the destroyed economy and financial system, which assumed stabilization of international relations as the most important condition; With the intensification of the peacekeeping activities of the liberal and democratic intelligentsia, as well as the rise to power of politicians in a number of European countries, the foreign policy concept was based on the principles of pacifism (E. Herriot in France, J.R. MacDonald in England, etc.).
However, the most significant reason for the surge in pacifist aspirations lay in the very nature of the international situation that had developed by the mid-1920s. Its uniqueness lay in the fact that the government circles of all the great powers, without exception, although for different reasons, were interested in maintaining the peaceful status quo. The leading victorious powers (USA, England, France) opposed any attempts to forcefully deform the Versailles-Washington system, the creators of which they were. The defeated states (primarily Germany), as well as powers that considered themselves “unjustly deprived” of the decisions of the Paris and Washington conferences (Italy and Japan), did not at that time have sufficient power for a military revision of the established international order and used diplomatic, i.e. peaceful means and methods for realizing their foreign policy goals. As for the Soviet Union, its party and state leadership, without abandoning the slogans of proletarian internationalism, concentrated their efforts on strengthening the international positions of the USSR based on the principles of peaceful coexistence. Not the least role in the formation of this course was played by the defeat of the “anti-party group” led by L.D. Trotsky, condemnation of its revolutionary maximalism, which denied the very possibility of building socialism in the USSR without the victory of the world revolution. J.V. Stalin, proclaiming the Soviet Union as a “lever” and “base” for the development of the world revolutionary process, defended the independent significance of socialist transformations in the country, which, in turn, required the creation of favorable foreign policy conditions for maintaining “world peace” and normalization of relations capitalist powers. These were the real prerequisites for the “era of pacifism.”
Answer
First World War could not eliminate the contradictions existing between European states, but on the contrary, significantly strengthened them. The winning states were faced with the task of determining further path development of the post-war world, which was extremely difficult.
International relations were based on treaties concluded between allies, but during this period there was a tendency to conclude secret annexes to agreements, which very often contradicted the provisions of the main treaty.
Many countries that officially took the path of pacifism gradually became militarized. Thanks to the absence of open military confrontations, the 20s of the 20th century went down in history as decades of pacifism.
Russia's exit from the war became a serious test for the Entente states. Diplomatic relations did not deal with the Bolsheviks. The result of the assistance of European countries in determining the political future Russian people, become long years foreign intervention.
In the 20s, the first dialogues began between the Entente states and Soviet Union as part of the implementation of a universal pacifist program. It is worth noting that the interests and opinions of the Bolsheviks were absolutely not taken into account in this process, since the heads European countries considered their power to be a temporary phenomenon.
The winners also considered the inclusion of the USSR in the League of Nations of the state as optional, since they did not see in the Soviet state either a possible aggressor or a reliable ally.
US pacifist policy
Immediately after the end of the First World War, American President V. Wilson compiled 14 principles of international relations, by observing which the world had to protect itself from the emergence of new military conflicts. In the early 1920s, the United States chose a policy of diplomatic neutrality.
The state government demonstratively supported defeated countries, since they understood that political pressure or economic sanctions could affect the already disadvantaged national pride. During this period, the United States moved away from internal conflicts Europeans, believing that the state has nothing to do with this.
Actively participating in the process of creating the League of Nations, American government refused membership in this organization. President of the U.S.A for a long time insisted on concluding a separate peace treaty between Germany and European countries, however, such a proposal was decisively rejected.
Already in 1922, the American government independently concluded a peace agreement with Germany, thereby emphasizing its political support for the state.
Japan
Despite their active participation in international pacifist politics, the victorious states, until the early 1930s, waited for an opportunity to regain all the colonies lost during the war, not excluding possible military conflicts.
However, the implementation of such plans was prevented by Japan’s unexpected claim to world domination. After the Washington Conference, it became clear to the Japanese government that no one was going to equate the state with the United States and Europe.