The main source of fresh water is. Where is the most fresh water?

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Life on planet Earth originated from water, and it is water that continues to support this life. The human body consists of 80% water; it is actively used in the food, light and heavy industries. Therefore, a sober assessment of existing reserves is extremely important. After all, water is the source of life and technological progress. The supply of fresh water on Earth is not endless, so environmentalists are increasingly reminded of the need for rational environmental management.

First, let's figure it out ourselves. Fresh water is water that contains no more than one tenth of a percent of salt. When calculating reserves, they take into account not only liquid from natural sources, but also atmospheric gas and reserves in glaciers.

World reserves

More than 97% of all water reserves are found in the world's oceans - it is salty and, without special treatment, is not suitable for human use. A little less than 3% is fresh water. Unfortunately, not all of it is available:

2.15% comes from glaciers, icebergs and mountain ice.
About one thousandth of a percent is a gas in the atmosphere.
And only 0.65% of the total amount is available for consumption and is found in freshwater rivers and lakes.

At the moment, it is generally accepted that freshwater bodies are an inexhaustible source. This is true, the world's reserves cannot exhaust themselves even with irrational use - the amount of fresh water will be restored due to the planetary cycle of substances. More than half a million cubic meters of fresh water evaporate from the World Ocean every year. This liquid takes the form of clouds and then replenishes freshwater sources with precipitation.

The problem is that readily available supplies may run out. We are not talking about the fact that a person will drink all the water from rivers and lakes. The problem is the contamination of drinking water sources.

Planetary consumption and scarcity

Consumption is distributed as follows:

About 70% is spent on maintaining the agricultural industry. This indicator varies greatly from region to region.
The entire world industry spends about 22%.
Individual household consumption accounts for 8%.

The available freshwater sources cannot fully meet the needs of humanity for two reasons: uneven distribution and pollution.

Fresh water shortages are observed in the following areas:

Arabian Peninsula. Consumption exceeds available resources by more than five times. And this calculation is only for individual household consumption. Water on the Arabian Peninsula is extremely expensive - it has to be transported by tankers, pipelines have to be built, and seawater desalination plants have to be built.
Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan. The level of consumption is equal to the amount of available water resources. But with the development of the economy and industry, there is an extremely high risk that fresh water consumption will increase, which means that fresh water resources will be depleted.
Iran uses 70% of its renewable freshwater resources.
The whole of North Africa is also under threat - 50% of fresh water resources are used.

At first glance, the problems may seem to be specific to dry countries. However, it is not. The greatest deficit is observed in hot countries with high population densities. These are mostly developing countries, which means we can expect further growth in consumption.

For example, the Asian region has the largest area of freshwater bodies, and the continent of Australia has the smallest. At the same time, a resident of Australia is provided with resources more than 10 times better than a resident of the Asian region. This is due to differences in population density - 3 billion residents of the Asian region versus 30 million in Australia.

Nature management

Depletion of fresh water supplies is leading to severe shortages in more than 80 countries around the world. The decline in reserves affects the economic growth and social well-being of a number of countries. The solution to the problem is to search for new sources, since reducing consumption will not significantly change the situation. The share of annual depletion of fresh water in the world is, according to various estimates, from 0.1% to 0.3%. This is quite a lot, if you remember that not all freshwater sources are available for immediate use.

Estimates show that there are countries (mainly the Middle East and North Africa) in which reserves are being depleted slowly, but water is inaccessible due to pollution - more than 95% of fresh water is not suitable for drinking, this volume requires careful and technologically complex treatment.

It makes no sense to hope that the population’s needs will decrease – consumption only grows every year. As of 2015, more than 2 billion people were limited in consumption, food or household, to one degree or another. According to the most optimistic forecasts, with the same consumption, fresh water reserves on Earth will last until 2025. Afterwards, all countries with a population of more than 3 million people will find themselves in a zone of serious shortages. There are almost 50 such countries. This number shows that more than 25% of countries will find themselves in deficit conditions.

As for the situation in the Russian Federation, there is enough fresh water in Russia; the Russian region will be one of the last to face shortage problems. But this does not mean that the state should not take part in the international regulation of this problem.

Ecological problems

Freshwater resources on the planet are distributed unevenly - this leads to a pronounced shortage in specific regions, along with population density. It is clear that it is impossible to solve this problem. But we can deal with another problem – the pollution of existing freshwater bodies. The main contaminants are salts of heavy metals, products of the oil refining industry, and chemical reagents. The liquid contaminated by them requires additional expensive treatment.

Water reserves on Earth are also being depleted due to human intervention in hydraulic circulation. Thus, the construction of dams led to a drop in water levels in rivers such as the Mississippi, Yellow River, Volga, and Dnieper. The construction of hydroelectric power plants provides cheap electricity, but damages freshwater sources.

A modern strategy to combat shortages is desalination, which is becoming increasingly common, especially in eastern countries. And this despite the high cost and energy intensity of the process. At the moment, the technology is fully justified, allowing natural reserves to be replenished with artificial ones. But the technological capacity may not be enough for desalination if depletion of fresh water reserves continues at the same pace.

About 1500 million cubic kilometers of water are found on our planet, of which approximately 10% is fresh water.

Moreover, from 110 to 190 million cubic kilometers of water is located under the earth’s crust, these are underground reservoirs. And depending on how deep these are sources of water on earth, they are divided into surface and underground waters.

Water pools, located underground at depths from tens to hundreds of meters, are peculiar vessels surrounded by solid rock in which water is under high pressure. Water reservoirs that accumulate at depths of several meters are a favorable basis for wells from which people get water for domestic needs, but such water also has the disadvantage that due to its constant contact with the upper loose layers of the soil, it is dirtier than the water which is much deeper.

A huge source of water on earth are our glaciers located in Antarctica and Greenland. This is in the area of 20 to 30 million cubic kilometers of fresh water. A considerable amount of fresh water falls to the earth from the atmosphere, in the form of precipitation formed due to evaporation from natural water sources on earth, this is approximately another 13 thousand cubic kilometers.

And how much fresh water is obtained annually from the world’s oceans using various physical and chemical methods. Undoubtedly, the most used sources of water on earth for their needs by humanity today are, first of all, rivers and lakes. What is it worth - the largest (and cleanest in the world) natural fresh water storage facility in Russia, the volume of which is 20 thousand cubic kilometers of water.

The composition of water in Lake Baikal is approximately as follows:

Arsenic contains about 0.3 µg/l (MPC = 10 µg/l)

Lead around 0.7 µg/l (MPC = 10)

Mercury within 0.1 μg/l (MPC = 1)

Cadmium approximately 0.02 µg/l (MPC = 1),

6 thousand cubic kilometers of water on our planet is in you and me, living organisms, animals and plants. Thus, our water natural resources are distributed throughout the planet. You and I are 80% liquid, and a violation of the water balance leads to dire consequences. We do not pay attention to how we exchange liquid with nature through urine, sweat and exhaled tiny droplets of liquid. But in order for all this to take place, we draw this liquid from nature.

And no one wondered what if this exchange stopped? In this case, dehydration occurs - dehydration of the body. The person begins to feel weak, the heart rate increases, shortness of breath and dizziness appear. When the body loses about 10% of fluid from body weight, a person loses consciousness, his speech is impaired, and his hearing and vision also deteriorate. If fluid loss amounts to 15-20% of body weight, then irreversible processes occur in the cardiovascular and nervous systems, leading to death.

To imagine how much water there is on Earth, you first need to imagine what a volume of water of one cubic kilometer might look like. It is in this value that water reserves on earth are measured. So, the volume of all water on our planet is 1500,000,000 km3. It is no coincidence that the Earth is called the blue planet; from space it is seen as a blue ball with spots of land. Fresh water reserves account for about 10% of the total reserve, and only a small part of fresh water is found in surface waters. The main supply of fresh water is located in the earth's crust. About 190 million km3 are concentrated there. Sometimes groundwater is located at a distance of tens to hundreds of kilometers from the surface of the earth - deep underground waters. This water is under significant pressure underground. Rivers, lakes, springs and other waters that are close to the surface of the earth are called surface waters. Such waters have a significant difference from deep waters - accessibility, such waters are easy to extract, and often they themselves accumulate in various reservoirs and wells. However, such waters are less protected from pollution, since they are constantly in contact with the soil. Another mass of fresh water, difficult to obtain, but a huge reserve for earthlings (20-30 million km3), is concentrated in glaciers Antarctica, Greenland, islands of the Arctic Ocean. Fresh water is also found in atmospheric precipitation- rain and snow. People also learned desalinate water seas and oceans, but so far this is rarely practiced. Although in some eastern countries you can find sea water in latrines, its use for such purposes is rather an exception than a natural development.

The main sources of fresh water were and remain rivers and lakes. The largest lake reservoir is Lake Baikal, which contains 20 thousand km3 of water. The water of this lake is considered the cleanest lake water, it has a very low percentage of dissolved and suspended minerals, practically no organic impurities, but a lot of oxygen. The water of Baikal is so clean that you can easily see the stones lying even at a depth of 40 m.

Fresh water is divided into two types according to its chemical composition: fresh water itself and mineral water.

Fresh water is never found in nature as absolutely pure; being a universal solvent, it always contains a certain percentage of minerals and contaminants, and therefore must be effectively purified before consumption. Tap water undergoes some purification before entering our homes, but most often this is not enough, so household water purification filters should be used.

Mineral water is divided into four groups according to the content of mineral components in it:

Mineral medicinal waters with mineralization over 8 g/l, such water should be taken as prescribed by a doctor.
Mineral medicinal table waters with mineralization from 2 to 8 g/l. They can be used as a drink, but not in large quantities. It is also recommended to consult your doctor first. Among our popular medicinal table waters are Narzan and Borjomi.
Mineral table waters containing 1-2 g/l of mineral elements.
Table waters with mineralization less than a gram.

Mineral water acquired its medicinal qualities over a long period, being enriched with healing minerals from special rocks located next to underground water reservoirs. According to its pH indicator, it can be acidic, alkaline or neutral. The name of the water also contains the basic composition, for example, sodium chloride or sulfate chloride.

The groundwater.

Artesian springs These are deep water sources. They are well protected from industrial, agricultural and bacterial contamination. To gain access to artesian water, special drilling rigs are used; steel pipes are lowered to the well, which, under the influence of powerful pumps, bring artesian water to the surface through a pipeline. During the delivery of water to the surface, contaminants can penetrate into it, and such water can often contain an unfavorable mineral composition for humans. Therefore, such water must be purified using industrial or household filters.

Spring water- water from springs and springs that make their way to the surface of the earth from the bowels of the earth. Such water can be fresh or mineral. Often in our latitudes, temples were built next to large springs, and the spring was improved to make it convenient for people to collect water. Now the springs may be closing because the water quality is significantly deteriorating due to nearby soil contamination. In large cities with especially dirty water, bottled spring water is in demand, which is taken from places located far outside the city limits, factories and landfills. The quality of such water is regularly monitored by sanitary services. However, using bottled water, of course, is not as convenient or effective as tap water purified with high-quality water filters.

Surface waters.

Well water is still actively used in rural areas; a pit of no more than 10 meters can sometimes provide the entire village with water. There is a great danger in using such water: all types of agricultural waste (pesticides, nitrites, nitrates, heavy metals) get into well water through the soil.

No more than 10% of all fresh water used is usually spent on human household needs; industry and agriculture use the remaining 90%. For example, to get a kilogram of sugar, a person spends about 200 liters. of water, the production of a kilogram of synthetic rubber is about 2400 liters. Every year, global spending increases; in everyday life, people use appliances that consume more water - for example, dishwashers use twice as much water per load as when a person washes dishes by hand. Industrial development also entails additional costs.

Before water from lakes, rivers and underground sources comes into use, it is treated, after industrial or domestic use, the water is also purified to return to rivers and lakes. Tap water has usually already been used several times before it reaches our home.

Obviously, rivers and lakes remain the most convenient way to obtain water. People have always sought to build their cities near large rivers and lakes, and now the water needs of cities are served by surface water. Drilling deep wells that could supply large volumes of water to large cities could lead to an environmental disaster. The insufficient amount of fresh water resources in some areas of the world will sooner or later lead to an appeal to the world's ocean water reserves and the active practice of desalination using

Of the total amount of water on Earth, fresh water, so necessary for humanity, amounts to a little more than 2% of the total volume of the hydrosphere or 37526.3 thousand km3 (Table 1).

Table 1

World fresh water reserves

It should be taken into account that the bulk of fresh water (about 70%) is frozen in polar ice, permafrost, and on mountain peaks. Water in rivers and lakes makes up only 3%, or 0.016% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. Thus, water suitable for human use constitutes an insignificant part of the total water reserves on Earth. The problem is further complicated by the fact that the distribution of fresh water around the globe is extremely uneven. Europe and Asia, where 70% of the world's population lives, contain only 39% of river flows.

There are more and more places on Earth where fresh water is sorely lacking. To obtain additional water, deep wells are drilled, water pipelines, aqueducts and new reservoirs are built.

We obtain fresh water either from underground aquifers or from surface reservoirs, that is, from natural lakes and rivers or from man-made reservoirs. At the same time, the share of surface waters was about 80%, and groundwater about 20%. This increase in water consumption is determined mainly by increased industrial needs and irrigation costs.

There are other ways to obtain water suitable for drinking. In some industrialized areas, desalting, or desalinating, seawater by some means, such as distillation, can make even ocean water drinkable. Where water is very scarce, people collect rainwater in cisterns to use it for their needs. However, increasing water supplies in this expensive way is negligible. In general, people rely heavily on fresh groundwater and surface water as sources of drinking water.

A dam across a river stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir. It allows only enough water to flow through the spillways to ensure it flows downstream, and retains the water upstream in order to gradually release it later when the flow pressure decreases. The reservoir increases the amount of water available to humans and the surrounding environment. Without a reservoir, sustainable use of river resources is not possible, and from a reservoir any city can constantly draw the required amount of water without interruption.

Thus, ground reservoirs equalize the flow of fresh water over time; by collecting large amounts of it in favorable seasons, it makes water available during periods when there is a shortage. In contrast, aquifers are natural underground reservoirs that hold water until it reaches the surface waters of lakes and rivers. Aquifers can be huge, stretching for hundreds of kilometers; The volumes of water in such horizons are enormous.

The quality of water from surface reservoirs differs from groundwater. Surface waters always contain various suspensions, some of which settle to the bottom, while others remain in the water. In addition, surface waters usually contain organic compounds that enter with urban and agricultural runoff. Therefore, if surface water is used for drinking purposes, it must undergo a complete purification cycle. Surface water treatment is necessary to remove unpleasant tastes, colors and odors, as well as to make the water clear and free of hazardous chemicals and pathogens.

Water extracted from aquifers is much cleaner, especially if the aquifer has not been exploited for a long time or has not been severely depleted. In addition, groundwater contains a large amount of dissolved mineral salts. There are no algae in groundwater because it is deprived of sunlight. Water reaches the aquifer, seeping through thick layers of soil; the content of bacteria and viruses in it is much lower than in above-ground waters. However, groundwater is characterized by the odor of hydrogen sulfide, which results from the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria, which occurs in the absence of oxygen.

Groundwater may be contaminated with chemicals, petroleum products and microorganisms found in significant quantities on the surface of the earth. Since the change of water in aquifers occurs extremely slowly, often taking several centuries, various microorganisms can accumulate in it and chemical elements can concentrate. Therefore, groundwater can be an extremely unreliable source of drinking water supply - the entry of various pollutants into it can make it unfit for entire generations. Reservoirs are of two types: single-purpose and multi-purpose. Single-purpose reservoirs perform only one function, such as storing state water reserves. And this function is relatively simple - to release only the amount of water that is necessary. The state water reserve includes water for drinking and domestic needs, for industrial purposes, as well as for irrigation. Multi-purpose reservoirs can serve a variety of purposes: public water storage, irrigation and navigation; they can also be used for recreation, for generating electricity, for flood protection and for environmental protection.

Irrigation water is intended to provide crops, its use is often seasonal, with high costs during the hot season. The navigability of rivers can be maintained by constant release of water throughout the year. Electricity production requires both constant water discharges and high water levels. Flood protection requires that the reservoir be maintained as much as possible without being completely full. Environmental protection measures involve the release of water during low levels in order to protect aquatic and semi-aquatic species of plants and animals. These water discharges dilute the wastewater, making it less toxic to biota. They also help push salt water out of estuaries, supporting suitable habitat for purely estuarine species.

The processes in reservoirs used for these diverse purposes are much more complex than those in single-purpose reservoirs because some of these purposes conflict with each other. Reservoirs can have significant impacts on the environment.

Groundwater performs a more limited set of functions than surface water. In many cities, groundwater is the only source of water supply. In rural areas, where the cost of constructing and expanding the water distribution system is very high, people rely on wells to meet their water needs. Groundwater is also used for irrigation; This is a common practice in agricultural areas where surface water is scarce or where irrigation canals are prohibitively expensive to construct.

Groundwater performs another rather invisible and not yet fully appreciated function. They feed and often prevent streams and small rivers from drying out in summer, which can be used as a source of water.

In fact, in the world's freshwater resources, groundwater resources far exceed surface water resources (Table 1). However, the idea of unlimited supplies is deceptive, because groundwater accumulates very slowly over hundreds and even thousands of years. The rate of groundwater extraction does not correspond to the rate of influx of new volumes of water; refilling of the aquifer occurs as a result of the same slow, constant seepage that occurred in the past. In addition, groundwater deeper than 0.8 km often contains too much salt to be used as drinking and irrigation water.

Using groundwater provides a number of benefits to consumers. Firstly, since groundwater is sometimes located close to the point of its use, it is possible to save on laying pipes, and often on the cost of pumping. Secondly, it is possible to ensure a stable water output over time in both dry and wet seasons. This benefit, however, may be illusory if the aquifer is depleted by successive over-pumpings. Third, in underdeveloped areas, groundwater is usually not susceptible to bacterial, viral or chemical contamination.

There are exceptions to these general quality characteristics. Groundwater may become contaminated with chemicals and microorganisms. If pathogens get into groundwater, they can remain there for many generations, since the change of water in aquifers occurs extremely slowly, often taking several hundred years. Another negative factor is that, as wells get deeper, the amount of “tasty” water begins to decrease. The water pumped from great depths is ancient water that has been dissolving mineral salts from the soil, perhaps over thousands of years. We call such waters saturated with mineral salts mineralized. If the salt content is high, then the water will not contribute to increasing yields and may even destroy the soil and plants.

How much water can be withdrawn from an aquifer without causing damage to its reserves? As with reservoirs, this amount depends on the flow of water into the aquifer. Annual water withdrawals should not exceed annual aquifer recharge - unless water users want the volume of water in the aquifer to begin to decline. In some areas, the rate of water withdrawal exceeds the rate of replenishment, and water levels in aquifers are falling. In desert areas, rainfall is known to only occasionally replenish the aquifer. Over many years, evaporation causes most of the surface water to escape into the atmosphere. Only in particularly wet years is there enough water for some of it to replenish the aquifer. Since aquifers recharge very slowly, it would seem wise to avoid any long-term use of groundwater where water is withdrawn at a rate faster than its natural replenishment rate. Irrigated agriculture, which consumes groundwater much faster than it can be replenished, should be actively avoided.

Despite the fact that new sources of water are becoming fewer and fewer, it is often possible to satisfy the growing needs for it. One obvious way to do this is to encourage people to save water. This can be achieved, in particular, by increasing the price for water, since then people will look for ways to save it. You can save money everywhere: at home, in industry and in agriculture.

Another way to meet growing water demands without creating new sources is to connect and share existing systems. Integrated use of ground and surface waters is necessary. Since the supply of surface water is not as constant as that of groundwater, i.e. the available quantity of the former may change at different times, groundwater can be used to “fill in” periods of water shortage. Groundwater compensates for the lack of surface water, stabilizing its supply at a higher level without extensive use of the groundwater itself.

In many areas it is often possible to store water without causing significant damage to nature; To do this, it is necessary to plan water resources management that coordinates the actions of already existing reservoirs. Modern engineering science has found methods to control independent river systems by combining them in such a way that the yield of water from such systems exceeds that obtained when they are used independently. This means that the reservoirs that make up the system are able to consistently produce more water if their release is synchronized and integrated than if each were controlled individually. Create integrated systems of the main water sources of the region in order to prevent possible disruptions in water supply. If communications were combined, then areas with excess water could give some of it to those areas that did not have enough water. Connecting reservoirs into a single system and unified management of them are innovations that can preserve sufficient water supplies for future generations without requiring new sources and new dams.

Many projects have been adopted to increase water supply, which include the construction of new dams to create water reserves and prevent floods, new canals, hydropower plants, purification of reservoirs and transfer of water from one area to another. One such step is the construction of small dams on rivers owned by farmers; the resulting ponds can be used as a source of water for irrigation. In areas with porous soil, pond systems can be built on private land using dams. Water, filtering through such soil, will replenish the groundwater supply under the farm. Ditches dug across the direction of flowing surface and groundwater can also be used to recharge groundwater.

A new technology, tested only experimentally so far, is the injection of compressed air into wells in order to “push” water from the unsaturated zone down to the groundwater level. This water, held by capillary forces in the upper unsaturated zone, usually percolates very slowly down to the aquifer.

The legislative basis for the water fund of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the Water Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan; let’s look at some provisions.

Article 6. Water resources

Water resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan represent reserves of surface and groundwater concentrated in water bodies that are used or can be used. Article 13. Groundwater bodies

Groundwater bodies include:

1. aquifer zones, horizons and rock complexes;

2. groundwater pool;

3. deposits and areas of groundwater;

4. natural outlet of groundwater on land or under water;

5. flooded areas of the subsoil.

Article 34. Basic principles of public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation. Public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation is based on the principles:

1. state regulation and control in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation;

2. sustainable water use - a combination of careful, rational and integrated use and protection of water;

3. creating optimal conditions for water use, maintaining environmental sustainability and sanitary and epidemiological safety of the population;

4. basin management;

5. separation of functions of state control and management in the field of use and protection of water resources and functions of economic use of water resources.

Article 35. The main tasks of public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation The main tasks of public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation are:

1. analysis and assessment of water supply to economic sectors, the state of water supply and sanitation of populated areas, identification of deficiencies and determination of measures to eliminate them;

2. determination of the available volumes of water resources, their quality and the availability of rights to use them;

3. development of main directions for improving technologies in the field of water supply, sanitation and water protection;

4. forecast and organization of measures to increase the volume of available water resources and their rational redistribution for

covering water shortages;

5. establishing a water use structure with the distribution of water resources according to the priority of meeting water needs depending on the water availability of the year;

6. limiting water use and discharge of return water based on scientifically based standards;

7. planning and compliance with environmental requirements;

8. control over the quantitative and qualitative conditions of water bodies and the regime of water use;

9. effective management of water bodies and water management facilities owned by the state;

10. development of the water services market;

11. joint management with neighboring states in the field of use and protection of transboundary waters;

12. development and implementation of industry (sectoral) and regional programs for land reclamation;

13. ensuring the safety of water management systems and structures;

14. control over the condition of water management systems and structures, as well as their compliance with the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Article 53. Industrial control in the field of use and protection of water resources.

1. Production control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is carried out on the basis of the rules of primary water accounting, approved by the authorized body, in agreement with the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized state body in the field industrial safety.

2. Industrial control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is ensured by individuals and legal entities exercising the right to special water use.

3. Production control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is carried out on the basis of water metering devices certified in the manner established by the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On Technical Regulation.”

Article 54. State expertise in the field of use and protection of water resources

1. In the field of use and protection of the water fund, the following types of state expertise are carried out:

1.1 state examination of activities affecting the condition of the water body;

1.2 state examination of pre-project and design documentation for construction and reconstruction, operation, conservation and liquidation of economic and other facilities affecting the condition of water bodies;

1.3 state examination of groundwater reserves and geological information about groundwater bodies;

1.4 state examination of the compliance of water management and industrial hydraulic structures with the requirements of emergency situations;

1.5 state sanitary-epidemiological and environmental examinations.

2. State examination of activities affecting the condition of a water body is carried out to assess the impact of this activity on the environment and the management and economic decisions made. State examination of activities affecting the condition of a water body is mandatory.

3. State examination of pre-project and design documentation for construction and reconstruction, operation, conservation and liquidation of economic and other facilities affecting the state of water bodies is carried out in order to verify its compliance with the initial data, technical conditions and requirements of regulatory documents approved by the authorized state body for Affairs of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction and the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.

4. State examination of groundwater reserves and geological information about groundwater bodies is carried out by the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil.

5. State examination of the compliance of water management and industrial hydraulic structures with the requirements of emergency situations is carried out by the authorized body in the field of emergency situations and the authorized body in the field of industrial safety.

6. State sanitary-epidemiological and environmental examinations are carried out respectively by the authorized body in the field of sanitary-epidemiological welfare of the population and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection.

7. The procedure for conducting state examination is determined by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Article 55. Environmental requirements for the use of water bodies and water management structures

1. The placement of enterprises and other objects (buildings, structures, their complexes, communications) affecting the condition of water bodies is carried out in compliance with environmental requirements, conditions and rules, subsoil protection, sanitary-epidemiological, industrial safety, reproduction and rational use of water resources , as well as taking into account the environmental consequences of the activities of these facilities.

2. Construction, reconstruction (expansion, modernization, technical re-equipment, repurposing), operation, conservation, liquidation (post-utilization) of objects affecting the condition of water bodies are carried out subject to a positive conclusion from the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population and the authorized body in the field of industrial safety.

3. When carrying out construction work, measures are taken for land reclamation, reproduction and rational use of water resources, landscaping and environmental improvement.

Article 56. Requirements for reducing the discharge of pollutants into water bodies:

1. The use and protection of water resources are based on the standardization of pollutants at discharge points, on the cumulative standardization of water management activities of all organizations within the relevant basin, watercourse or area.

2. Requirements for the degree of purification and quality of discharged water are determined in the areas of possible intended use of the water body and are justified by calculations, and must take into account the real state of the water body, technical and economic capabilities and the timing of achieving the planned indicators.

3. The authorized body, together with the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection for the basin of each water body, is obliged to develop target indicators of the condition and criteria of water quality.

4. The timing of the phased transition to target indicators of the condition of water bodies within the basin is determined by basin departments and territorial bodies of the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection on the basis of a methodology approved by the authorized body together with the authorized state body in the field of protection environment and the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil.

Article 64. Types of water use, emergence of water use rights

1. Water use is divided into general, special, separate, joint, primary, secondary, permanent and temporary.

2. The right to general water use for a citizen arises from the moment of his birth and cannot be alienated under any circumstances.

3. The right to special water use arises from the moment of receipt of a permit issued in the manner established by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Chapter 16. Drinking and domestic water supply.

Article 90. Use of water bodies and water management structures for drinking and domestic water supply

1. For drinking and domestic water supply, surface and underground water bodies and water management facilities protected from pollution and clogging are provided, the water quality of which complies with established state standards and hygienic standards.

2. In order to provide the population with water suitable for drinking water supply, in the event of emergencies of a natural and man-made nature, the reservation of sources of drinking water supply is carried out on the basis of underground water bodies protected from pollution and clogging. At reserved water supply sources, a special regime of protection and control over their condition is established in accordance with the water and other legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

3. The safety of surface and groundwater for drinking and domestic water supply is determined by the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.

4. The classification of a water body as a source of drinking water supply is carried out taking into account its reliability and the possibility of organizing sanitary protection zones in the manner established by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5. In areas where there are no surface water bodies, but there are sufficient supplies of underground water of drinking quality, local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital) in agreement with the authorized body, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil may, with appropriate justification, allow the use of these waters for purposes not related to drinking and domestic water supply.

6. Water supply in city districts, cities of regional significance, towns, auls (villages) of aul (rural) district is organized by akims of these territories.

Article 91. Centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population

1. Centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population is carried out by legal entities that have an appropriate water supply network.

2. Legal entities providing centralized drinking and domestic water supply are obliged to organize accounting of the water taken, conduct regular monitoring of the state of water in sources and water supply systems, immediately report to local representative and executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital), the authorized body , the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil about the deviation of water quality in sources and water supply systems from established state standards and hygienic standards.

Article 92. Decentralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population

1. In case of non-centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population, individuals and legal entities have the right to take water directly from surface and underground water bodies in the presence of a positive conclusion from the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population as a whole for these water bodies with mandatory registration in local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital) in the manner established by the authorized body in the field of use and protection of the water fund. Decentralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population does not require obtaining a permit for special water use when drawing water from water bodies in a volume of up to fifty cubic meters per day.

2. Water intake from surface and underground water bodies for non-centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population is carried out in accordance with the rules approved by local representative bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital), on the proposal of local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital ), in agreement with the authorized body and the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.

Article 93. Use of water bodies for recreational purposes

1. Water bodies, the resources of which have natural healing properties, as well as favorable for treatment and prophylactic purposes, belong to the category of health-improving ones and are used for health-improving purposes in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

2. The list of water bodies for recreational purposes, upon submission of the authorized body in the field of healthcare, the authorized body, the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil, is approved:

2.1 of republican significance - by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan;

2.2 of local significance - by local executive bodies of regions (city of republican significance, capital).

2.3. The provision of recreational water bodies for use is carried out in accordance with this Code and the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Article 95. Use of water bodies and water management structures for agricultural needs

1. The use of water bodies for agricultural needs is carried out in the order of general and special water use.

2. Primary water users, based on the water use plans of secondary water users, draw up annual applications for receiving water volumes. The authorized body, taking into account the predicted water availability of the year and based on applications from primary water users, sets water use limits for them. The volumes of water supplies for secondary water users are determined by agreements concluded between primary and secondary water users, taking into account established limits.

3. Individuals and legal entities that have water management facilities for storing melt, storm and flood waters for the purpose of using them for agricultural needs are required to have a permit from the authorized body.

4. The use of surface and underground water bodies for watering pastures is carried out in accordance with the procedure for special water use.

5. The use of water bodies for watering livestock is permitted outside the sanitary protection zone and in the presence of watering areas and other devices that prevent pollution and clogging of water bodies in the manner of general water use.

6. Individuals running private farms, gardening and vegetable gardening are allocated water for irrigation as a special water use in accordance with established limits. In the absence of sufficient water resources, water for irrigation can be allocated by redistributing the limits of other water users.

7. Irrigation, drainage, washing of saline soils and other reclamation works should be carried out in conjunction with environmental measures. Monitoring and assessment of the reclamation state of irrigated lands is carried out by specialized government agencies at the expense of budgetary funds.

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Fresh water sources

Fresh water resources exist thanks to the eternal water cycle. As a result of evaporation, a gigantic volume of water is formed, reaching 525 thousand km 3 per year.

The rate of renewal determines the resources available to humanity. Most of the fresh water - 85% - is concentrated in the ice of the polar zones and glaciers. The rate of water exchange here is less than in the ocean and amounts to 8000 years. Surface waters on land renew themselves approximately 500 times faster than in the ocean. River waters are renewed even faster, in about 10-12 days. Fresh waters from rivers are of greatest practical importance to humanity. Rivers have always been a source of fresh water. But in the modern era, they began to transport waste. Waste in the catchment area flows along river beds into the seas and oceans. Most of the used river water is returned to rivers and reservoirs in the form of wastewater. Fresh water reserves are potentially large. However, in any area of the world they can be depleted due to unsustainable water use or pollution. The volume of water consumed depends on the region and standard of living and ranges from 3 to 700 liters per day per person. Industrial water consumption also depends on the economic development of the area. For example, in Canada, industry consumes 84% of all water intake, and in India - 1%. The most water-intensive industries are steel, chemicals, petrochemicals, pulp and paper, and food processing. They consume almost 70% of all water spent in industry. On average, industry uses approximately 20% of all water consumed worldwide. The main consumer of fresh water is agriculture: 70-80% of all fresh water is used for its needs.

The total flow of rivers in the CIS (USSR) per year is 4,720 km 3 . But water resources are distributed extremely unevenly. In the most populated regions, where up to 80% of industrial production resides and 90% of land suitable for agriculture is located, the share of water resources is only 20%. Many areas of the country are insufficiently supplied with water. These are the south and southeast of the European part of the CIS, the Caspian lowland, the south of Western Siberia and Kazakhstan, and some other regions of Central Asia, the south of Transbaikalia, and Central Yakutia.

Groundwater group divided into:

1. Artesian waters, which are raised to the surface from underground space with the help of pumps. They can lie underground in several layers or so-called tiers, which are completely protected from each other. The chemical composition of water generally remains constant.

2. Infiltration water. This water is extracted by pumps from wells whose depth corresponds to the bottom marks of a stream, river or lake.

3. Spring water. About underground water that flows naturally onto the surface of the earth.

Surface water:

1. River water. River water is the most susceptible to pollution, and therefore is the least suitable for drinking water supply. It is polluted by waste products of people and animals. To an even greater extent, river water is polluted by incoming wastewater from workshops and industrial enterprises. . The preparation of river water for drinking water supply purposes is also difficult due to strong fluctuations in the pollution of river water, both in quantitative terms and in composition.

2. Lake water. This water, even extracted from great depths, is extremely rarely impeccable in biological terms and therefore must undergo special purification to drinkable conditions.

3. Water from reservoirs. We are talking about water from small rivers and streams that are dammed in the upper reaches, where the water is least polluted. Water from reservoirs is categorized in the same way as Lake water. In all cases, when choosing the method and volume of necessary water treatment measures, the decisive factor is how heavily this water is polluted and how high the self-purifying ability of this “drinking water storage” is.

4. Sea water. Sea water cannot be supplied to the drinking water supply network without desalting. It is mined and water treated only off the sea coast and on islands, if it is not possible to use another source of water supply.

Water consumption problem. The main condition for human existence is the consumption of sufficient water. The current situation is due to the fact that surface waters are mainly used as water sources, constituting only 1% of all fresh water reserves on Earth. In addition, it has been found that within 1 year, 50% of the world's river flow passes through various types of human activities, which include meeting household needs, industrial production and crop irrigation (

Human water consumption, km 3 /year

For most of the development of human civilization during the 18th centuries, the daily human requirement was limited to 5 to 49 liters per day. The main reason for limited water consumption was the presence of pathogenic microbes, which were the cause of epidemics:

· Typhoid, cholera, dysentery, poliomelitis, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, due to consumption of contaminated drinking water.

· Trachoma, leprosy, and other diseases of the skin and mucous membrane when washing with contaminated water.

· Malaria, yellow fever, due to the presence of infection carriers in the water.

Water consumption for drinking purposes increased sharply after the advent of the first centralized water treatment systems in the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe and Russia and has now reached 200-300 liters per day per person.

However, in 1985, only 1.1 billion people were supplied with clean tap water at this level, while 0.8 billion people received 110 liters/day-person through water standpipes, and the rest of humanity (4 billion) is content with the norm of 50-60 l/day-person. Nevertheless, in general, over the 20th century, human water consumption increased on average 20 times. The main consumption of drinking water is associated with compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards. spring artesian water infiltration

Structure of water consumption for domestic purposes of the urban population

Thus, in order to provide the population with drinking water (in each region of the Russian Federation), it is necessary to solve the problem of managing water quality both in water sources and in treatment plants. It is obvious that the choice of technology for water treatment and wastewater treatment will be made by comparing data on water quality with their characteristics.

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