Plains- These are land areas that have a flat surface. The plains are divided into lowlands And hills

Lowlands appear on the map in green, and highlands appear in yellow and light brown.

The Polesie Lowland is located in the north of Ukraine. Its surface is swampy, mainly with low elevations - hills. In the northeast it is continued by the Dnieper Lowland. Its territory is hilly with many ravines and gullies. That's why the surface seems exciting. The south of Ukraine is occupied by the Black Sea Lowland

On the territory of Ukraine there are hills: Volyn, Podolsk, Dnieper, Donetsk and Azov. These are also plains. But on them the elevation sometimes reaches about 500 m. There are often ravines and gullies.

So on the plains are hills, ravines And beams

Yar is a large depression with steep slopes on the surface of the Earth

How is it formed? Melt or rainwater flows down the slopes of a hill or sloping area in streams. This first creates a small groove in the soil. Over the years, it deepens and turns into a ravine.

For many years, the steep slopes of ravines are overgrown with plants, and the ravines turn into beams

Mountains- these are areas of the earth's surface raised high above the plains

On Earth, single mountains are rare. More often they stretch in rows. A number of mountains are called mountain range. Between the mountain ranges there are picturesque valleys and turbulent mountain rivers flow

depending on the height of the mountain there are low, medium And high. Low mountains are mountains with a height of 500 to 800 m. The height of medium mountains is from 800 to 2000 m. Mountains with a height of more than 2000 m are called high

The Carpathian Mountains stretch in the western part of Ukraine. They are medium-sized mountains with rounded peaks. Only the highest peak of the Carpathians - Mount Hoverla - has a height of 2061 m.

On the Crimean peninsula, the Crimean Mountains rise in an arc. their highest peak is Mount Roman-Kosh - 1545 m high.

Springs, rivers, lakes, swamps, seas, rates And reservoirs are bodies of water sushi. If they occur in nature, they are called natural, created by man - artificial

Source- this is the place where underground water flows to the surface of the earth

Some rain and melt water seeps into the ground. It easily passes through soil and sand, but is retained by clay. There the water collects in underground lakes. In places where the clay approaches the surface of the earth, water flows to the surface. Springs form at the bottom of ravines, gullies, on hillsides, and steep river banks. The spring water is cold and clean. After all, it passes through a layer of sand and is cleared of impurities

Rivers of Ukraine

Every river has a leak- the place where it begins. The leak could be a spring, a lake, a swamp, or a glacier in the mountains. Separate streams merge and give rise to a river. On its way, it takes in the water of other rivers - its own. tributaries The depression through which a river flows is called along the riverbed The place where a river flows into another body of water is its mouth. Rivers flow into lakes, seas, oceans and other rivers

Every river has left and right banks. To identify them, you need to face in the direction of the current. The right bank will be on the right, and the left bank will be on the left

One of the large lowland rivers of Ukraine is Dnieper. Its largest tributaries are the Pripyat, Desna, Psel, Vorskla, Samara. The Dnieper originates in Russia and flows through Belarus. But it is wide and long in Ukraine. The Dnieper majestically carries its waters from north to south. The banks of the Dnieper and its tributaries are most picturesque

In the south of our country, a full-flowing river ends its journey Danube. It crosses many European countries on its way.

Dniester originates in the Carpathians. It flows through the western part of Ukraine. During periods of rain or snow melt in the mountains, this mountain river becomes very stormy and overflows its banks.

The largest rivers of Ukraine also include Southern Bug And Seversky Donets

Lakes and swamps of Ukraine

Lake- a body of water that occurs in natural depressions on the surface of the Earth

Lakes can be large and small, deep and shallow, with fresh or salt water. Water flows out of flowing lakes, but only flows into drainless lakes. Lakes are replenished with water from rivers, underground springs, rain and melt water

There are about 20 thousand lakes on the territory of Ukraine. They form lake edges. The Polesie Lowland is the richest lake in the world. There are the famous Shatsk lakes, and among them is a lake Svityaz

In the Carpathian Mountains, most lakes are small but deep. The water in them is fresh, clean and cold. Mountain lakes are amazingly beautiful. The lake is especially famous Synevyr

On the Podolsk Upland the lakes are small and shallow. In summer they warm up well. They have a variety of plants and animals.

Many lakes formed near the Danube River. The largest fresh lake among them is Yalpug, and the deepest thing is Cahul

On the Black Sea coast there are estuary lakes with salt water. Crimea is rich in salt lakes. The most famous is Lake Sivash, from which table salt is extracted. Many Crimean lakes dry up in summer

Gradually, lakes, especially small ones, silt up, become overgrown with plants and eventually turn into swamps.

Swamp- an area of ​​excessively moist Earth's surface. Moisture-loving plants grow on it

Areas of land where water stagnates after rains, river floods, or melting snow can also turn into swamps.

In Ukraine there are more swamps in the Polesie Lowland.

Sea- this is the part of the ocean that crashes into land

All seas are connected to oceans. The water in the seas is salty and bitter.

In the south of Ukraine it is washed by the Black Sea. In the southwest is the Sea of ​​Azov. These are the seas of the Atlantic Ocean

Black Sea connected to the Sea of ​​Azov by the Kerch Strait. The Black Sea is deep and warm, the average depth is 1256 m, and the greatest is 2245 m. In summer, the water temperature is 22 °. 25 ° C, and in winter 6 ° ... 8 ° C. Almost all major rivers of Ukraine flow into the Black Sea

Sea of ​​Azov less than Black. It is very small. Its greatest depth is 15 m. In the summer in the Sea of ​​Azov, the water heats up to 30 ° C, but in winter it freezes

Karleba Elena Viktorovna
Municipal educational institution
Gymnasium No. 15 named after N.N. Belousov
Primary school teacher

The world
Lesson summary for 3rd grade
Topic: “Shapes of the Earth’s surface”

Target:
Continue work on developing practical skills in using the globe as a source of information.
Objectives: 1. To introduce students to surface forms - plains and mountains.
2. Development of cognitive interest by searching for additional information in literary sources and reference books.
3. Cultivating an attentive attitude to the world around us.

Equipment and visual aids: textbooks, reading books, notebooks for independent work, colored
pencils, school globes, hemisphere map, physical map, multimedia presentation.

During the classes.
1. Organizational moment
(At the beginning of the school year, the children were divided into groups. Before the lesson began, they sat in their groups).

The lesson begins
It will be useful for the guys,
Try to understand everything
Learn to reveal secrets,
Give complete answers,
To get paid for work
Only the mark “5”!
You will succeed!
2. Updating knowledge
Before the frontal survey, I offer children cards with tasks of different levels /Appendix 3/
Teacher: What is a globe?
Students: Model of the globe.
Teacher: What can you see on the globe?
Students: Seas, rivers, oceans, mountains, continents, cities.
Teacher: What covers most of the Earth's surface?
Students: Water.
Teacher: What is shown in blue on the globe?
Students: Oceans, seas, lakes, rivers.
Teacher: What color are land areas shown on the globe? Pupils: Brown, green, yellow.
Teacher: What are the land areas called?
Students: Continents.
Teacher: How many continents are there on Earth? Name them. Show on the map.

North America Eurasia

South America Africa

Australia
Antarctica

Teacher: What continent is Russia located on?
Pupils: Eurasia.
Teacher: Name the smallest continent. Students: Australia.
Teacher: How many oceans are there on Earth? Name them. Show on the map.

Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere
Arctic Ocean
T
AND
Quiet At X
ocean la i
n Indian Ocean
you
ches
cue
South ocean
Teacher: Which oceans wash the Eurasian continent?
Students: Indian, Pacific, Arctic, Atlantic.

3.Work in groups.
Get to work quickly! Get to work quickly!
Today we have group work!
And the groups have already been distributed.
Meet them, here they are!
(At the beginning of the school year, the children were divided into groups. Each group has its own name.)
Pupils: “Nature”, “Clever Guys”, “Silver Dragon”, “Star”, “Earth”.

Teacher: Assignment: read the questions and find the answers. There is a letter next to the correct answer. By writing the letters in order, you will form a phrase. Which one? We'll find out later. Good luck.
Test (Appendix 1)
Test

Questions.
(Eurasia)
(Australia)
(Southern)
(Antarctica)
5. An ocean in the southern hemisphere through which all meridians pass? (Southern)
6.The hemisphere in which the North Pole is located? (Northern)
(Arctic)
(Africa)
9. What is the largest ocean? (Quiet)
(South America)
(North America)
(Indian)

Answers
A Arctic Ocean N
And the Pacific Ocean
P Southern Ocean O
L Atlantic Ocean b
O Indian Ocean A
In Africa I
U Eurasia B
S Antarctica P
N North America R
b South America U
X Australia C
(If students answered correctly, they will get the following phrases:
“Wow, that’s right!”, “You remember everything, hurray!”).

4. Studying new material. Working with textbooks.
Teacher: Look at the surface of the continents. What is she like? Students: Varied.
Teacher: What do green and brown colors mean?
Students: Mountains and plains.
Teacher: What is the topic of today's lesson?
Pupils: “Shapes of the Earth’s surface.”
Teacher: Yes, that's right! The main forms of the Earth's surface are mountains and plains.
Teacher: What do you know about the plains? What are plains?
Teacher: Read the definition in the dictionary at the end of the textbook.
Teacher: What types of plains are there?
Students: Flat and hilly.
Teacher: Everyone knows that the surface of the Earth is uneven. These irregularities vary in height, shape, size, age and origin.
Teacher: Open the textbook on pages 16-17.
Based on the drawings, tell us what the area is like where Masha and Misha are standing? Who has the better review?
Students: Masha is standing on a flat plain; This is a plain without elevations or depressions. Therefore, Masha has a large view of the open space. She sees a distant forest, a village, country roads and paths. Misha stands on a hilly plain. This is a plain where small rounded elevations (hills) alternate with depressions. Misha has less visibility of the space. He does not see the village; it is hidden by small hills on which bushes grow. There are more such plains on Earth than flat ones.
Teacher: Based on height, plains are divided into lowlands, hills, plateaus, plateaus. Lowlands are areas of land with a flat depression surface. A hill is a flat, elevated area of ​​land with a height of 200m. A plateau is an elevated plain with an undulating surface. Plateau is a vast area of ​​land with an altitude above 500m.
(Difference between plains in height (slide))
Teacher: Find the largest plains in Russia on the globe and tell me what rivers flow through them?
Student: The largest plains in Russia: East European, West Siberian. The Volga, Don, and Dnieper rivers flow along the slightly undulating East European Plain. The West Siberian Plain is very flat. The Ob River flows through this plain.
Teacher: Show the plains on the map. (Children work with globes and show on the map).
(Plains of the world (slide)) The largest plain is the Amazon Lowland in South America. Its area is over 5 million sq. km.
Physical education moment.
They went down to the Black Sea
They bent down and washed.
1,2,3,4
So nicely refreshed.
And now we swam together,
You need to do this manually:
Together - once, this is brass.
One, the other is a rabbit.
All as one - we swim like a dolphin.
Went ashore steep
And we went home.

Learning new material. Working with textbooks.
(continuation)
Teacher: Mountains rise above the surface of the plains. What are mountains? Read it in the dictionary. Mountains have different heights. They are divided into low, medium, high. (slide)
The tops of high mountains are always covered with ice and snow, they have large slopes and deep gorges. The highest mountains on Earth are the Himalayas. (show on map, globe) In the Himalayas, the highest peak in the world is Mount Chomolungma. (Everest) in Eurasia. Its height is 8848m. The longest mountain system is the Andes (length 900 km) and the Cordillera in South and North America.
(The highest peaks of the world (slide))
-Kilimanjaro (Africa)
-Kosciushko (Australia)
-Chomolungma (Eurasia, Himalayas)
-Acongua (South America, Andes)
-Mac - Kingley (North America, Cordillera)

Teacher: Which form of the earth's surface predominates in the Krasnodar region? Here in Sochi?
(Tale about the Caucasus Mountains by a student (Appendix 2),
slide show).
5. Fastening.
Reading stories from the anthology in groups p.25; p.27;
Work in a notebook for independent work p.5, No. 7

Horizontally:
2. Large space of flat surface. (Plain)
4. The lowest part of the hill. (Sole)
Vertically:
1. An elevation more than 200 meters above the surrounding area. (Mountain)
3. The highest point of the hill (Top)
5. Winding sharp decline in terrain (Ravine)
Teacher: Well done! You worked very well in class! Maria Klimuk – 5, Diana Danelyan – 4, Evgeniy Petrenko – 4, Anna Demirchyan – 5, Victoria Muradyan – 5 (marks are commented on).
6. D/z.
Teacher: Please find material about plains and mountains, use the Internet, encyclopedias, additional literature; retell the text in the textbook.

Annex 1
Test
Questions.
1. What is the largest continent on Earth?
2. The smallest continent on Earth?
3. The hemisphere in which the smallest continent is located?
4. The continent through which all meridians pass?
5. An ocean in the southern hemisphere through which all meridians pass?
6.The hemisphere in which the North Pole is located?
7. The ocean in which the northernmost point of the earth is located?
8. A continent that is crossed by the equator almost in the middle?
9. What is the largest ocean?
10. The second largest ocean on Earth?
11. Continent crossed by the equator in the northern part?
12. The continent that is located north of South America?
13. The ocean washing Eurasia, Africa, Australia?
Answers
And the Arctic Ocean
And the Pacific Ocean
P Southern Ocean
L Atlantic Ocean
About Indian Ocean
To Africa
U Eurasia
S Antarctica
N North America
b South America
X Australia

Test
Questions.
1. What is the largest continent on Earth?
2. The smallest continent on Earth?
3. The hemisphere in which the smallest continent is located?
4. The continent through which all meridians pass?
5. An ocean in the southern hemisphere through which all meridians pass? 6.The hemisphere in which the North Pole is located?
7. The ocean in which the northernmost point of the earth is located?
8. A continent that is crossed by the equator almost in the middle?
9. What is the largest ocean?
10. The second largest ocean on Earth?
11. Continent crossed by the equator in the northern part?
12. The continent that is located north of South America?
13. The ocean washing Eurasia, Africa, Australia?
Answers
N Arctic Ocean
W Pacific Ocean
About Southern Ocean
b Atlantic Ocean
And the Indian Ocean
And Africa
To Eurasia
P Antarctica
R North America
South America
From Australia

Appendix 2
(Material for a story about the Caucasus Mountains.)

The Caucasus stretches across the entire territory of the Krasnodar Territory.
some mountains. They start off the coast of the Black Sea, not far from Anapa, and end near the Caspian Sea. Scientists consider the Caucasus Mountains to be young. They are about 70 million years old. Compared to the Ural Mountains, these are mountains of preschool children. The Caucasus Mountains continue to grow today. In 1 year they grow by 1 cm. The highest mountain is Elbrus. Its height is 5,642 meters. The highest mountain in the Krasnodar region is Mount Tsakhvoa. Its height is 3345m. Many peaks of the Caucasus Mountains are covered with eternal snow and glaciers. The highest of them are Agepsta (3256 m), Chugush (3238 m) and South Pseashkho (3251 m). The mountains have high ridges and deep gorges. High in the mountains, mountain rivers are born, fast and impetuous, carrying their waters to the Black Sea. The Caucasus Mountains are famous for their caves. They are very beautiful and mysterious. The city of Sochi is located in the Western Caucasus.

Appendix 3
Multi-level cards

1. Lines indicating the north-south direction are called...... (meridians)
2. The largest parallel of the Earth…..(equator)
3. Lines of different lengths located on the globe are called...... (parallels)
4. Huge areas of land washed by oceans on all sides are called......(continents)
5. The part of the earth’s surface visible to humans in open areas is called……(horizon)
6. Areas of the earth’s surface that are significantly elevated above the plains are called…….(mountains)
7. The huge expanses of water separating the continents are called……(oceans)
8. A device with which you can navigate the terrain -…. (compass)

1. The direction shown by the blue arrow of the orienteering device is ..… (north)
2. How many main sides of the horizon do you know......(4)
3. Which continent has only northern shores? (Antarctica)
4.Which ocean washes Africa on the western side?
(Atlantic)
5. Which ocean washes only two continents? (Arctic)
6. On what continent are the Ural Mountains located? (Eurasia)
7. The globe is……………………………………………
8. The place where the sky seems to converge with the earth’s surface... this is (horizon line)

/card for a strong student/
1. The edge is visible, but you can’t reach it (horizon)
2. There are two points on Earth, both wearing white scarves (poles)
3. The Earth rotates around it, and morning and night do not meet (axis)
4. He is an Earth image and does not like distortion (globe)
5. I’m sitting under the glass, looking in all directions.
If you climb into the forest with me, you won’t lose your way (compass)
6. There are seas - you can’t swim,
There are roads - you can’t drive,
There is land, but you can’t plow it. What is this? (map)

Topic: “Globe - model of the Earth”
Can the statement be considered true?
1. On the globe you can see the finest
lines covering the surface of the globe
a) yes; b) no;
2. These lines are imaginary, in fact.
there are none on the earth's surface
a) yes; b) no;
3.Lines that connect the North Pole
and the South Pole are called parallels
a) no; b) yes;
4. Lines that connect the North Pole
and the South Pole are called meridians.
a) yes; b) no; c) the equator;
5. All meridians intersect at the North and
South Poles
a) yes; b) no;
6. The longest meridian is the equator
a) no; b) yes;
7. The equator is the longest parallel
a) yes; b) no;
8. The equator divides the globe into hemispheres
– North and South
a) yes; b) no;
9. The equator is the line that divides everything
meridians in half
a) yes; b) no;
10. The smallest parallels are the Northern one
and the South Pole of the Earth
a) yes; b) no;
11. All meridians of the Earth have different lengths
a) no; b) yes;
12. . All meridians of the Earth have the same length
a) yes; b) no.

Topic: “Continents and oceans on the globe”
1. What is the largest continent on Earth?
a) North America;
b) Eurasia;
c) Africa;
2. The smallest continent on Earth?
a) Australia;
b) Antarctica;
c) Africa;
3. The hemisphere in which the small continent is located?
a) Western Hemisphere;
b) Eastern Hemisphere;

4. The continent through which all meridians pass?
a) Africa;
b) Antarctica;
c) Eurasia;
5. An ocean in the Southern Hemisphere through which all meridians pass?
a) Pacific Ocean;
b) Southern Ocean;
c) Atlantic Ocean:
6. The hemisphere in which the North Pole is located?
a) Eastern Hemisphere;
b) Western Hemisphere;
c) Southern Hemisphere;
7. The ocean in which the northernmost point of the Earth is located?
a) Southern Ocean;
b) Indian Ocean;
c) Arctic Ocean;
8. The continent, which is crossed by the equator almost
in the middle
a) Australia;
b) North America;
c) Africa;
9. What is the largest ocean?
a) Atlantic Ocean;
b) Pacific Ocean;
c) Indian Ocean
10. The ocean washing Eurasia, Africa, Australia?
a) Indian Ocean;
b) Southern Ocean;
c) Pacific Ocean;

Topic: “Continents, oceans”

1) Consider the globe. Find the largest continent, find the smallest continent and write down their names.
2) What is more on Earth: land or water? Which ocean is the smallest and which is the largest?

/card for a strong student/
1) Which ocean, in your opinion, is the warmest and which is the coldest?
2) Guess the continents.
? I am the smallest continent, with the driest climate, which is entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.
? And I'm in the Southern Hemisphere, but for some reason people are in no hurry to settle here.
? And I am almost entirely between the northern and southern tropics; they call me the hottest continent.
3) Continue with questions. You can make a crossword puzzle.

/card for the average student/
Looking at the globe, choose any travel route. Write it using place names, horizon names and means of transport.

/card for a strong student/
1) What changes as the Earth rotates around its axis?
2) What changes as the Earth rotates around the Sun?
3) How does the Earth rotate?

/card for weak students/
1) What shape does the Earth have?
2) How did people in ancient times imagine the Earth?
3) What is the name of the Earth model?

Used Books:
1. Fedotova O.N., Trafimova G.V., Trafimov S.A., Tsareva L.A. Our world 3rd grade: Textbook. At 2 o'clock - M.: Academic book/Textbook
2. Fedotova O.N., Trafimova G.V., Trafimov S.A., Tsareva L.A. Our world in questions and tasks. Grade 3: Notebooks for independent work No. 1 and No. 2. – M.: Academic book/Textbook
3. Fedotova O.N., Trafimova G.V., Trafimov S.A., Tsareva L.A. Our world is familiar and mysterious. Grade 3: Reader. At 2 o'clock - M.: Academic book/Textbook
4. Fedotova O.N., Trafimova G.V., Trafimov S.A., Tsareva L.A. The world around us 3rd grade: Methodological manual: – M.: Academic book/Textbook

For the full text of the material Synopsis + presentation of the lesson about the world around us on the topic "Shapes of the Earth's surface" for grade 3, see the downloadable file.
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Classification of the shapes of the earth's surface

Of all the departments of physical geography, the department on the forms of the earth's surface (geomorphology) is the most important, since landforms, more than any other factors, determine the features of the landscape. Highly rising mountain ranges determine the isolation of vertical climatic and, at the same time, landscape zones, or they are often a sharply defined boundary of climatically different regions. The terrain determines the direction of watercourses and places where surface standing water accumulates.

The relief is the outline on which the soil and vegetation covers, which are so variable from place to place, are superimposed.

The shapes of the earth's surface can be classified from three points of view: I. By appearance. II. In terms of greater or lesser altitude above sea level. III. By origin or genesis. The last classification is the most important, since it not only characterizes individual forms, but also indicates their related relationships to each other and the direction of their further development. It goes without saying that this genetic classification of the forms of the earth's surface could only develop after the ideas of evolution (gradual development) penetrated into earth science from the middle of the last century.

I. The first classification, based on appearance, has existed since ancient times. Its inconvenience lies in the fact that until now, to define one or another form of the earth's surface, they use ordinary names, usually used only in a given country, and there are no generally accepted scientific terms yet. In addition, forms that are externally similar can differ sharply in their origin, internal structure and the direction of their further development.

Based on purely external (morphographic) classification, two main groups of forms of the earth's surface can be established.

1) Plains, characterized by the fact that in them the heights of neighboring points differ very little from each other. The surface of the plains is considered horizontal, although, strictly speaking, only the surface of the sea, and not a disturbed one, can be called an ideal horizontal plane. For the most part, the plains are inclined in one direction. Sometimes this slope is so insignificant that it cannot be determined by eye, and it is determined only by the direction of the river flow. The last sign, however, is not entirely reliable, since sometimes it happens that the river flows in the direction opposite to the general slope of the area.

Often in such a plain there is slight undulation, but if you look at it from a significant height, for example from a bird's eye view, then the surface appears completely flat. The main distinguishing feature of the plain is that for an observer located on it, the horizon is not blocked by anything, it is not interrupted. Due to the absence or, rather, weakness of demolition (denudation), the surface of the plain is usually composed of loose formations that arose locally as a result of weathering of rocks (weathering crust) or brought from outside (various types of sediment); bedrock here rarely comes to the surface.

2) The second category includes areas where the differences in heights of neighboring points on the surface can reach a very significant value - rugged or dissected areas. Based on the scale of elevation fluctuations, one can distinguish between mountainous and hilly areas. The relief of rough terrain is made up of a combination of elementary forms, among which positive forms (convex surface elevations) and negative forms (concave surface depressions) stand out.

Elementary positive forms of terrain with rugged terrain are: a) mountain, b) peak, c) mountain, ridge, or chain, d) ridge, e) step.

a) A mountain is a hill of relatively small horizontal extent, rising among more or less flat terrain and having a clearly defined foot (sole) on all sides. In this sense, mountains can be called, for example, individual volcanic hills in the region of North Caucasian mineral waters (Pyatigorye), rising among a plateau gently sloping to the northeast. If isolated hills occur in groups at a relatively short distance from each other and represent the remnants of a once higher country that have survived denudation, then they speak of a landscape of island mountains. Such landscapes are widespread in Africa, some areas of South America, etc.

b) If the individual hills are not separated by level spaces, but directly merge with each other by their lower parts, forming a common elevated foundation, then we have a mountainous country, or mountain uplift. In this case, it is better to call the individual highest points not mountains, but peaks.

c) In mountain uplifts, peaks are often located in rows, forming with their merged bases linearly elongated hills, along which individual peaks are planted, separated by depressions - saddles of passes. Such linearly elongated (most often in the direction of the general strike) elevations are called mountain ranges or mountain chains. A set of ranges in one mountainous country is called a mountain system.

d) A hill without a clearly defined base, with a gradual and imperceptible transition from slopes to plain, is called a ridge.

e) A hill with a base in the form of a clearly defined fracture of the surface on one side - a ledge or step (example: the southern cliff of the Zaunguz, or Karakum, plateau in Central Asia).

By the external shape, namely by the external shape of the summit surface, the following types of mountains and peaks can be distinguished: table mountain - the summit surface is flat; dome - the apical surface is rounded; peak - a pointed, conical or pyramidal apex. In addition, in different countries and in different languages, other names are used to denote the shapes of mountains: point, horn, tower, needle, tooth, etc. Similarly, the crest of a mountain range can be sharp, like a blade, when both slopes intersect at an acute angle , or the slopes can transform into one another with a gradual gentle rounding. Finally, there may be a case where the slopes do not directly touch, but a flat plateau-like surface is wedged between them. Such pictures can sometimes be observed in residual block mountains.

Negative forms of relief include: valleys, basins, depressions, and areas of depression.

The classification of relief forms by appearance, naturally, is characterized by uncertainty, and some of the terms of this classification that are still used today are a legacy of an earlier period in the development of the science of the earth’s surface, when the first attempts were made to somehow bring into a system the factual material accumulated from observations. The next stage was the desire to approach the forms of the earth's surface with precise numerical characteristics, by expressing them in measures of length, area, volume, or in the form of abstract indicators expressing certain relationships. This direction, known as orometry, was widely developed in Europe in the second half of the last century.

II. The division of the earth's surface according to altitudinal conditions also suffers from uncertainty and convention due to a wide gradation of altitudes that does not reveal sharp jumps from 0 (sea level) to 888 m (the highest point on land is Mount Everest in the Himalayas). The boundaries between individual altitudinal zones could be those altitudes at which any clearly expressed changes in the nature of relief forms occur (for example, a snow boundary), but these changes are mostly due to vertical climatic zonation, and therefore depend on geographic latitude and climate of the area.

In this classification, the first stage includes areas that lie below 200 m above sea level and are defined as lowlands. The next more or less generally accepted level - from 200 to 600 m - consists of hilly countries, or low mountains if the surface is rough, and table countries if it is flat.

Next come mountains of medium height and high mountains, or alpine (with rugged terrain), and plateaus, if the surface is weakly dissected and approaches more or less horizontal. It should be noted that when dividing mountains into medium-height and alpine, what is often meant is not so much their absolute height as their general morphological character, determined by whether the mountains were subject to glaciation or not. Near the equator, absolutely higher mountains may have the soft, rounded and convex contours of mid-altitude mountains, while at high latitudes, absolutely lower mountains may be characterized by sharp and steep shapes such as alpine mountains. Thus, the maximum height of mid-altitude mountains varies greatly depending on latitude and climate.

As a general rule, higher mountains are usually younger in age. They exhibit a well-known pattern in their distribution over the earth's surface. These include: 1) mountains bordering the Pacific Ocean, and 2) mountains stretching along a latitudinal belt in the Old World, starting from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea through the Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran, the Himalayas to Indo-China. Most of these mountains arose in Tertiary times or, at least, were transformed at that time and raised a second time to a significant height (for example, the Tien Shan).

In this classification we can establish one more level. It will include those parts of the land that lie below ocean level - these are the so-called depressions. They often occupy significant areas. Thus, the Caspian depression is a very extensive depression adjacent to the Caspian Sea, the surface of which lies 26 m below ocean level.

In Holland, the depression area covers an area of ​​8-10 thousand square meters. km. This depression drops several meters below ocean level and is not flooded only because it is artificially fenced off by dams.

On the African continent we find depressions in the Algerian chotts (up to -32 m in the Melrir chott), in the north of the Libyan desert (from -30-50 m to -75 m in the Araj oasis) and east of Abyssinia, where the Birket el depression Azalya is 174m below sea level.

The deepest depression is in the Jordan Valley, where Lake Tiberias and the Dead Sea are located, the surface of which is 208 m and 394 m below sea level.

Within the USSR, small depressions are known in Central Asia. The bottom of the Sary-Kamysh basin, located in the northern part of the Kara-Kum and southwest of the Aral Sea, lies 39 m below ocean level. To the south, on the Ishek-Ankren-kyr plateau, there are two more closed dry depressions, descending 60 m below ocean level. One of these depressions is up to 30 km long with a width of 8-10 m. The endorheic depression of the salt lake Kashkar-Ata in southern Mangyshlak reaches 20 m in height with an area of ​​50 square meters. km. Another depression of Mangyshlak, Karagiye, reaches even greater horizontal dimensions and depth (up to -60 m).

Depressions occur even among or near high mountains. Thus, in the eastern part of the Tien Shan, at its foot, lies the Lyukchun depression (up to 130 m below sea level). In America there is a depression along the extension of the Gulf of California and in the Colorado Desert.

Most depressions are fundamentally of tectonic origin, but other processes (erosion, aeolian deflation) can also take part in their expansion and even deepening. The existence of dry depressions is possible only in a dry desert climate. In humid climates, many depressions are masked by the fact that the depressions, the bottom of which is below sea level, are filled with water. These are the so-called crypto-depressions.

These include in our USSR lakes Ladoga, Onega, many lakes in Fiiland, Scandinavia, and the southern foot of the Alps. The deepest crypto-depression is Baikal. Its depth reaches 1741 m, or 1288 m below sea level.

III. The classification of landforms based on the genetic principle deserves the greatest attention.

From this point of view, the shapes of the earth's surface, which we tentatively divide into two groups: A. Rough countries (mountainous and hilly) and B. Plains, represent great diversity.

Let us first consider which categories can be established in the first group.

A. Individual mountains, ridges and hills, in general all protruding forms of relief, can arise under the influence of three types of processes, in connection with which we can distinguish:

1) Dislocation, or tectonic, mountains and hills caused by tectonic processes (faults and folding). The most significant elevations of the globe belong to this category.

2) Bulk, or accumulation, mountains and hills formed as a result of the accumulation or deposition of solid material on the surface. Among them there are uplifts, sometimes significant in horizontal dimensions and height.

This category includes: a) volcanic mountains, formed by the deposition of ash and lavas around the crater of a volcano; b) hills of aeolian origin, formed from loose material - sand, snow (dunes, dunes, sastrugi); c) hills made of material deposited directly by glaciers or their meltwater (moraine hills and ridges, drumlins, eskers); d) hills of organic origin (for example, peat mounds in the tundra); e) hills formed by spring deposits (travertine hills, geyser cones, etc.).

3) Erosion, or denudation, mountains and hills that arose as a result of the erosion of the original flat terrain (plateau, table country) and the removal of part of the material from which the terrain was composed. This should also include individual elevations of the above-mentioned landscape of the island mountains.

B. Plains can also have different origins. Among them we can distinguish:

1) Primary plains, or sea plateaus, represent part of the seabed leveled by sedimentation, exposed during sea regression. If the exposure of the seabed occurred as a result of the uplift of the adjacent ancient land, then along the outskirts of the latter a more or less wide strip of coastal plain is obtained, slightly inclined towards the sea. Most of the plains of the USSR represent sea plateaus of different ages. An example of the youngest marine plateau, almost unchanged by subsequent processes, is the Caspian Lowland.

2) Accumulative, or bulk, plains, which were formed as a result of the filling with loose sediments (fluvial, fluvial-glacial, aeolian weathering products) of some depression or generally lowered space, which, perhaps, initially had an uneven surface. These include:

a) Alluvial plains composed of sediment from large rivers (Lombardy Lowland, Mesopotamia, Rion and Kuro-Araks lowlands of Transcaucasia). Most of these plains were formed on the site of former sea bays into which rivers flowed.

b) Fluvioglacial (glacial fluvial) sloping plains are adjacent to the bases of mountains that were subject to intense glaciation in the Pleistocene; They are mostly pebble-peaked alluvial cones of glacial rivers, merging along the outskirts of the mountains into a continuous border; examples include: the Munich inclined plain at the northern foot of the Alps, the Kuban, Kabardian and Chechen inclined plains of the North Caucasus, etc.

c) Lake plains formed on the site of drained or dried lakes: the plain of the Pleistocene Lake Agassitsa in North America, the bottoms of some basins of the Armenian Highlands (Tsalka, etc.).

d) Plains formed by weathering products. Let's say we have mountains in a dry desert climate. Their tops are highly susceptible to physical weathering. Weathering products, due to landslides, slow downward movement, removal by temporary rain flows, etc., fill the depressions lying between the mountains. Thus, the tops of the ridges are lowered, the depressions are filled more and more, since in the absence of runoff, weathering products are not carried away by water. As a result, the surface of the country will turn into a plain and will be leveled. A greater or lesser approximation to this is observed in the interior parts of Iran, in Tibet, and the Gobi.

e) In some cases, volcanic ash, carried by the wind and falling asleep in the vicinity of centers of volcanic activity, played a major role in leveling the ancient relief. These are some of the flat areas of the Armenian Highlands (Leninakan Plateau, etc.). Here we have a transition to the next type of plains.

3) Volcanic, or lava, plateaus. Liquid and easily moving basic (basaltic) lavas, sometimes pouring out in huge masses, can cover vast spaces and, burying the former topography, transform the area into a flat lava plateau. These are the Columbia Plateau of North America, the area of ​​the Deccan Traps, some plateaus of the Armenian Highlands, etc.

4) Residual, or marginal, plains. They arise as a result of the prolonged impact of destructive forces, especially river erosion and continental denudation, on an area that originally had a folded structure and a pronounced pecief. As a result, such terrain turns out to be leveled into an undulating plain - peneplain (“almost plain”, or “ultimate plain”).

DEEP STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

What does it mean to figure out the deep structure of the Earth? It is necessary to find out the nature of changes in the main characteristics of the lithosphere substance with depth: changes in structure, energy saturation and chemical composition. It is the substance that needs to be studied, because the globe is composed of it, and not just abstract geophysical parameters in the form of seismic wave velocities, differences in magnetic properties, and density. This data is needed to solve various specific practical problems: seismic zoning and others.

To what depth from the surface of the lithosphere can the deep structure of the globe be studied? I would like to reach the center of our planet. But the limitations are caused by the fact that the structure, energy saturation and chemical composition of the substance of the stone shell must be studied. Without obtaining a substance for analysis, it is impossible to determine its structure, energy content and chemical composition.

Consequently, knowledge of the deep structure of the Earth is possible only to depths from which it will be possible to obtain samples for analysis. This can be done to the depths of the visible part of the lithosphere, or about 15 km. The deepest wells never reached a depth of 13 km. The Kola superdeep well was drilled almost to this depth. This is the reality of our time.

Everything that is studied deeper than the intervals of possible sampling of a substance by indirect geophysical methods based on the speed of seismic waves, measurements of electrical conductivity, gravity, magnetic properties - in other words, removing the physical characteristics of a substance, must necessarily be certified by samples of the substance from the studied depths, i.e. interpreted geologically . If it is impossible to carry out a geological interpretation of the results of geophysical research, there is no point in carrying out this work to clarify the deep structure of the globe. It is possible and necessary to study the nature of changes in the velocities of seismic waves from the surface to the center of the planet, density and other features, but this will not be knowledge of the deep structure of the Earth in matter. Based on the results of such measurements, it is impossible to speak about the peridotite mantle, the basalt layer of the earth's crust, as well as about the earth's crust, mantle and core in their material terms.

The deep structure of the lithosphere begins below its surface. A geological map shows the geological structure of an area on the surface. It is not for nothing that a geological map shows the age of rocks (usually bedrock) that come to the surface. To find out the geological structure in volume or depth, geological sections are built.

From the day surface to the lower boundary of the observed part of the lithosphere, the structure of the rocky shell of the globe is as follows.

The basic laws of the composition of the visible part of the deep structure of the lithosphere are formulated in Chapter II. Basic geological laws. Their essence is that the structure becomes more and more coarse-crystalline with depth, the energy saturation decreases, the chemical composition changes: the content of aluminum, iron, magnesium and calcium oxides decreases with depth and silica increases. When quartzite is formed, the presence of not only aluminum, iron, magnesium and calcium oxides, but also sodium and potassium oxides decreases to zero.

Consequences from these laws. Below granite and quartzite there cannot be rocks with an energy saturation greater than that of granite and quartzite. Below granite and quartzite there cannot be rocks with a content of iron, magnesium and calcium oxides greater than that of granite. Below granite and especially quartzite there may be a substance made of silicon oxide.

History of views on the deep structure of the Earth

The widespread development of limestone in Greece, which caused the manifestation of karst, led to the formation of numerous underground caves. This allowed the ancient Greeks to talk about the presence of voids and channels in the Earth. Such ideas about the structure of the globe, widespread throughout our planet, lasted until the beginning of the 19th century, or more than two thousand years.

In 1522, upon completion of El Cano's first trip around the world, begun by F. Magellan, the spherical shape of our planet was proven.

Observing the Sun in 1609 with the help of his second telescope with a magnification of 32 times, G. Galileo (1564-1641) saw dark spots on it. They were taken as evidence of the cooling of the star, although prominences, on the contrary, indicate the activity of the Sun, flares on it. Based on this conclusion, which was not obtained by studying earthly matter, R. Descartes (1596-1650) in the first half of the 17th century. proposed a completely new explanation of the deep structure of the Earth, basically preserved to this day.

He suggested that the Earth was first a hot star, like the Sun, but small in size. Therefore, the cooling of the Earth occurred at a faster rate than the Sun. Cooling led to the appearance of dark spots on its surface. With further cooling and interaction of particles of matter, other shells were formed. In the center of the globe, according to R. Descartes, there is a fiery core composed of solar material. It is surrounded by a dense shell of dark sunspot matter. Behind it is a shell in which metals are born. Above is a water shell, then an underground cavity (a shell with numerous voids) filled with air. The uppermost surface shell surrounded by air.

The idea of ​​R. Descartes in the form of the hypotheses of plutonism and Kant-Laplace received the right to citizenship in geology and in general in natural science only two hundred years later, since during the period of its formation it sharply did not correspond to religious ideas about the creation of the Earth and was not accepted by scientists.

By the end of the first quarter of the 19th century. In natural science, the idea of ​​the emergence of the Earth from a hot gaseous nebula, which is currently called the Kant-Laplace hypothesis, has been established. The entire interior of the globe was assumed to be molten, covered on top with a solid cooling crust - the earth's crust up to 10 miles (16 km) thick. The earth's crust was divided into two parts, lying one on top of the other. Its lower half came from solidified molten material preserved in the interior of the planet. It was called the fiery crust or plutonic crust. It is composed of plutonic rocks: granites, syenites, porphyries, gneisses, marbles, mica schists, etc. The destruction of its material on the surface and the removal of the resulting debris into the seas led to the formation of layers of clays, sandstones and limestones, which formed the outer aquatic or neptunian crust.

Meanwhile, half a century ago, the Neptunists explained the same observed section of the rocky shell of the globe from clays and sands on the surface to granite at depth in a different way, opposite to the Plutonists.

A.G., who in 1775 occupied the department of mineralogy at the Frenberg “Mining School” in Saxony. Werner (1750-1817), in place of geology - the science that consisted in bold hypotheses of the origin of the Earth, proposed a new science - geognosy, the main goal of which was to understand the composition, structure and location of the mineral strata that make up the visible part of the rocky shell of the globe. However, he was unable to deviate from the generally accepted sequence of thinking: first the origin of the Earth, then its structure. This can be seen from the order in which the tasks of geognosy are listed, indicated by A.G. Werner.

Initially, it is necessary to find out what relation the Earth has to other celestial bodies, and what it is in the Universe. Such a comparison will allow us to draw a conclusion about what happened to our planet during its existence, identifying the reasons for the transformations that took place with it.

Find out the influence of organic (ore) bodies on the solid part of the globe.

Find out the influence of atmospheric bodies on the solid part of the globe.

Consider the formative (creating) and destructive forces acting on the globe, i.e. water and fire, and the results of the actions of these forces.

Explore the most important natural changes that occurred at different times in the globe, especially in chronological order, i.e. which of them happened earlier and which later.

In conclusion, it is necessary to consider in detail the rocks that make up the solid part of the globe. Their study should be carried out in the order in which they “follow their origin,” which will make it possible to divide them into different types according to the method of formation.

From the position of induction, the tasks of natural scientific research should be listed in reverse: first, study the composition and structure of the lithosphere, then the processes that led to the formation of rocks. It is generally impossible to divide rocks by origin, because they do not contain signs of origin. The program for studying the rocky shell of the Earth, proposed by A.G. Werner, is still in progress.

Considering in nature the sequence of bedding of rocks that make up the solid part of the globe, Neptunists assigned the main place in it to clayey shale, which down the section gradually turns into mica shale, consisting of quartz and mica. The oldest mica slate (lying below simple slate) already contains an admixture of feldspar. Through it, it turns into gneiss, and that into granite of a holocrystalline structure. All these rocks were attributed to a chemical origin through the precipitation of crystals from water.

Upward, the clay shale gradually turns into gray wacky shale - mudstone, which is the oldest known rock of mechanical deposition of the products of destruction of chemical rocks. There is no doubt about the aquatic origin of sands and clays. This can be observed directly in nature.

The general conclusion was that all observed rocks were of aqueous origin. Hence the hypothesis of neptunism. It has been reliably established that the upper part of the sediments known on Earth: clays, sands, sandstones, limestones, arose from water. These aqueous-sedimentary rocks gradually grade into the oldest known formations, with phyllites often interbedded with shales and gneisses. There is no boundary between two such strata.

The famous Neptunist D. de Voisin wrote that he never had to walk more than a few miles along an outcrop of granite without encountering, in one place or another, its transition into gneiss or micaceous schist. In almost all mountain ranges, continued D. De Voisin, one can see how this shale, in turn, turns into clayey (roofing) shale, in which there are then layers of coal with imprints of plants. The shale then begins to become interbedded with layers of rock containing the remains of marine organisms. One can see a desire not to contradict the biblical reasons for which God created plants on the third day, and sea animals later, on the fifth day.

Granites were considered the most ancient, or primary Neptunists. The Scottish naturalist J. Getton (1726-1797), while studying the beautifully exposed sections of Scotland, doubted the sedimentary (water) origin of granite. At first he had theoretical reasoning. The observed disorderly arrangement of quartz, feldspar and mica composing the granite could not have occurred if the rock had been formed by the crystallization of salts from sea water, as the Neptunists claimed. The solubility in water of the main minerals of granite is different, therefore in nature in this case monomineral layers of quartz, feldspar and mica should be observed. The crystalline structure of granite from chaotically arranged minerals indicates their crystallization from molten material. Therefore, there must be veins of granite in the overlying layers.

To test his theoretical constructs, J. Getton went to the Grampian Mountains to investigate “the line of connection of granites and the layered masses overlying them.” At Glen Tilt in 1785 he saw veins branching from a large body of red granite, passing through black micaceous slate and limestone. Confirmation of theoretical assumptions about the molten primordial nature of granite aroused such enthusiastic joy in J. Getton that the guides who were with him, according to his biographer, thought that he had discovered a silver or gold vein.

The Neptunists' ideas about the watery origin of granite were dealt an irreparable blow. The molten nature of granite paved the way for the next hypothesis in geology - plutonism. The theoretical basis for it was the Kant-Laplace hypothesis of the formation of the Earth from a hot fireball. As the globe cooled, it became covered on top with a solid cooling crust—an crust about 10 miles (16 km) thick. The inner part below was assumed to be molten. This is how the deep structure of the Earth was seen in the first half of the 19th century.

As can be seen, the ideas of Neptunists and Plutonists on the deep structure and origin of the rocks that make up the globe were opposite. Such a construction of explanations in science is unacceptable; it violates one of the main features of science – acceptability. Back in 1913, N. Bohr formulated the principle of correspondence, according to which any newer (general) hypothesis must include an older hypothesis. The old hypothesis is obtained from the new one for certain values ​​of the parameters that determine it, i.e., it is a special case of the new (general) hypothesis. If this is not observed, as can be seen from the example of the lack of continuity of plutonic ideas from neptunian ones, then the new hypothesis, in our case - plutonism, has no right to exist. By the way, the natural scientific model of geology, which considers lava as a water-silicate solution, and recrystallization as the transition of substances into solution, reaching saturation, to some extent has in common with the ideas of the Neptunists.

Lesson type: combined

Target:

— formation of a holistic picture of the world and awareness of man’s place in it based on the unity of rational-scientific knowledge and emotional and value-based understanding of the educational personal experience of communicating with people and nature;

Tasks:

Subject

Learn to distinguish the shapes of the earth's surface; notice and appreciate the beauty of nature.

Will have the opportunity to learn how to work with the circuit

Metasubject

Regulatory UUD:

Understand the learning objective of the lesson and strive to complete it;

Take into account the action guidelines identified by the teacher in the new educational material.

Cognitive UUD:

Use iconic and symbolic means; make comparisons.

Communication UUD:

Construct statements that are understandable to your partner; exercise mutual control.

Personal

Educational and cognitive interest in new educational material;

The ability to self-assess based on the criterion of success in educational activities

Main activities of students

Compare photographs of plains and mountains to identify significant features of these forms of the earth's surface;

Analyze the color designation of plains and mountains on the globe;

Compare a hill and a mountain according to the scheme;

Characterize the surface of your edge.

Basic concepts and definitions

Plains, mountains, hills, ravines are the forms of the earth's surface.

Checking readiness to learn new material

What kind of surface in your region is it flat or mountainous?

Learning new material

Plains- These are flat or almost flat areas of the earth's surface. On the plains you can find elevations - hills and depressions with steep slopes - ravines.

Mountains- These are very uneven areas of the earth's surface that rise greatly above the surrounding area. You rarely see a single mountain; most often, mountains are located in rows - mountain ranges.

Both hill and mountain tower above the surrounding area. They have the same parts: sole (foot), slopes, tops

Sole (foot) is the place where a hill or mountain begins. The summit is the highest part of a hill or mountain. There are slopes between the pile and the sole. They can be steep or gentle.

The hills are up to 200 meters high, the mountains more than 200 meters high.

Basic landforms

Plains and mountains of Russia

Educational film plains and mountains

Sushi plains

Hills of Russia

Comprehension and understanding of the acquired knowledge of NUI

Look at the diagrams of a hill and a mountain and compare them with each other. What are their similarities and what are their differences?

Independent application of knowledge

Based on your observations, describe the surface of your edge.

1.What shapes of the earth's surface do you know?

2. What are plains?

3. What are mountains?

Homework

Information sources:

A. A. Pleshakov textbook, workbook The world around us, grade 2 Moscow

"Enlightenment" 2014

Presentation hosting the world

§ 1. The concept of relief. Absolute and relative height

Relief. The earth's surface is extremely uneven. It features land and ocean. Within their boundaries there are grandiose mountain ranges and deep oceanic depressions, vast plains and underwater plateaus, lowlands, ravines, basins, dunes, etc.

The relief is constantly changing, which is due to geological processes occurring under the influence of internal (movement of the earth's crust) and external (the work of flowing water, ice, winds, etc.) reasons.

The most important characteristics of the relief are absolute and relative height. Absolute altitude- the height of any point on the earth's surface above ocean level. It can be positive (the area is above ocean level) and negative (the area is below ocean level). Most of the land has a positive absolute altitude. Examples of negative absolute height are found less frequently on land: the Qattara Depression, Africa (-133 m), Death Valley, North America (-85 m), the Atlantic regions of the Netherlands, etc. In Russia, absolute heights are measured from the level of the Baltic Sea near Kronstadt.

Relative height- this is the excess of one point on the earth's surface over another. It shows how much one point on the earth's surface is higher or lower than another. Absolute and relative heights characterize the ruggedness of the relief.

There are positive and negative landforms. The largest negative landforms on Earth are ocean basins, while positive ones are continents. These are first order landforms. Landforms of the second order are mountains and plains (both on land and at the bottom of the oceans). The surface of the mountains and plains has a complex topography consisting of smaller forms.

§ 2. Plains, lowlands, hills, plateaus

Plains and mountains are the main forms of the earth's surface. They were formed as a result of geological processes that have shaped the face of the Earth throughout geological history. Plains- these are vast spaces with calm, flat or hilly terrain and relatively small fluctuations in relative heights (no more than 200 m).

Plains are divided by absolute height. Plains with an absolute height of no more than 200 m are called low-lying, or lowlands(West Siberian). Plains whose absolute height is from 200 to 500 m are called sublime, or hills(East European, or Russian). Plains whose height is over 500 m above sea level are called high, or plateaus(Central Siberian).

Due to their considerable height, plateaus and hills usually have a more dissected surface and rugged terrain compared to lowlands. High plains with flat surfaces are called plateau.

The largest lowlands: Amazonian, La Plata, Mississippian, Indo-Gangetic, German-Polish. The Russian Plain is an alternation of lowlands (Dnieper, Black Sea, Caspian, etc.) and uplands (Valdai, Central Russian, Volyn-Podolsk, Volga, etc.). Plateaus are most widespread in Asia (Central Siberian, Arabian, Deccan, etc.), in Africa (East African, South African, etc.), in Australia (Western Australian) - see table. VI .1.

The plains are also divided by origin. On the continents, the majority (64%) of the plains were formed on platforms; they are folded in layers sedimentary cover. Such plains are called reservoir, or platform. The Caspian Lowland is the youngest plain, the East European Plain and the Central Siberian Plateau are ancient platform plains, their surface has been significantly modified by flowing waters and other external processes.

Plains that arose as a result of the removal of products of mountain destruction ( denudation) from the destroyed base of the mountains ( plinth), are called denudation, or basement, plains. The destruction of mountains and the transfer of rocks usually occurs under the influence of water, winds, ice and gravity. Gradually, the mountainous country smoothes out, levels out, turning into a hilly plain. Denudation plains are usually composed of hard rocks (Kazakh small hills).

Table VI .1
The main lowlands and plateaus of the world

Lowlands	Plateau
Europe
German-Polish London Pool Parisian pool Central Danube Lower Danube	Manselka (ridge) Maladeta
Asia
Mesopotamian Great Chinese Plain Coromandel Coast Malabar coast Indo-Gangetic	Anatolian Changbai Shan
North America
Mississippi Mexican Atlantic Mosquito Beach	Great Plains Central Plains Yukon (plateau) Colorado (plateau) Appalachian (plateau)
South America
Amazonian (Selvas) Orinoco (Llanos) La Plata	Patagonian
Australia and Oceania
Central (Big Artesian pool) Carpentaria Nullarbar

Plains formed through the process of accumulation ( accumulation) material, including loose sedimentary rocks, in which large relief depressions are filled with sediments, forming a leveled surface, is called accumulative plains (Great China, Indo-Gangetic, Mesopotamian, Padanian, etc.). Depending on their origin they are sea, lake, river, glacial, volcanic. The relief of the plains is also varied. Thus, on the plains that have undergone continental glaciation, the relief of the areas of glacier feeding, its spreading and meltwater runoff - moraine and terminal-moraine shafts and ridges - is distinguished. The plains of the tundra and sandy deserts have a special relief.

At the bottom of the ocean there are deep sea (abyssal) plains; at the foot of the continents - inclined plains; on the shelf - shelf plains.

§ 3. Mountains, mountainous countries and highlands

Mountains- vast areas of land or ocean floor that are significantly elevated and highly dissected. Based on their appearance, mountains are divided into mountain ridges, chains, ridges And mountainous countries. Free-standing mountains are rare, representing either volcanoes or the remains of ancient destroyed mountains. The morphological elements of mountains are: base, or sole; slopes; peak or ridge (at ridges).

Sole mountains are the border between its slopes and the surrounding area, and it is expressed quite clearly. With a gradual transition from the plain to the mountains, a strip is distinguished, which is called foothills.

Slopes They occupy most of the surface of the mountains and are extremely varied in appearance and steepness.

Vertex- the highest point of a mountain (mountain ranges), the pointed peak of a mountain - peak.

Mountain countries(or mountain systems) - large mountain structures that consist of mountain ranges- linearly elongated mountain uplifts intersecting slopes. The points of connection and intersection of mountain ranges form mountain nodes. These are usually the highest parts of mountainous countries. The depression between two mountain ranges is called mountain valley.

Highlands- areas of mountainous countries, consisting of heavily destroyed ridges and high plains covered with destruction products.

Based on absolute height, there are three types of mountains.

1. Low mountains - absolute height from 500 to 800 m, slope steepness 5-10 °, rounded, smoothed shapes of peaks and slopes. But there are also sharp, rocky forms. Rounded mountains - the Middle Urals, the Cis-Urals, the Kola Peninsula and Karelia, with sharp forms - the spurs of the Tien Shan, the ridges of Transcaucasia, the foothills of the Main Caucasus Range.
2. Mid-height mountains ( middle mountains) with a height of 800 to 2000 m. The average steepness of the slopes is 10-25 °, the relief forms are very diverse. Soft forms of relief are characteristic of the mountains of the Southern and Northern Urals, Crimean, Kopet-Dag, etc. Pointed, peaked peaks, sharp ridges, steep rocky peaks - the mountains of the Polar Urals, Novaya Zemlya, etc.
3. High mountains ( highlands) - above 2000 m, slope steepness more than 25 °. The high mountain zone is entirely rocky, the ridges are jagged, and characterized by sharp peaks and glaciers. Individual mountain peaks rise especially high. For example, the highest altitudes in the Himalayas are Chomolungma (Everest) - 8848 m, Chogori - 8611 m.

Mountains are divided into young and ancient. Young mountains are those that, from a geological point of view, arose relatively recently (Alps, Caucasus, Pamir, etc.). These mountains continue to grow, which is accompanied by earthquakes and, in some places, volcanism. IN ancient In the mountains, internal processes have long calmed down, while external forces continue to carry out their destructive work, gradually leveling them (Scandinavian mountains, the Urals, etc.). By origin the mountains below are divided into tectonic, erosive And volcanic. The most common type of mountains is tectonic (up to 90%), resulting from mountain-building movements of the earth's crust. Tectonic mountains are divided into folded, blocky And fold-block.

Folded- mountains that arise in areas of the earth's crust characterized by great plasticity and mobility. Here, over a long geological time, there is a powerful accumulation of sedimentary rocks, which leads to subsidence of these areas. The resulting counter lateral pressures lead to the crushing of sedimentary strata into folds and a general uplift of the entire region. Moreover, large blocks of the earth's crust rise in a peculiar way: one slope is steep, and the second is gentle. The rise is accompanied by the formation foothill trough, located nearby and resulting from the subsidence of the lithosphere. The asymmetrical structure of folded mountainous countries and foothill depressions can be traced in all mountainous countries. In the Greater Caucasus, Cordillera, Alps, Carpathians, Himalayas, Ural, Andes, and Pyrenees mountains, rock layers lie obliquely and curved.

The main characteristic feature of folded mountains is their elongation in the form of chains of high mountain ranges over long distances, hundreds and thousands of kilometers.

Blocky mountains are uplifts of the earth's surface bounded by faults. They consist of layers of rocks folded into folds, have flat surfaces of peaks and steep rocky slopes of valleys. Block mountains arise as a result of faults, i.e. displacement of rocks along a vertical or steeply inclined crack, forming one or several fault steps with a displacement of 1-2 km. These are the Drakensberg Mountains in Africa, the Western and Eastern Ghats in India. During faults, peculiar processes occur - horsts and grabens are formed. Horsts- raised areas of the earth's crust, limited by faults: the Harz, Tarbagatai mountains, the ridges of Central Africa. Grabens- areas of the earth's crust lowered along faults. Many of them host the largest lakes on Earth (Baikal, Great North American, and a number of lakes in Africa).

Fold-block mountains appeared on the site of sections of the earth's crust that underwent mountain building in the distant past, but, collapsing, they turned into hilly plains. The soil in these areas has lost its plasticity and acquired rigidity and stability. Then these areas underwent repeated mountain building, which was accompanied by faults, faults, uplifts and lowerings of individual blocks (revived mountains). These are mountains with flat tops and steep cliffs - the Urals, Tien Shan, Altai, Sayans, Transbaikalia Ranges, Massif Central, Appalachians, East Australian Mountains, etc.

Volcanic the mountains are composed of products of volcanic eruptions (bulk) and are isolated formations. In their height, volcanic mountains are not inferior to tectonic ones. Thus, the highest volcano on Earth, Aconcagua (South America), has a height of 6960 m.

Erosive mountains are formed as a result of tectonic uplifts and their subsequent deep dissection by watercourses. The modern relief of eroded mountains was created mainly by the activity of flowing waters.

Meaning relief in human economic activity is very large. The choice of settlement location, planning of cities, the most convenient places for the construction of hydraulic structures, nuclear power plants is accompanied by a detailed study of the topography, especially in areas of permafrost, karst and landslide phenomena, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Based on the structure of the layers, one can judge the nature of minerals in a given area and the resolution of water supply issues.

Based on the types and forms of relief, areas favorable for agriculture, pastures, hayfields, irrigation and drainage are determined. Relief plays an important role in shaping landscapes and climate.

Table VI .2
The main mountains of the world

Name	Height, m
Europe (foreign)
1.Scandinavian mountains (Goldhepiggen) 2. Andalusian Mountains (Mullacen) 3. Alps (Mont Blanc) 4. Carpathians (Gerlachovsky Shtit) 5. Apennines (Corno) 6. Rila (Musala) 7. Hekla, volcano 8. Etna, volcano 9. Vesuvius, volcano
Asia (foreign)
1. Elburz (Demavend) 2. Hindu Kush (Tirichmir) 3. Karakorum (Chogori) 4. Kunlun (Muztagh) 5. Tien Shan (Khan Tengri) 6. Himalayas (Chomolungma) (Kanchenjunga) (Dhaulagiri) (Nangaparbat)

End of table.VI.2

Name	Height, m
7. Kerinchi (volcano) 8. Krakatoa (volcano) 9. Fuji (volcano)
North America
1. Alaska Range (McKinley) 2. St. Elijah (Logan) 3. Rocky Mountains (Robson) (Elbert) 4. Sierra Nevada (Whittney) 5. Appalachian Mountains (Mitchell) 6. Popocatepetl (volcano) 7. Orizaba (volcano) 8. Tajumulco (volcano)
South America
1.Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 2. Ilyimani 3. Guiana Highlands (Roraima) 4. Sierra de Montequeira (Bandeira) 5. Chimborazo (volcano) 6. Cotopaxi (volcano) 7. Coropuna (volcano) 8. Ojos del Salado (volcano) 9. Aconcagua (volcano) 10. Llullaillaco (volcano)
1. High Atlas (Toubkal) 2. Tibesti (Emi-Kusi) 3. Ethiopian Highlands (Ras Dashan) 4. Kilimanjaro 5. Cameroon (volcano) 6. Kenya (volcano) 7. Karisimbi (volcano)
Australia and Oceania
1. Australian Alps (Kosciuszko) 2. Southern Alps 3.Maoke (Jaya) 4. Ruapehu (volcano)
Antarctica
1. Elsworth (Vinson) 2. Erebus (volcano)

§ 4. Natural complexes

The concept of a natural complex. The main object of study of modern physical geography is the geographical shell of our planet as a complex material system. It is heterogeneous in both vertical and horizontal directions. In the horizontal, i.e. spatially, the geographic envelope is divided into separate natural complexes (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes).

Natural complex- a territory homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition of specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a uniform soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis (a combination of microorganisms and characteristic animals). In a natural complex, the interaction and metabolism between its components are also of the same type. The interaction of components ultimately leads to the formation of specific natural complexes.

The level of interaction of components within a natural complex is determined primarily by the amount and rhythms of solar energy (solar radiation). Knowing the quantitative expression of the energy potential of a natural complex and its rhythm, modern geographers can determine the annual productivity of its natural resources and the optimal timing of their renewability. This allows us to objectively predict the use of natural resources of natural-territorial complexes (NTC) in the interests of human economic activity.

Currently, most of the natural complexes of the Earth have been changed to one degree or another by man, or even re-created by him on a natural basis. For example, oases in the desert, reservoirs, agricultural plantations. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic. According to their purpose, anthropogenic complexes can be industrial, agricultural, urban, etc. According to the degree of change by human economic activity - in comparison with the original natural state, they are divided into slightly modified, changed And heavily modified.

Natural complexes can be of different sizes - of different ranks, as scientists say. The largest natural complex is the geographical envelope of the Earth. Continents and oceans are natural complexes of the next rank. Within the continents, physical-geographical countries are distinguished - natural complexes of the third level. Such, for example, as the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the Amazon Lowland, the Sahara Desert and others. Well-known natural zones can serve as examples of natural complexes: tundra, taiga, temperate forests, steppes, deserts, etc. The smallest natural complexes (terrains, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, individual hills, their slopes; or a low-lying river valley and its individual sections: bed, floodplain, above-floodplain terraces. It is interesting that the smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. However, even natural complexes of significant size retain the homogeneity of natural components and basic physical-geographical processes. Thus, the nature of Australia is not at all similar to the nature of North America, the Amazonian lowland is noticeably different from the Andes adjacent to the west, an experienced geographer-researcher will not confuse the Karakum (temperate zone deserts) with the Sahara (tropical deserts), etc.

Thus, the entire geographical envelope of our planet consists of a complex mosaic of natural complexes of different ranks. Natural complexes formed on land are now called natural-territorial(PTK); formed in the ocean and other body of water (lake, river) - natural aquatic (NAA); natural-anthropogenic landscapes (NAL) created by human economic activity on a natural basis.

Geographical envelope - the largest natural complex

Geographical envelope- a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, which includes in a vertical section the upper part of the earth’s crust (lithosphere), the lower atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the entire biosphere of our planet. What unites, at first glance, the heterogeneous components of the natural environment into a single material system? It is within the geographic envelope that a continuous exchange of matter and energy occurs, a complex interaction between the indicated component shells of the Earth.

The boundaries of the geographical envelope are still not clearly defined. Scientists usually take the ozone screen in the atmosphere as its upper limit, beyond which life on our planet does not extend. The lower boundary is most often drawn in the lithosphere at depths of no more than 1000 m. This is the upper part of the earth’s crust, which was formed under the strong combined influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and living organisms. The entire thickness of the waters of the World Ocean is inhabited, therefore, if we talk about the lower boundary of the geographical envelope in the ocean, then it should be drawn along the ocean floor. In general, the geographic shell of our planet has a total thickness of about 30 km.

As we can see, the geographical envelope coincides in volume and territorially with the distribution of living organisms on Earth. However, there is still no single point of view regarding the relationship between the biosphere and the geographical envelope. Some scientists believe that the concepts of “geographical envelope” and “biosphere” are very close, even identical, and these terms are synonyms. Other researchers consider the biosphere only as a certain stage in the development of the geographic envelope. In this case, three stages are distinguished in the history of the development of the geographical envelope: prebiogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic (modern). The biosphere, according to this point of view, corresponds to the biogenic stage of the development of our planet. According to others, the terms “geographical envelope” and “biosphere” are not identical, since they reflect different qualitative essences. The concept of “biosphere” focuses on the active and determining role of living matter in the development of the geographical envelope.

Which point of view should you prefer? It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It is distinguished primarily by the great variety of material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through general (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To understand the patterns of development of this unified system is one of the most important tasks of modern geographical science.

So, integrity of the geographical envelope- the most important pattern on the knowledge of which the theory and practice of modern environmental management is based. Taking this pattern into account makes it possible to foresee possible changes in the nature of the Earth (a change in one of the components of the geographic envelope will necessarily cause a change in the others); give a geographical forecast of the possible results of human impact on nature; carry out a geographical examination of various projects related to the economic use of certain territories.

The geographic envelope is also characterized by another characteristic pattern - rhythm of development, those. recurrence of certain phenomena over time. In the nature of the Earth, rhythms of different durations have been identified - daily and annual, intra-century and super-secular rhythms. The daily rhythm, as is known, is determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The daily rhythm is manifested in changes in temperature, air pressure and humidity, cloudiness, and wind strength; in the phenomena of ebb and flow in the seas and oceans, the circulation of breezes, the processes of photosynthesis in plants, the daily biorhythms of animals and humans.

The annual rhythm is the result of the movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. These are the change of seasons, changes in the intensity of soil formation and destruction of rocks, seasonal features in the development of vegetation and human economic activity. It is interesting that different landscapes of the planet have different daily and annual rhythms. Thus, the annual rhythm is best expressed in temperate latitudes and very weakly in the equatorial belt.

Of great practical interest is the study of longer rhythms: 11-12 years, 22-23 years, 80-90 years, 1850 years and longer, but, unfortunately, they are still less studied than the daily and annual rhythms.

Natural zones of the globe, their brief characteristics

The great Russian scientist V.V. At the end of the last century, Dokuchaev substantiated planetary law of geographical zoning- a natural change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amounts of precipitation. Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, the law of geographic zonation is subject to weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes; zonal climate, surface waters of land and ocean, soil cover, vegetation and fauna.

The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones. They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with climatic zones. Geographic zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in the general characteristics of atmospheric circulation. On land the following geographical zones are distinguished:

• equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres;
• subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere;
• subantarctic and antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere.

Belts with similar names have been identified in the World Ocean. The zonality in the ocean is reflected in changes from the equator to the poles in the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, etc.), as well as in changes in the composition of flora and fauna.

Within geographical zones, according to the ratio of heat and moisture, they are distinguished natural areas. The names of the zones are given according to the type of vegetation that predominates in them. For example, in the subarctic zone these are tundra and forest-tundra zones; in the temperate zone - forest zones (taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests), zones of forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

1. When brief description of natural areas globe in the entrance exam it is recommended to consider basic natural zones of the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and arctic zones of the northern hemisphere in the direction from the equator to the North Pole: the zone of evergreen forests (gile), the zone of savannas and woodlands, the zone of tropical deserts, the zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (Mediterranean ), temperate desert zone, deciduous and coniferous-deciduous (mixed) forest zone, taiga zone, tundra zone, ice zone (arctic desert zone).

When characterizing natural areas, it is necessary to adhere to the following plan.

1. Name of the natural area.
2. Features of its geographical location.
3. Main features of climate.
4. Predominant soils.
5. Vegetation.
6. Animal world.
7. The nature of human use of the natural resources of the zone.

The applicant can collect factual material to answer the specified questions of the plan using the thematic maps of the “Teacher’s Atlas”, which is required in the list of manuals and maps for the entrance exam in geography at KSU. This is not only not prohibited, but is also required by the “General Instructions” for standard programs for entrance exams in geography to Russian universities.

However, the characteristics of natural areas should not be “standardized”. It should be borne in mind that due to the heterogeneity of the relief and the earth's surface, the proximity and distance from the ocean (and, consequently, the heterogeneity of moisture), the natural zones of various regions of the continents do not always have a latitudinal extent. Sometimes they have an almost meridional direction, for example, on the Atlantic coast of North America, the Pacific coast of Eurasia, and other places. The natural zones that stretch latitudinally across the entire continent are also heterogeneous. They are usually divided into three segments, corresponding to the central inland and two oceanic sectors. Latitudinal, or horizontal, zoning is best expressed on large plains, such as the East European or West Siberian plains.

In the mountainous regions of the Earth, latitudinal zoning gives way to altitudinal zone landscapes with a natural change of natural components and natural complexes with an ascent into the mountains from their foothills to the peaks. It is caused by climate change with altitude: a decrease in temperature by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m of rise and an increase in precipitation up to a certain altitude (up to 2-3 km). The change of belts in the mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. However, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitude zones depends on the height of the mountains and the characteristics of their geographical location. The higher the mountains and the closer they are located to the equator, the richer their range (set) of altitude zones. The range of altitude zones in the mountains is also determined by the location of the mountain system relative to the ocean. In the mountains located near the ocean, a set of forest belts predominates; Inland (arid) sectors of continents are characterized by treeless high-altitude zones.

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