The purity of speech is violated due to the use of so-called speech cliches - hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness, and clericalism - words and expressions characteristic of texts of an official business style, used in live speech or in fiction (without a special stylistic task ).
The writer L. Uspensky in the book “Culture of Speech” writes: “We call stamps different devices that are unchanged in shape and give many identical prints. For linguistic and literary scholars, a “stamp” is a figure of speech or a word that was once new and shiny, like a newly issued coin, and then repeated a hundred thousand times and became captured, like a worn-out nickel”: the frost grew stronger, eyes wide open, colorful(instead of flowery), with great enthusiasm, completely and completely etc.
The disadvantage of speech cliches is that they deprive speech of originality, liveliness, make it gray and boring, and, in addition, create the impression that what was said (or written) is already known. Naturally, such speech cannot attract and maintain the attention of the addressee. This explains the need to combat cliches.
Widely introduced into speech and clericalism; we often encounter them in oral presentations and in print, noting that they are not always necessary. Here is an example from the book by B.N. Golovin “How to speak correctly”: “Let us remember what kind of “load” the word “question” receives in the speech of some speakers in all its variants: here it is “to illuminate the question” and “to link the question”, and “to justify the question” and “to raise the question” , and “promote the issue”, and “think through the issue”, and “raise the issue” (and even to the “proper level” and to the “proper height”).
Everyone understands that the word “question” in itself is not such a bad thing. Moreover, this word is necessary, and it has served and continues to serve our journalism and our business speech well. But when in an ordinary conversation, in a conversation, in a live performance, instead of the simple and understandable word “told,” people hear “clarified the issue,” and instead of “offered to exchange experience,” “raised the question of exchanging experience,” they become a little sad.” You can also consider phrases such as this opinion(instead of this is an opinion), due attention, due attention, I will focus on academic performance, I will focus on shortcomings, I will focus on absenteeism etc. K.I. Chukovsky believed that clogging speech with such words is a kind of disease, clericalism. Also N.V. Gogol ridiculed expressions like: before starting reading; tobacco directed to the nose; to obstruct his intention; an event that will happen tomorrow. Often high school students write in essays on Russian language and literature in the following style: Andrei Bolkonsky wants to escape from the environment; Oak played a big role in starting a new life.
In oral and written speech, phrases with derivative prepositions are used without any measure or need: from the side, by, along the line, in section, for the purposes of, in fact, by virtue of etc. However, in fiction such constructions can be used with a special stylistic purpose and act as an artistic device. See, for example, the use of a construction with a preposition because of for the speech characteristics of the personnel in A.P.’s story. Chekhov's "Unter Prishibeev": - Yes, I say, you know that Mr. Magistrate, if they wish, you can be sent to the provincial gendarmerie department for such words because of your unreliable behavior?
In conclusion, it must be said that speech cliches, business vocabulary and phraseology themselves are needed in certain types of speech, but one must constantly ensure that their use is appropriate so that stylistic errors do not occur.
§5. Weed words
In works of fiction, weed words are often used to create a speech characteristic of a particular character (they, of course, should be absent in the author’s speech). Here is an example of Akim’s “statements” from the play by L.N. Tolstoy's "The Power of Darkness":
Peter (enters and sits down): So what about it, Uncle Akim?
Akim: Better, Ignatyich, as if better, that is, better... Because as if not the same. Pampering, that means. I would like to, that is, to get to work, that means, I would like a little something. And if you, that means, you can do the same. It's better to...
Peter: Do you want to leave your son at home? It's accurate. How can I get the money?
Akim: That’s right, that’s right, Ignatyich, he said that, that means, that’s right, that’s why he got hired, sold out - let him live out that, that means, that’s just , that is, to marry; for a while, that means, let go, if anything.
Jargon and linguistic elements not permitted by moral standards
Jargon (French jargon) is the language of individual social groups, communities, artificially created for the purpose of linguistic isolation, separation from the rest of a given linguistic community. It is distinguished mainly by the presence of words that are incomprehensible to the uninitiated (military jargon, thieves' jargon, sports jargon, school jargon, gamblers' jargon, etc.). Slang vocabulary is sometimes called slang (from the English slang); it is used by people united by the same profession or occupation. For example, among students and schoolchildren there is jargon fall asleep- answer the teacher’s question poorly and fail the exam; tail-academic debt; bad-score "2"; tribal-"3"; pine trees-that’s what elementary school students call high school students, etc.
Researchers note the active process of jargonization of literary speech, especially the speech of young people. This phenomenon often becomes the subject of discussion both among specialists and everyone interested in issues of the Russian language. At the same time, some see jargon as a great harm to literary speech, while others believe that the passion for jargon goes away with age.
In youth jargon there is a peculiar “anglicization” of it, i.e. it is based on foreign language borrowings: girl - gerla, boots - shoes, man - Maine, label - label, gramophone record - science, be in love - mend, make a phone call - ring, record player - taper, money - mani etc.
Linguists who study jargon believe that “vulgarization of speech is characteristic of the younger generation and often comes not from bad thoughts and inclinations, but rather from the unconscious desire of adolescents to look rudely masculine, more mature, experienced. However, being a transitory phenomenon, jargon is all- can still leave (and often leaves!) a mark on a person’s linguistic development... A person who is accustomed from a young age to vulgar, stylistically reduced words and expressions subsequently finds it difficult to learn to express his thoughts correctly and competently.”
As we can see, in general, the very emergence and spread of jargon in speech is assessed as a negative phenomenon in the life of society and the development of the national language. However, the introduction of slang elements into the literary language is acceptable in some cases: to create a certain flavor, which has a specific “slang” coloring, of the speech characteristics of the characters. Here, for example, are the means used to create the speech characteristics of the characters in the Weiner brothers’ novel “Vertical Wall Races”:
You keep talking... - Bakuma grinned and began to close the door. But I had already inserted my foot into the gap.
I'm not racing. And don't rush either.
Take your leg. I'll press it now. You'll limp.
Press me, dear. This has always been the law of the thieves - they have to decide to fly to the cap. So that the trash can kick me more deftly.
And here’s how the heroines of V. Kunin’s story “Intergirl” explain themselves: He did a good job of tracking ours. He even received a bonus at his company for his knowledge of the Russian language; There is such an elderly driver standing in front of me, his truck is on the panda; Very poppy glasses!; Every suit-piece, half and half. Boots-six hundred, seven hundred!; She is still under the bank etc.
In poetry, jargon is used less frequently:
Summer lakes from the cold with brandy.
The swans fell asleep
like pretzels.
(A. Voznesensky).
However, it should be noted that there should be as few such elements as possible in fiction. Jargon should not be allowed to be popularized through television, cinema, or fiction, since jargon is always used to denote concepts that already have names in the common language. And it is unlikely that these generally accepted and, most importantly, understandable names for objects and phenomena of reality should be “classified” using slang words.
A significant layer of slang and colloquial vocabulary consists of swear words and vulgar words, which give individual objects and phenomena a sharply negative description. Words slam, mug, bastard, cretin, zenki and similar ones, unfortunately, are used quite often, due to their falsely understood emotionality, as one of the ways to assert one’s “I”. Vulgar, abusive words and expressions in speech, foul language indicate, first of all, the low culture of the speaker, and not only verbal, but also general. We must strive to master the real, not imaginary, riches and expressive capabilities of literary and popular speech and protect it in every possible way from such words and expressions.
Lecture 19. Logicality and expressiveness of the teacher’s speech.
The concept of logic in teacher speech.
Expressiveness of the teacher's speech.
1. Logicality of speech is a communicative quality that presupposes the ability to consistently, consistently and with argumentation formulate the expressed content.
Logicity, like accuracy, characterizes speech from the perspective of its content and is formed on the basis of the connection of speech with reality and thinking. But in contrast to accuracy, which evaluates the correspondence of the semantics of the reflected reality to what one would like to express, consistency characterizes the structure of speech, its organization and evaluates the semantic connections of linguistic units in speech from the point of view of the laws of logic and correct thinking. These connections are recognized as logically consistent if they correspond to the connections and relationships of reality and correctly reflect the structure of thought. Consequently, we can talk about two types of logic: substantive and conceptual.
Subject logic consists in the correspondence of semantic connections and relations of units of language and speech with the connections and relationships of objects and phenomena in reality.
Conceptual logic is an adequate reflection of the structure of thought and its development in the semantic connections of the components of speech.
Substantive and conceptual logic are interconnected and usually act in unity for a specific act of communication. Their divergence is observed in cases where the essence of phenomena and objects, their connections and relationships in reality are perceived incorrectly or are distorted either deliberately (see, for example, fiction, fairy tales, etc.) or unintentionally as a result of logical errors made in the process of thinking.
Extralinguistic conditions for the logic of speech Conditions of logic can be extralinguistic (“non-structural”) and strictly linguistic (structural).
The first condition is the ability to think logically; A well-known aphorism says: “He who thinks clearly, speaks clearly.” And for this it is necessary that every act of thinking corresponds to the basic laws of logic: the laws of identity, contradiction, excluded middle, sufficient reason. They correlate with such features of speech as consistency, certainty, consistency and validity of thought.
The consistency of the development of thought, its certainty (unambiguousness, clarity, stability of its content) are achieved through compliance with the logical law of identity, according to which each thought within one reasoning, one proof, one theory must remain unchanged, retain the same content. The subject of thought itself or our knowledge about it can change. However, in the process of reasoning, one knowledge about a subject should not be replaced by another, otherwise the reasoning becomes pointless and non-specific.
Violation of the law of identity leads to such a logical error as substitution of the thesis, substitution of the topic under discussion for another, inconsistency of the arguments of the proof with the thesis, i.e. the position that is being proven is justified. In this case, the proof in relation to another thesis may be correct; the error lies precisely in the substitution of the thesis.
Consistency of thinking is ensured by observing the law of contradiction (or, as it is also called, the law of non-contradiction), according to which two mutually exclusive judgments about the same object, taken at the same time and in the same relation, cannot to be true at the same time. For example, if of two judgments Today at 12 o'clock I was at the cinema And Today at 12 o'clock Rustam was at the stadium one is true, then the other, according to the law of contradiction, is false. True are judgments that correspond to reality. Yes, the statement The earth revolves around the sun true because it states a fact that actually occurs. The statements The earth does not revolve around the sun or The sun revolves around the earth are false because they are inconsistent with reality.
Truth cannot be born if the same thing is viewed from different points of view. For example, such a fact as Rain is coming, can be assessed both positively and negatively depending on from what position it is assessed: positively if there was a long drought and everyone was looking forward to the rain, negatively from the point of view of someone who was going for a walk outside the city.
Associated with the law of contradiction is the law of excluded middle, the meaning of which is as follows: of two contradictory judgments, one must be true and the other false, and there cannot be a third judgment that is true in relation to the same subject at the same time. This law applies only to contradictory judgments, i.e. judgments that negate each other: Yesterday the concert took place-Yesterday the concert did not take place. This is a rectangle-It's not a rectangle. This law is aimed against inconsistency and contradictory reasoning.
The laws of identity, contradiction and excluded middle interact with each other and acquire true meaning only if the law of sufficient reason is observed, according to which every correct thought must be reasoned; in order to recognize a judgment about an object as true, sufficient reasons must be indicated. The main tool of thinking in this case is inferences, which are realized in such mental operations as analysis, synthesis, analogy, deduction, induction. Compliance with this law ensures evidence and validity of reasoning. As an example, let us give the following excerpt from the book by L.K. Graudina "Issues of normalization of the Russian language":
The length of time during which competing forms coexist... varies in length even within the same type of variant. Thus, for the abbreviation NEP, the gender form changed from feminine to masculine within just one year (1921 - 1922), while for the abbreviation ZhEK, gender variants have coexisted for about 30 years (since the organization of housing maintenance offices in the 50s) and The norm has not yet stabilized completely. For electrical units of measurement type watt, volt, ampere and other cule forms of the genus. pl. supplanted the competitive traditional (on -s) for 30 years (from 1870 to 1900), and household units of measurement gram, kilogram in genus pl. have had two variant forms for half a century.
The correctness of the judgment that the period of time during which competing forms coexist varies in length even within the same type of variants, the researcher substantiates by analyzing statistical data.
Knowledge of the laws of logic and the ability to use them, as well as such categories and mental operations as concepts, their definition and division, analysis, synthesis, judgment, inference, analogy, etc., are necessary in order to master the logic of reasoning, to learn logically think, establish patterns of connections between phenomena of reality, analyze and prove the truth of this or that statement, etc.
Linguistic conditions for the logic of speech The actual linguistic, or structural, condition for the logic of speech is mastery of the logic of presentation. The structural prerequisite for the logical presentation of thoughts is the correct compatibility (syntagmatics) of language elements at the lexical-semantic, morphological and syntactic levels. The logical nature of the presentation is manifested in the accuracy of the use of words and phrases, in the correct construction of sentences and coherent text as a whole, i.e. is closely related to the accuracy and correctness of speech and relies on them.
The correct use of words, which contributes to the creation of conceptual accuracy, is at the same time one of the prerequisites for the logic of speech. The use of words not in accordance with their meaning often leads not only to inaccuracy of speech, but also to illogicalities. For example, in the sentence In summer, fires break out in forests due to careless handling of fire. semantics of the word thanks to contradicts the content of the thought. The meaning of the statement Utilities must be paid not only on the first day of each month, but also earlier as a result of incorrect use of the word necessary(instead of Can) does not correspond to reality: it turns out that utilities must be paid twice.
If homonyms and ambiguous words are used incorrectly in speech, one of the most common logical errors can occur - ambiguity in the understanding of the statement (amphiboly): By the age of 25, my son had settled down(received an academic degree or became sedate?); The defender sat down tiredly on the bench(defense player or one who protects someone, something from encroachment, attack, etc.?). Incorrect usage of words, due to poor or insufficient knowledge of reality, is the cause of non-distinction of concepts (substitution of concepts, their unjustified expansion or narrowing, use of a specific concept instead of a generic one and vice versa): The highest milk yields were obtained from animals that calved in the spring(species concept cow replaced by generic animal), Hippolyta Shalom embodied the best features of a working people(Right in the image of Ippolit Shaly...).
Unmotivated omission of words often leads to distortion or obfuscation of the meaning of a statement and substitution of concepts.
The logic of speech is associated not only with the lexical level of the language system, but also with the syntactic organization of the utterance; it depends on the correct construction of sentences and coherent text as a whole. Logical speech is characterized by such an arrangement of words, sentences and their parts, which makes it possible to strictly consistently assimilate the expressed thought and does not allow inconsistencies or contradictions in its linguistic design.
One of the conditions for creating logical speech is the consistency of the combination of one word with another. Combining words within a statement that denote logically unrelated concepts leads to alogisms like rush slowly, cavalcade of cars, ether sniper and so on.
Ambiguity and ambiguity often arise as a result of incorrect construction of sentences with noun phrases in which the genitive case can have the meaning of both the subject and the object of the action (calling a doctor, blaming a friend, inviting a teacher, supporting a friend etc.), as well as sentences with phrases in which case endings have different grammatical meanings (help from mother, gift from daughter, thanks to Maria etc.). Yes, statements The comrade’s accusation is quite fair; Mother's help came in handy more than ever have a double meaning: accusation brought... And accusation brought against a comrade...; mother helped someone And someone helped her. A similar phenomenon is observed when using the complement in the form of the dative case in impersonal sentences: I would like to wish the teacher...; the student should answer...; I need to advise the director... and so on. (it is unclear: the teacher wants to wish something or is approached with a wish; whether the director himself should advise or someone should advise him).
Alogisms are common in speech, caused by unsuccessful construction of sentences with pronouns. Characterized by the generality of their lexical meaning, pronouns in context are filled with a specific meaning from the words associated with them. Therefore, sentences must be constructed in such a way as to create clarity and certainty in the understanding of which word the pronoun refers to. So, in the statement In the city registry office, a sleepy, obviously sick woman was lighting the stove. With her wrinkled lips tightly pursed, she, without any emotion, entered the registration of our marriage into the book.(B. Pikul) it is clear that the pronoun she refers to a noun woman, since both sentences are constructed in the same way: a woman was lighting the stove...-she made a note... In the statement Tomorrow the school doors will open to schoolchildren. Rested over the summer, they will sit down at their desks again as a result of the fact that the word doors not only turned out to be closer to the pronoun, but is also the subject, nonsense arose.
When using a reflexive pronoun myself and possessive his, her, theirs, yours Alogisms usually arise in cases where there are two subjects of action in a statement: The master told the student to repair his table(whose table: masters or student!); The father suggested that his son hang a portrait in his room(in the son’s or father’s room?). Ambiguity can also arise in statements with one subject: The engineer told Polikarpov that the director had urgently left for the district committee and asked him to leave him his project(asked the engineer or Polikarpov, leave it to the engineer or director?).
The cause of logical errors may be a violation of the syntactic connection in sentences containing phrases with prepositions despite, instead of, except, besides, along with etc. Turns with such prepositions, as a rule, are controlled by predicates: Instead of a hat while walking, he put on a frying pan(K. Chukovsky). Violation of this rule leads to a violation of semantic connections between parts of the statement: In addition to improving academic performance, students carried out a lot of community service; In addition to work, he studies by correspondence at the institute.
Alogisms also arise as a result of combining words denoting generic and specific concepts as homogeneous members of a sentence: Over the last five years, two schools, a hospital, a club, a cinema, and cultural and educational institutions have been built in the area(the concepts of “club” and “cinema” are included in the concept of “cultural and educational institutions”).
Words expressing overlapping concepts cannot be combined as homogeneous members of a sentence: parents and adults, boys and youth, children and schoolchildren. However, some combinations, contrary to the rules of logic, have become established in the language as normative: pioneers and schoolchildren, festival of youth and students, art and literature and etc.
An important condition for the logic of speech is the accurate and consistent expression by linguistic means of connections and relationships between parts of a sentence, as well as between individual sentences in the whole text. Lexical repetitions, pronouns, function words (prepositions, conjunctions), particles, introductory words and phrases used as linguistic means of expressing connections (firstly, secondly, therefore, it means etc.) must correspond to the nature of semantic relationships between parts of a sentence or individual sentences, emphasize the unity and consistency of thought, integrity of content, and specify the nature of the relationships between statements.
In the logical organization of written speech, the correct division of the text into paragraphs is very important. It contributes to the clear construction of statements, the unification of thoughts into micro-themes, and facilitates the perception of what is written.
The logic of speech is closely related to word order and intonation, i.e. with means of expressing the actual division of the utterance. The logic of the development of thought requires movement from the known to the unknown, the new. In speech, this logical pattern is manifested in the semantic division of the utterance into two components: theme (the starting point of the utterance, given, known from the previous context or situation) and rheme (the communicative center of the utterance, communicating something new). The theme is usually located at the beginning of the sentence and is emphasized by raising the tone, and the rheme is at the end and is emphasized by phrasal stress. Phrase stress can move from one word to another, emphasizing an informationally significant component and, accordingly, giving a different meaning to the statement. Compare sentences with the same syntactic structure: In the evening my brother arrived-In the evening my brother arrived - My brother arrived in the evening. The order of words in a sentence is determined by the communicative task of the message: Golden rye (golden-definition, one-part sentence, nominative) - Golden rye (golden)- predicate, two-part sentence). With different word orders, the meaning of the sentence and its communicative task are different: The poplar has outgrown the maple-The maple has outgrown the poplar.
When constructing a statement, it is necessary to ensure that the semantic connections between parts of sentences and individual sentences are not broken, the meaning is not distorted, and amphiboly does not arise. Poor word order makes it difficult to quickly perceive a thought; For example: The commission at the Faculty of Philology noted the good preparation of the students; and in sentences like Pavel Vlasov predicts the death of the old system from the position of the proletariat with its physical decrepitude leads to a distortion of meaning: it turns out that physical decrepitude is characteristic of the proletariat, and not the old system.
Logical speech and functional styles Logicity, as a communicative quality of speech, is characteristic of every functional style, since it is based on the connection between speech and thinking, and the laws of thinking are the same for all spheres and situations of communication. However, in each of them these laws operate differently.
Scientific presentation is most strictly subject to the laws of logic: emphasized logic is one of the main specific features that determine the selection and organization of linguistic means in a scientific style. The purpose of science is to obtain new knowledge about reality, systematize it and prove its truth, to reveal the patterns of phenomena. Human scientific activity includes two inextricably linked tasks: the process of scientific search, discovery and registration of the results of scientific knowledge. The results of a scientific search are presented in the form of a speech message, the content of which must be succinct and at the same time clear, unambiguous, adequately conveying logical thought and clearly perceived by all recipients. In scientific speech, discrepancies, double understanding of meaning, allegory, and allusion are unacceptable. Scientific speech, as emphasized by A.N. Vasilyeva, is fundamentally without subtext - the subtext contradicts its essence.
In artistic speech, a thought, being expressed in figurative form, is polysemantic and can be understood in different ways. Critics and readers bring in an element of their understanding of the content and idea of the work, artistic images. In a work of art, behind the direct, immediate content there is a hidden background - subtext. Moreover, in understanding the author’s intention, it can be more significant than the direct meaning. Thus, artistic images of fairy tales by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "The Wise Minnow", "Bear in the Voivodeship" and others or fables by I.A. Krylov, for example, “The Wolf and the Lamb”, “The Wolf in the Kennel”, being specifically related, also have a figurative meaning, which is more significant in terms of revealing the idea of the work.
The basic laws of logic, which govern human thinking as a whole, are also observed in the literary and artistic style. It, like other book styles, is characterized by consistency, consistency of presentation, argumentation, and clearly defined connections between words, sentences and their parts. However, the requirements of logic in a work of art are subject to the need to reveal its content, the author’s intention, and create an image with the aim of aesthetically influencing the reader. Therefore, in fiction it is quite acceptable to violate the requirements of logic in order to show the peculiarities of thinking and consciousness of individual characters. Alogisms are used as a stylistic device of intentionally breaking logical connections in order to create comedy, irony, etc. (for example, as noted above, a connection in the form of a listing of heterogeneous concepts). In addition, in artistic speech there are many so-called “external” alogisms that convey the complexity of life circumstances, the internal state of a person, subjective feelings, etc.: ringing silence; sweet sorrow; black lightning like(M. Gorky), loveless love(A.N. Tolstoy). Such phrases, at first glance, contradict the logical relationships of concepts, but behind the external illogicality there is usually hidden its own, special logic.
“External” alogisms are also characteristic of journalistic and colloquial speech; they are associated with the logic of subtextual communication (for example: - Where did he go?-He'll come now;-Where are you running?-I'm late) or reflect the contradictory essence of phenomena (clever fool, bitter joy) inconsistency of subjective interpretations (brainless sages), desire for imagery, emotionality, expression (get away with it, try your best) etc.
Hidden logic, characteristic of colloquial, artistic and journalistic styles, is unacceptable in scientific speech. Logical violations that are insignificant in everyday communication can lead to serious distortions of the truth in scientific speech.
Alogism in linguistics is defined as follows: “Alogism (from the Greek. A--not-, without- + logismos - reason, reasoning). Something illogical, contrary to logic" (Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. P. 20).
2. The expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also his feelings and imagination.
The expressiveness of speech depends on many reasons and conditions - strictly linguistic and extralinguistic.
One of the main conditions for expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which presupposes a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, and deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing and effective. If the author does not properly think through the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.
To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, and concern for its content gives speech (especially oral) an emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude to the content of the statement leads to a dispassionate presentation of the truth, which cannot influence the feelings of the addressee.
In direct communication, the relationship between the speaker and the listener is also important, the psychological contact between them, which arises primarily on the basis of joint mental activity: the addresser and the addressee must solve the same problems, discuss the same issues: the first - by presenting the topic of his message, the second - by following for the development of his thoughts. In establishing psychological contact, what is important is the attitude of both the speaker and the listener to the subject of speech, their interest, and indifference to the content of the statement.
In addition to deep knowledge of the subject of the message, expressive speech also presupposes the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee and arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection of linguistic means, taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features of functional styles.
One of the prerequisites for verbal expressiveness is skills that allow you to easily select the language means needed in a particular act of communication. Such skills are developed through systematic and deliberate training. The means of training speech skills is careful reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attention to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness ).
The verbal expressiveness of an individual also depends on the conscious intention to achieve it, on the author’s target setting for it.
The expressive means of language usually include tropes (figurative use of linguistic units) and stylistic figures, calling them figurative and expressive means. However, the expressive capabilities of language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of language at all levels (even a single sound), as well as non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) can become a means of expressiveness.
Phonetic means of expression. Euphony of speech As you know, spoken speech is the main form of existence of language. The sound organization of speech and the aesthetic role of sounds are dealt with by a special branch of stylistics - phonics. Phonics evaluates the peculiarities of the sound structure of a language, determines the conditions of euphony characteristic of each national language, explores various techniques for enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech, and teaches the most perfect, artistically justified and stylistically appropriate sound expression of thought.
The sound expressiveness of speech lies primarily in its euphony, harmony, in the use of rhythm, rhyme, alliteration (repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and other means. Phonics is primarily interested in the sound organization of poetic speech, in which the importance of phonetic means is especially great. Along with this, the sound expressiveness of artistic prose and some genres of journalism (primarily on radio and television) is also explored. In non-literary speech, phonics solves the problem of the most appropriate sound organization of linguistic material, facilitating the accurate expression of thought, since the correct use of phonetic means of language ensures quick (and without interference) perception of information, eliminates discrepancies, and eliminates unwanted associations that interfere with the understanding of the statement. For fluency of understanding, the euphony of speech is of great importance, i.e. a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasant to the ear (musicality).
Thus, every native speaker should try to avoid the obsessive repetition of identical and similar sounds, the use of dissonant word forms, difficult to pronounce combinations of sounds when connecting words, and skillfully use the expressive capabilities of the sounding side of speech.
Vocabulary and phraseology as the main source of expressiveness of speech The expressive capabilities of a word are associated primarily with its semantics, with its use in a figurative meaning. There are many varieties of figurative use of words, their common name is tropes (Greek tropos - turn; turnover, image). The trope is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness in some respect. The most common types of tropes are comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, personification, epithet, periphrasis. Thanks to the figurative metaphorical use of the word, figurative speech is created. Therefore, tropes are usually classified as means of verbal imagery, or figurative ones.
Metaphorization, one of the most common ways of creating imagery, covers a huge number of commonly used, neutral and stylistically marked words, primarily polysemantic ones. The ability of a word to have not one, but several meanings of a conventional nature, as well as the possibility of updating its semantics, its unusual, unexpected rethinking, lies at the basis of lexical figurative means.
The strength and expressiveness of tropes lies in their originality, novelty, and unusualness: the more unusual and original a particular trope is, the more expressive it is. Tropes that have lost their imagery over time (for example, metaphors of a general linguistic nature such as sharp vision, the clock is running, a bayou, a bottle neck, warm relationships, an iron character or comparisons that have turned into speech cliches, such as reflected as in a mirror; cowardly as a hare; runs like a red thread) do not contribute to the expressiveness of speech.
Vocabulary with emotionally expressive overtones is especially expressive. It affects our feelings and evokes emotions. Expressiveness of speech is achieved through a motivated, purposeful collision of words of different functional, stylistic and emotionally expressive colors.
In addition to metaphorization and emotional-expressive coloring of the word, polysemantics in their non-figurative meanings, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, vocabulary of limited use, archaisms, neologisms, etc. are used as means of expressiveness.
The skillful use of synonyms allows us to pay attention to this or that detail, express a certain attitude towards the named object or phenomenon, evaluate it and, therefore, enhance the expressiveness of speech. Synonyms can perform the function of comparison and even opposition of the concepts they denote. At the same time, attention is drawn not to the common features that are characteristic of similar objects or phenomena, but to the differences between them: Nikitin wanted... not just to think, but to think (Yu. Bondarev).
Antonyms are used in speech as an expressive means of creating contrast and sharp opposition. They underlie the creation of antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure built on a sharp contrast of words with opposite meanings. This stylistic device is widely used by poets, writers, and publicists to add emotionality and extraordinary expressiveness to speech.
Lexical repetitions enhance the expressiveness of speech. They help highlight an important concept in the text, delve deeper into the content of the statement, and give the speech an emotionally expressive coloring. For example: HERO-protector, hero-winner, hero-bearer of all the high qualities in which the popular imagination dresses him(A.N. Tolstoy); In war, you need to be able to endure grief. Mountain feeds the heart, like fuel fuels an engine. Grief fuels hatred. Vile foreigners captured Kyiv. This-g op e each of us. This is the grief of the entire people(I. Ehrenburg).
A living and inexhaustible source of expressiveness of speech are phraseological combinations characterized by imagery, expressiveness and emotionality, which allows not only to name an object or phenomenon, but also to express a certain attitude towards it. Due to their imagery and expressiveness, phraseological units can be used unchanged in the familiar lexical environment. In addition, phrasemes are often used in a transformed form or in an unusual lexical environment, which allows them to increase their expressive capabilities. Each artist’s methods of using and creatively processing phraseological units are individual and quite diverse. For example, Gorky's phraseme bend (bend) to death(“to cruelly exploit, tyrannize”) was used in an unusual context, semantically changing it: Next to him, the old soldier... walked the Lawyer, bent over, without a hat..., with his hands deep in his pockets. General linguistic phraseological turnover measure with your eyes the writer deliberately dismembers with the help of explanatory words, as a result of which his figurative core appears more clearly: He[prisoner] looked Efimushka up and down with narrowed eyes that lit up with anger. A favorite technique for transforming phraseological units in Gorky’s early stories is replacing one of the components: out of sight(dictionary phraseology - disappear from your eyes), hang your head (lose your spirit), fray your nerves (fray your nerves) and etc.
The expressive capabilities of phraseological units are increased by their ability to enter into synonymous relationships with each other. Reducing phrasemes into a synonymous series or simultaneous use of lexical and phraseological synonyms significantly enhances the expressive coloring of speech: You and I are not a couple... A goose is not a friend to a pig, a drunk is not related to a sober(A. Chekhov); They scratch their tongues all day long, wash the bones of their neighbors(from colloquial speech).
Expressive Grammar Features Grammatical means of expressiveness are less significant and less noticeable compared to lexical and phraseological ones. Grammatical forms, phrases and sentences correlate with words and, to one degree or another, depend on them. Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology comes to the fore, while the expressive capabilities of grammar are relegated to the background.
The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use of grammatical forms.
A variety of expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of number of nouns instead of another. Thus, the singular forms of personal nouns in the collective meaning vividly convey generalized plurality. Pronouns are characterized by a richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, pronouns some, some, some, used when naming persons, introduce a connotation of disdain into speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).
The uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, comedy. Special expressive shades are created by the opposition of pronouns We-you, our-your when emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.
Verbal categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, and the ability to be used figuratively have great expressive capabilities. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use in speech synonymous replacements of some forms of tense, aspect, mood or finite forms of the verb with others. The additional semantic shades that appear in this case increase the expression of the expression. Thus, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, forms 3 can be used - th person singular, which gives the statement a disparaging connotation (He's still arguing!) 1st person plural (Well, how are we relaxing?- meaning ‘resting, resting’) with a hint of sympathy or special interest, infinitive with a particle would with a hint of desirability (You should rest a little; You should visit him).
The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination.
The search for fresh, accurate combinations, expansion, updating of lexical compatibility is characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic speech: She-a young woman, Greek, suspected of loving freedom(from newspapers). Collocation suspected of loving freedom gives a clear idea of the situation in which love of freedom is considered a very suspicious quality.
Since the times of Ancient Greece, a special semantic type of phrases has been known - oxymoron (Greek oxy moron - witty-stupid), i.e. "a stylistic figure consisting of a combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another" (hot snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, ringing silence). An oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, emphasizing their complexity and inconsistency. For example:
(V. Fedorov)
An oxymoron is widely used in fiction and journalism as a bright, catchy title, the meaning of which is usually revealed by the content of the entire text. Thus, in the newspaper "Soviet Sport" a report from the World Team Chess Championship was entitled "Original Template." The original template is the attempt of grandmaster Polugaevsky to make wider use of the typical positions that appeared on the board, analyzed in detail in textbooks on chess theory, knowledge of which makes it easier for the athlete to find a way out.
According to the apt definition of A.S. Pushkin, “language is inexhaustible in combining words,” therefore, its expressive capabilities are inexhaustible. Updating connections between words leads to updating verbal meanings. In some cases, this manifests itself in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others - in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by short-range, but by long-range connections of words, individual parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, the poem by A.S. is constructed. Pushkin’s “I loved you”, which is an example of expressive speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive color and semantic connotations, and only one periphrasis (Love, perhaps, has not yet completely faded away in my soul). The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness through the methods of combining words within the entire poem, organizing its speech structure as a whole and individual words as elements of this structure.
An emotional-evaluative attitude to the content of a statement can be expressed using exclamatory sentences: How beautiful life seems to me when I meet restless, caring, enthusiastic, searching, generous-hearted people in it!(V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: Fate has reached its conclusion!(M. Lermontov), segmented and parceled structures: Winter-it is so long, so endless; Tal, where we will live, is a real forest, not like our grove... With mushrooms, with berries(V. Panova), etc.
It enlivens the narrative, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author’s speech, to more clearly show his internal state, attitude to the subject of the message, direct and improperly direct speech. It is more emotional, expressive and persuasive than indirect.
They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of definitely personal proposals; Nominatives have great semantic capacity and expressiveness; a variety of emotions are expressed by vocative and other sentences: The people of the whole earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let us take care of peace! // Let's stand as one,-// Let's say: we won't let // Start a war again(A. Zharov); Eh, roads! //Dust and fog, //Cold, anxiety //Yes, steppe weeds(L. Oshanin); - Verochka, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us!(Pause.) Verochka! Don't be lazy, get up, honey!(A. Chekhov).
In the practice of oratory, a special technique has been developed for using interrogative sentences - the question-and-answer move (the speaker poses questions and answers them himself): How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for heroism, but were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily(S. Alexievich).
The question-and-answer course dialogizes monologue speech, makes the addressee an interlocutor of the speaker, and activates his attention. Dialogization enlivens the narrative and gives it expressiveness.
Thus, the expressiveness of speech can be created by the most ordinary, stylistically unmarked linguistic units thanks to their skillful, most appropriate use in the context in accordance with the content of the utterance, its functional and stylistic coloring, general expressive orientation and purpose.
As means of speech expressiveness in a certain situation, deviations from the norms of the literary language are deliberately used: the use in one context of units of different stylistic colors, the collision of semantically incompatible units, non-normative formations of grammatical forms, non-normative construction of sentences, etc. The basis of such use is the conscious choice of linguistic means based on deep knowledge of the language.
It is possible to achieve verbal expressiveness only with the correct correlation of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and the author’s goal setting.
Paralinguistic means of expression The expressiveness of oral speech is facilitated, along with linguistic ones, by paralinguistic (non-linguistic) means: gestures, facial expressions, pantomime. They are usually associated with a specific statement and serve as a complement to linguistic means of expression.
Accompanying speech, paralinguistic means enhance the shades of emotional coloring of words, complement intonation, emphasize the necessary semantic parts of the statement, and illustrate the thought expressed in words. Their main purpose is to clarify thoughts, revive them, and enhance the emotional sound of speech. Emotional speech in any sphere of communication, as a rule, is accompanied by corresponding gestures, body movements and facial expressions that convey certain feelings.
We can distinguish general and individual paralinguistic means. The first ones are specific to all speakers of the Russian language, for example, agreement can be accompanied by a movement of the head from top to bottom, disagreement or denial - by moving the head from side to side, persistence, demandingness - by moving a clenched fist from top to bottom, etc. Individual paralinguistic means are different for different representatives, even of the same nationality: each speaker finds his own gesture, his own body movements, each has an individual facial expression. A successfully found expressive gesture that corresponds to the meaning of a statement or a single word increases the effectiveness of speech.
Gestures are an integral part of oratory, where they are used as a means of influencing listeners. It is no coincidence that special chapters were devoted to gestures in oratory in various rhetorics, starting from ancient times.
Paralinguistic means also play an important role in ordinary communication, expressing the speaker’s various emotions, enhancing the meaning of words, expressions and statements in general.
Theorists of oratory note that gestures, body movements, and facial expressions are only expressive and effective when they are varied (different words require different emphasis), moderate (the more sparing the gestures, the more convincing they are), and involuntary; when they correspond to the spiritual impulses of the speaker and the content of the utterance. Excessive expressiveness of the face, frequent repetition of the same gestures, their monotony, mechanical body movements (swaying the body, waving the hand, tapping the foot, etc.), as well as the artificiality, artificiality of gestures, their inconsistency with the meaning of what was said, irritate listeners and distract them from the content of speech. Paralinguistic means should not replace words, since they are always poorer than words. It’s not for nothing that popular wisdom says: “If you can’t explain it with words, then you can’t open it with your fingers.”
The skillful use of linguistic and paralinguistic means of expressiveness contributes to the individualization of speech, its brightness, originality, which, in turn, arouses interest in the personality of the author and increases attention to the content of his statement. The ability to use the expressive capabilities of language requires not only knowledge, but also a developed linguistic-stylistic sense, as well as skills in using linguistic units in speech.
Functional styles in their relation to speech expressiveness The choice of means of speech expression, just like the choice of linguistic means in general, is determined by the sphere of communication, situation and purpose. In each of the functional styles, expressiveness is achieved using different linguistic means, the selection and organization of which, their functional activity are determined by the specific features of a particular style. Thus, intonation is a clear means of expressiveness in a conversational style, since this style is realized mainly in oral form. Paralinguistic means also play an important role here. As expressive means in literary, artistic and journalistic styles, tropes, stylistic figures, and linguistic units with emotional and expressive overtones are widely used, which contributes to the maximum extent to the implementation of one of the main functions of these styles. For scientific and official business speech, the use of such units is not typical, since they do not contribute to the accuracy of presentation.
The expressiveness of scientific speech is achieved thanks to the most appropriate arrangement of words, phrases, sentences and entire parts of a statement from a logical point of view, thanks to clarity, rigor, clarity of syntactic structures, accuracy and consistency of presentation. Fine and expressive means can be used in popular science and in works of the humanities. A real popularizer, in the fair opinion of D.I. Pisarev, “must certainly be an artist of words.” In the scientific style, the most common technique is comparison as one of the logical forms of thinking. In oral scientific presentation, metaphors can be used as a means of expressiveness. Usually, metaphors in the scientific style are one of the means of naming objects or phenomena in cases where a special term for their designation has not yet been established in science: fragility of metal, excitation of the atom, language of an electronic computer, black hole and so on. As literary words turn into terms, their metaphorical nature is erased and gradually disappears. Demetaphorization is a systematic feature of the scientific style.
In an official business style, means of expressiveness are not commonly used, since they are contraindicated in such features of this style as accuracy, not allowing for double interpretation, formality and dispassionate presentation. Although in mixed genres, in particular in genres influenced by journalistic style (in diplomatic documents, communiqués, addresses, holiday orders, etc.), the use of means of expression is allowed. But in general, the formal business style does not contribute to maintaining verbal expressiveness. Moreover, it is the main source of speech cliches and bureaucracies that weaken it.
Expressive means are most widely used in literary, artistic and journalistic styles. In fiction, means of expression perform an aesthetic function; verbal expressiveness here is one of the main methods of influencing the reader. In a work of art, any linguistic unit can become stylistically significant and turn into a means of artistic depiction and expressiveness. Under the writer’s pen, the word seems to be born anew each time; reflecting the characteristics of the individual author's style, it should always be fresh and unique. The artist of words creatively transforms the units of language, expanding the scope of the usual ways of selecting and combining words, methods of using syntactic structures and intonations, and thus enriches speech with means of expressiveness. Exemplary literary texts and the study of the peculiarities of the use of linguistic units in them help to master the expressive capabilities of the language.
The journalistic style with its desire for expressiveness of expression and enlivening the narrative with fresh verbal turns also contributes to the strengthening of speech expressiveness. Publicists, like writers, are constantly looking for figurative means, using linguistic units that allow them not only to name an object, its action, property, etc., but also to express a certain attitude towards this object or phenomenon, to attract the attention of the addressee; resort to such methods of using linguistic units that maximally contribute to the implementation of the influence function. Journalism (especially such genres as essays and feuilletons), as well as artistic speech, is characterized by individual techniques for using linguistic means.
Lecture 20. Written and oral expression of thought.
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Introduction
What is a speech stamp?
Error Analysis
A) Stationery
B) Speech stamps
Disadvantages of speech cliches and bureaucracy
Conclusion
Introduction
Modern Russian, one of the richest languages in the world, requires serious, thoughtful study.
The high advantages of the Russian language are created by its huge vocabulary, wide ambiguity of words, wealth of synonyms, inexhaustible treasury of word formation, numerous word forms, peculiarities of sounds, mobility of stress, clear and harmonious syntax, and variety of stylistic resources.
However, mixing styles and incorrect use of terms make our speech meager and inexpressive. In particular, speech is clogged speech cliches and clericalisms.
Stamps- these are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Words, phrases and even whole sentences become cliches, which appear as new, stylistically expressive means of speech, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery. Example: A forest of hands went up during the vote. A type of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide etc. Usually universal words are accompanied by stencil pendants: work - everyday, level - high, support - warm. There are numerous journalistic cliches ( field workers, city on the Volga), literary studies ( exciting image, angry protest
Stationery
Verbal stamps and template expressions, grammatical forms and constructions inherent in the official business style of written speech and the “bureaucratic” version of oral speech, a special “office” (definition by K. Chukovsky), the jargon of officials, “officials”. These are, for example, “incoming” and “outgoing” (papers, document numbers), “execution of the decision to assign (report)”, “provide assistance”, “provide assistance” (instead of “help”, “assist”), “please consider", "work through the issue ( solution)", "involve (resource, people, departments, etc.)", "in accordance with the decision", "according to the decision" (instead of "by decision"), etc. K. - natural language phenomenon; they make it easier to compose, read and ultimately pass papers authorities". K. are idiomatic expressions of a special kind, among them many are archaic, inherited by the modern bureaucracy from their predecessors in the 19th century. K. can be considered as result linguistic “conservation of energy” - with the help of stamps and templates, writing and speaking is much easier and faster than using bright, expressive, artistic speech and language means.
What is a speech stamp?
SPEECH STAMP, a functional-stylistic device (stable phrase) selected by the language community, which for one reason or another is “convenient” or even mandatory for the implementation of certain communicative tasks. In their form, speech cliches can correlate (or even coincide) with stereotypes, cliches, quotes, paremias (proverbs) and other phenomena of this communicative field. The peculiarity of the stamp is not formal, but functional: stamps do not participate in linguistic manipulation or language play, and also do not create - unlike quotes and so on. - additional social meaning. Sources of speech stamps can be different. These may be structural borrowings from a language where a certain functional style has developed to a greater extent: this is how some cliches of Russian business speech arose, adopted from the Polish-Belarusian zone, which in turn was guided by Latin models. These can be standard samples developed in the process of communication, for example, addresses and farewell formulas in business letters and telegrams. Speech stamps of this kind can be subject to diachronic changes, for example, address Your Majesty fell out of use, but circulation became normal Dear...(considered unacceptable even before the Second World War: it was normative Dear).
When analyzing the use of speech stamps, it is necessary to take into account their typological differences in national and linguistic terms.
For example, in English and French, a business stamp when addressing a stranger includes the component “dear” (dear, cher); in Russian, to use the word dear, a greater degree of closeness with the addressee is required. Finally, these may be metaphorical turns of “uncliched” speech, which at the first moment were attractive precisely because of their freshness, and then turned into cliches (for example, a presidential race instead of an election campaign). Elements of oral communication can also be considered a stamp, for example, I remind you of the regulations instead of It’s time to finish, etc.
Speech cliches can be considered not only speech fragments used in certain functional styles, but also the very structural patterns of use of certain speech units. For example, if we are talking about St. Petersburg, then after the direct naming the next one will be city on the Neva or northern capital. Thus, it gradually became a general newspaper cliche to make allusive and increasingly less informative headlines, using well-known quotes, words from past hits, etc. For example, “Lord of the Sleepy Flies” is a headline containing an inappropriate allusion to the title of W. Golding’s novel: the article tells about CSKA’s victory in a basketball match. Or: “The brain drain continues” - the article is not talking about the departure of scientists abroad, but about the operation of removing the pituitary gland from the dead. In many cases, this manner of “playing” with headlines is either inappropriate or uninformative: for example, on the night of the transfer of power from Milosevic to Kostunica, when the outcome was still unclear, Izvestia’s editorial was headlined “The Serb and the Hammer.” An example of low information content is two headlines of articles about the same event in different newspapers: “Mermaids found a treasure at the bottom” and “Duet of drummers” - about the victory of Russian swimmers in pair swimming.
Society's active interest in clichés that carry out functionally significant settings is expressed in the need to change speech clichés as social evolution progresses. A changing speech stamp can be considered, for example, the system of sequence of first name, report and last name on envelopes - Sergeev A.B. instead of the old and “intelligent”: A.B. Sergeev.
The main areas of functioning of speech stamps are administrative and newspaper-journalistic (including all media in general). At the same time, if for the administrative sphere the use and knowledge of the corresponding cliches is rather a convenient and effortless means of simple unambiguous communicative exchange, then the sphere of the media and journalism should be wary of the increase in speech cliches in their texts. The desire to minimize communicative efforts, which gives rise to the use of cliches, leads to the clogging of an increasing number of texts with them and to their rapid dissemination in the corresponding environment. So, for example, in Soviet times the stamp rapidly began to spread: “adjective + gold»: cotton = white gold, oil = black gold etc. Even a word-formation model can become a stamp, for example, the construction With... Inka: with a sly, with a cunning, with a laugh and so on. At one time, the use of the adverb became a cliche somewhere: I'm angry somewhere and so on. Theoretically, the question of whether the use of one word can be considered a stamp, for example exciting.
The functionality that determines the use of a stamp is, in turn, related to the nature of communicative situations: the acceptable use of a stamp in one situation is unacceptable in another. So, in A. Galich’s phrase And my wife, comrade Paramonova, was abroad at that time the use of official cliches in everyday speech is ridiculed. Infection with speech cliches often entails the inability of native speakers to express their true thoughts and feelings, which in turn becomes an artistic device - already on the verge of another cliche. For newspaper readers and news listeners, the abundance of cliches leads to a loss of information content.
Although theoretically the term “cliche” is difficult to separate from “stereotype”, “cliché”, “phraseologism”, etc., this particular term in everyday life often carries a negative assessment: speaking in cliches is bad. The desire to avoid cliches to a certain extent counteracts the tendency to minimize communication efforts, which gives rise to the use of cliches; Thus, in communication, the optimal balance between “free” turns and cliches is constantly being felt.
Error Analysis
A) Stationery
When analyzing errors caused by the unjustified use of stylistically colored vocabulary, special attention should be paid to words associated with the official business style. Elements of official business style, introduced into a context that is stylistically alien to them, are called clericalism. It should be remembered that these speech means are called clericalism only when they are used in speech that is not bound by the norms of official business style.
Lexical and phraseological clericalisms include words and phrases that have a typical coloring for the official business style (presence, for lack of, in order to avoid, reside, withdraw, the above, takes place, etc.). Their use makes speech inexpressive (If there is a desire, a lot can be done to improve the working conditions of workers; Currently, there is a shortage of teaching staff).
As a rule, you can find many options for expressing thoughts, avoiding bureaucracy. For example, why would a journalist write: Defects are the negative side of an enterprise’s activities, if you can say: It’s bad when an enterprise produces defects; Marriage is unacceptable at work; Marriage is a great evil that must be fought; We must prevent defects in production; We must finally stop producing defective products!; You can't put up with marriage! Simple and specific wording has a stronger impact on the reader.
Verbal nouns formed with the help of the suffixes -eni-, -ani-, etc. (identifying, finding, taking, swelling, closing) and without suffixes (sewing, stealing, taking time off) often give a clerical flavor to speech. Their clerical tone is aggravated by the prefixes not-, under- (non-detection, under-fulfillment). Russian writers often parodied a style “decorated” with such bureaucracy [The case of the gnawing of the plan by mice (Hertz.); The case of a crow flying in and breaking glass (Writing); Having announced to the widow Vanina that she had not attached a sixty-kopeck stamp... (Ch.)].
Verbal nouns do not have the categories of tense, aspect, mood, voice, or person. This narrows their expressive capabilities compared to verbs. For example, the following sentence lacks precision: On the part of the farm manager, V.I. Shlyk showed a negligent attitude towards milking and feeding cows. One might think that the manager milked and fed the cows poorly, but the author only wanted to say that the farm manager, V.I. Shlyk did nothing to ease the work of the milkmaids or prepare feed for the livestock. The inability to express the meaning of the voice with a verbal noun can lead to ambiguity in constructions such as the professor’s statement (does the professor approve or is he approved?), I love singing (I like to sing or listen when they sing?).
In sentences with verbal nouns, the predicate is often expressed by the passive form of the participle or a reflexive verb; this deprives the action of activity and enhances the clerical coloring of the speech [After completing their acquaintance with the sights, tourists were allowed to photograph them (better: Tourists were shown the sights and were allowed to photograph them)].
However, not all verbal nouns in the Russian language belong to the official business vocabulary; they are varied in stylistic coloring, which largely depends on the characteristics of their lexical meaning and word formation. Verbal nouns with the meaning of person (teacher, self-taught, confused, bully), and many nouns with the meaning of action (running, crying, playing, washing, shooting, bombing) have nothing in common with clericalisms.
Verbal nouns with book suffixes can be divided into two groups. Some are stylistically neutral (meaning, name, excitement), for many of them -nie changed to -nye, and they began to denote not an action, but its result (cf.: baking pies - sweet cookies, boiling cherries - cherry jam). Others retain a close connection with verbs, acting as abstract names of actions and processes (acceptance, non-detection, non-admission). It is precisely such nouns that most often have a clerical coloring; it is absent only in those that have received a strict terminological meaning in the language (drilling, spelling, adjoining).
The use of clericalisms of this type is associated with the so-called “splitting of the predicate”, i.e. replacing a simple verbal predicate with a combination of a verbal noun with an auxiliary verb that has a weakened lexical meaning (instead of complicates, leads to complication). So, they write: This leads to complexity, confusion of accounting and increased costs, or better to write: This complicates and confuses accounting, increases costs.
However, when assessing this phenomenon stylistically, one cannot go to the extreme, rejecting any cases of using verbal-nominal combinations instead of verbs. In book styles, the following combinations are often used: took part instead of participated, gave instructions instead of indicated, etc. In the official business style, verb-nominal combinations have become established: declare gratitude, accept for execution, impose a penalty (in these cases, the verbs thank, fulfill, collect are inappropriate), etc. In the scientific style, terminological combinations are used such as visual fatigue occurs, self-regulation occurs, transplantation is performed, etc. The expressions used in the journalistic style are the workers went on strike, there were clashes with the police, an attempt was made on the minister’s life, etc. In such cases, verbal nouns cannot be avoided and there is no reason to consider them clericalisms.
The use of verb-nominal combinations sometimes even creates conditions for speech expression. For example, the combination to take an active part is more capacious in meaning than the verb to participate. The definition with a noun allows you to give the verb-nominal combination a precise terminological meaning (cf.: help - provide emergency medical care). The use of a verbal-nominal combination instead of a verb can also help eliminate the lexical ambiguity of verbs (cf.: give a beep - buzz). The preference for such verbal-nominal combinations over verbs is naturally beyond doubt; their use does not damage the style, but, on the contrary, gives the speech greater effectiveness.
In other cases, the use of a verb-nominal combination adds clerical flavor to the sentence. Let's compare two types of syntactic constructions - with a verb-nominal combination and with a verb:
As we can see, the use of a phrase with verbal nouns (instead of a simple predicate) in such cases is inappropriate - it gives rise to verbosity and makes the syllable heavier.
The influence of the official business style often explains the unjustified use of denominative prepositions: along the line, in section, in part, in business, by force, for purposes, to the address, in the region, in plan, at the level, at the expense of etc. They received a great deal distribution in book styles, and under certain conditions their use is stylistically justified. However, often passion for them damages the presentation, weighing down the style and giving it a clerical coloring. This is partly due to the fact that denominal prepositions usually require the use of verbal nouns, which leads to a string of cases. For example: By improving the organization of repayment of arrears in the payment of wages and pensions, improving the culture of customer service, the turnover in government and commercial stores should increase - the accumulation of verbal nouns, many identical case forms made the sentence ponderous and cumbersome. To correct the text, it is necessary to exclude the denominal preposition from it, and, if possible, replace verbal nouns with verbs. Let’s assume this version of the edit: To increase turnover in government and commercial stores, you need to pay wages on time and not delay pensions for citizens, as well as improve the culture of customer service.
Some authors use denominative prepositions automatically, without thinking about their meaning, which is partly still preserved in them. For example: Due to the lack of materials, construction was suspended (as if someone foresaw that there would be no materials, and therefore construction was suspended). Incorrect use of denominative prepositions often leads to illogical statements.
The exclusion of denominative prepositions from the text, as we see, eliminates verbosity and helps to express thoughts more specifically and stylistically correctly.
B) Speech stamps
The influence of official business style is usually associated with the use of speech cliches. Widespread words and expressions with erased semantics and faded emotional overtones become speech cliches. Thus, in a variety of contexts, the expression “get registration” begins to be used in a figurative sense (Every ball that flies into the goal net receives a permanent registration in the tables; Petrovsky’s muse has a permanent registration in the hearts; Aphrodite entered the permanent exhibition of the museum - now she is registered in our city ).
Any frequently repeated speech device can become a stamp, for example, stereotyped metaphors, definitions that have lost their figurative power due to constant reference to them, even hackneyed rhymes (tears - roses). However, in practical stylistics, the term “speech stamp” has acquired a narrower meaning: this is the name for stereotypical expressions that have a clerical overtone.
Among the speech cliches that arose as a result of the influence of the official business style on other styles, one can highlight, first of all, template figures of speech: at this stage, in a given period of time, for today, emphasized with all the severity, etc. As a rule, they do not contribute anything to the content of the statement, but only clog up the speech: At this period of time, a difficult situation has arisen with the liquidation of debt to supplier enterprises; At present, the payment of wages to miners is under constant control; At this stage, the crucian carp spawns normally, etc. Excluding the highlighted words will not change anything in the information.
Speech cliches also include universal words that are used in a wide variety of, often too broad, vague meanings (question, event, series, carry out, unfold, separate, definite, etc.). For example, the noun question, acting as a universal word, never indicates what is being asked about (Issues of nutrition in the first 10-12 days are of particular importance; Issues of timely collection of taxes from enterprises and commercial structures deserve great attention). In such cases, it can be painlessly excluded from the text (cf.: Nutrition in the first 10-12 days is especially important; It is necessary to collect taxes from enterprises and commercial structures in a timely manner).
The word appear, as a universal one, is also often superfluous; You can verify this by comparing two editions of sentences from newspaper articles:
Unjustified use of linking verbs is one of the most common stylistic flaws in specialized literature. However, this does not mean that linking verbs should be prohibited.
Speech stamps include paired words, or satellite words; the use of one of them necessarily suggests the use of the other (cf.: event - carried out, scope - wide, criticism - harsh, problem - unresolved, urgent, etc.). The definitions in these pairs are lexically inferior; they give rise to speech redundancy.
Speech cliches, relieving the speaker of the need to look for the necessary, exact words, deprive speech of concreteness. For example: The current season was carried out at a high organizational level - this sentence can be inserted into the report on hay harvesting, and on sports competitions, and on preparing the housing stock for winter, and the grape harvest...
The set of speech cliches changes over the years: some are gradually forgotten, others become “fashionable”, so it is impossible to list and describe all cases of their use. It is important to understand the essence of this phenomenon and prevent the emergence and spread of cliches.
Language standards should be distinguished from speech cliches. Language standards are ready-made means of expression reproduced in speech, used in a journalistic style. Unlike a stamp, “a standard... does not cause a negative attitude, since it has clear semantics and economically expresses thoughts, facilitating the speed of information transfer.” Language standards include, for example, the following combinations that have become stable: Public sector workers, employment services, international humanitarian aid, commercial structures, law enforcement agencies, branches of Russian government, according to informed sources - phrases such as consumer services (food, health , rest, etc.). These speech units are widely used by journalists, since it is impossible to invent new means of expression in each specific case.
A cluster of verbal nouns, chains of identical case forms, and speech cliches firmly “block” the perception of such statements that are impossible to comprehend. Our journalism has successfully overcome this “style”, and it “decorates” only the speech of individual speakers and officials in government institutions. However, while they are in their leadership positions, the problem of combating bureaucracy and speech cliches has not lost its relevance.
Flawsspeech cliches and clericalisms
The purity of speech is violated due to the so-called speech cliches, hackneyed expressions, and bureaucratic words and expressions characteristic of texts of official business style, used in live speech or in fiction (without a special stylistic task).
The writer L. Uspensky in the book “Culture of Speech” writes: “We call stamps different devices that are unchanged in shape and give many identical prints. Among linguistic and literary scholars, a “stamp” is a figure of speech or a word that was once new and shiny, like a newly issued coin, and then repeated a hundred thousand times and became captured, like a worn-out nickel”: The frost is growing stronger, eyes wide open, colorful(Instead of flowery) , with great enthusiasm, completely and completely. etc.
The disadvantage of speech cliches is that they deprive speech of its originality and beauty, make it gray and boring, in addition, they create the impression that what is said or written is already known. Naturally, such speech cannot attract and maintain the attention of the addressee.
This explains the need to combat cliches.
Widely introduced into speech and clericalism; we often encounter them in speech and print, noting that they are not always necessary. Here is an example from the book by B.N. Golovin “How to speak correctly”: Let us remember what kind of load the word “question” receives in the speech of some speakers in all its variants: here it is “to highlight the question and “to link the question”, and “to justify the question” and “to raise the question”, and “to advance the question ", and "raise the question" (and even the "proper level" and to the "proper height")
Everyone understands that the word “question” itself is not such a bad thing. Moreover, this word is necessary, and it has served and continues to serve our journalism and our business speech well. But when in an ordinary conversation, in a conversation, in a live performance, instead of the simple and understandable word “told,” people hear “clarified the issue,” and instead of “offered to exchange experience,” “raised the question of sharing experience,” they become a little sad.
K.I. Chukovsky believed that clogging speech with such words is a kind of disease, clericalism. N.V. Gogol also ridiculed expressions like: before starting to read; Tobacco directed to the nose; to obstruct it intentionally; an event that will happen tomorrow. Often high school students write in essays on Russian language and literature in the following style: Andrei Balkonsky wants to escape from the environment; Oak played a major role in starting a new life.
In oral and written speech, phrases with derivative prepositions are used without any measure or need: from the side, by way, along the line, in section, for the purpose, in business, by force, etc. However, in fiction such constructions can be used with special stylistic task, to act as an artistic device. For example, the use of a construction with a preposition for a reason for the speech characteristics of personnel in the story of A.P. Chekhov's "Unter Prishibeev": Yes, I say, you know that Mr. Justice of the Peace, if they wish, you can be sent to the provincial police department for such words because of your unreliable behavior?
Conclusion
In conclusion, it must be said that speech cliches, business vocabulary and phraseology themselves are needed in certain types of speech, but one must constantly ensure that their use is appropriate so that stylistic errors do not occur. , their use must be expedient, stylistically justified, otherwise they will deprive the speech of its originality, make it gray and boring, in addition, they will create the impression that what is said or written is already known.
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The purity of speech is violated due to the use of so-called speech cliches - hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness 1, and clericalism - words and expressions characteristic of texts of an official business style, used in live speech or in fiction (without any special stylistic tasks).
The writer L. Uspensky in the book “Culture of Speech” writes: “We call stamps different devices that are unchanged in shape and give many identical prints. Among linguists and literary scholars, a “stamp” is a figure of speech or a word that was once new and shiny, like a newly minted coin, and then repeated a hundred thousand times and became captured, like a worn-out nickel”: the frost grew stronger, eyes wide open , colorful (instead of flowery), with great enthusiasm, completely and completely, etc.
The disadvantage of speech cliches is that they deprive speech of originality, liveliness, make it gray and boring, and, in addition, create the impression that what was said (or written) is already known. Naturally, such speech cannot attract and maintain the attention of the addressee. This explains the need to combat cliches.
Widely introduced into speech and clericalism; we often encounter them in oral presentations and in print, noting that they are not always necessary. Here is an example from B. N. Golovin’s book “How to Speak Correctly”: “Let us remember what kind of “load” the word “question” receives in the speech of some speakers in all its variants: here it is “to illuminate the question” and “to link the question”, and “ justify the question” and “raise the question”, and “promote the question”, and “think through the question”, and “raise the question” (and even to the “proper level” and to the “proper height”).
Everyone understands that the word “question” in itself is not so bad. Moreover, this word is necessary, and it has served and continues to serve our journalism and our business speech well. But when in an ordinary conversation, in a conversation, in a live performance, instead of the simple and understandable word “told,” people hear “illuminated the issue,” and instead of “offered to exchange experience,” “raised the question of sharing experience,” they become a little sad.”2 Such phrases as this opinion (instead of this opinion), due attention, properly, I will dwell on academic performance, I will dwell on shortcomings, I will dwell on absenteeism, etc. can also be considered clericalisms, etc. K. I. Chukovsky believed that clogging speech with such words - it’s a kind of disease, a clerical problem. Even N.V. Gogol ridiculed expressions like: before starting to read; tobacco directed to the nose; to obstruct his intention; an event that will happen tomorrow. Often high school students write in essays on Russian language and literature in this style: Andrei Bolkonsky wants to break out of his environment; Oak played a big role in starting a new life.
In oral and written speech, phrases with derivative prepositions are used without any measure or need: from the side, by way, along the line, in section, for the purpose, in business, by force, etc. However, in fiction such constructions can be used with a special stylistic task , act as an artistic device. See, for example, the use of a construction with a preposition for a reason for the speech characterization of personnel in A. P. Chekhov’s story “Unter Prishibeev”: - Yes, I say, you know that Mr. Justice of the Peace, if they wish, you can be punished for such words by the provincial gendarme department because of your unreliable behavior?
In conclusion, it must be said that speech cliches, business vocabulary and phraseology themselves are needed in certain types of speech, but one must constantly ensure that their use is appropriate so that stylistic errors do not occur.
Notes:
1. Stamps should be distinguished from cliches (French cliché), ready-made phrases used in speech as a standard that can be easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts.
2. Golovin B. N. How to speak correctly. M., 1988. P. 106.
T.P. Pleschenko, N.V. Fedotova, R.G. Taps. Stylistics and culture of speech - Mn., 2001.
When analyzing errors caused by the unjustified use of stylistically colored vocabulary, special attention should be paid to words associated with the official business style. Elements of official business style, introduced into a context that is stylistically alien to them, are called clericalism. It should be remembered that these speech means are called clericalism only when they are used in speech that is not bound by the norms of official business style.
Lexical and phraseological clericalisms include words and phrases that have a typical coloring for the official business style (presence, for lack of, in order to avoid, reside, withdraw, the above, takes place, etc.). Their use makes speech inexpressive (If there is a desire, a lot can be done to improve the working conditions of workers; Currently, there is a shortage of teaching staff).
As a rule, you can find many options for expressing thoughts, avoiding bureaucracy. For example, why would a journalist write: Defects are the negative side of an enterprise’s activities, if you can say: It’s bad when an enterprise produces defects; Marriage is unacceptable at work; Marriage is a great evil that must be fought; We must prevent defects in production; We must finally stop producing defective products!; You can't put up with marriage! Simple and specific wording has a stronger impact on the reader.
Verbal nouns formed with the help of the suffixes -eni-, -ani-, etc. (identifying, finding, taking, swelling, closing) and without suffixes (sewing, stealing, taking time off) often give a clerical flavor to speech. Their clerical tone is aggravated by the prefixes not-, under- (non-detection, under-fulfillment). Russian writers often parodied a style “decorated” with such bureaucracy [The case of the gnawing of the plan by mice (Hertz.); The case of a crow flying in and breaking glass (Writing); Having announced to the widow Vanina that she had not attached a sixty-kopeck stamp... (Ch.)].
Verbal nouns do not have the categories of tense, aspect, mood, voice, or person. This narrows their expressive capabilities compared to verbs. For example, the following sentence lacks precision: On the part of the farm manager, V.I. Shlyk showed a negligent attitude towards milking and feeding cows. One might think that the manager milked and fed the cows poorly, but the author only wanted to say that the farm manager, V.I. Shlyk did nothing to ease the work of the milkmaids or prepare feed for the livestock. The inability to express the meaning of the voice with a verbal noun can lead to ambiguity in constructions such as the professor’s statement (does the professor approve or is he approved?), I love singing (I like to sing or listen when they sing?).
In sentences with verbal nouns, the predicate is often expressed by the passive form of the participle or a reflexive verb; this deprives the action of activity and enhances the clerical coloring of the speech [After completing their acquaintance with the sights, tourists were allowed to photograph them (better: Tourists were shown the sights and were allowed to photograph them)].
However, not all verbal nouns in the Russian language belong to the official business vocabulary; they are varied in stylistic coloring, which largely depends on the characteristics of their lexical meaning and word formation. Verbal nouns with the meaning of person (teacher, self-taught, confused, bully), and many nouns with the meaning of action (running, crying, playing, washing, shooting, bombing) have nothing in common with clericalisms.
Verbal nouns with book suffixes can be divided into two groups. Some are stylistically neutral (meaning, name, excitement), for many of them -nie changed to -nye, and they began to denote not an action, but its result (cf.: baking pies - sweet cookies, boiling cherries - cherry jam). Others retain a close connection with verbs, acting as abstract names of actions and processes (acceptance, non-detection, non-admission). It is precisely such nouns that most often have a clerical coloring; it is absent only in those that have received a strict terminological meaning in the language (drilling, spelling, adjoining).
The use of clericalisms of this type is associated with the so-called “splitting of the predicate”, i.e. replacing a simple verbal predicate with a combination of a verbal noun with an auxiliary verb that has a weakened lexical meaning (instead of complicates, leads to complication). So, they write: This leads to complexity, confusion of accounting and increased costs, or better to write: This complicates and confuses accounting, increases costs.
However, when assessing this phenomenon stylistically, one cannot go to the extreme, rejecting any cases of using verbal-nominal combinations instead of verbs. In book styles, the following combinations are often used: took part instead of participated, gave instructions instead of indicated, etc. In the official business style, verb-nominal combinations have become established: declare gratitude, accept for execution, impose a penalty (in these cases, the verbs thank, fulfill, collect are inappropriate), etc. In the scientific style, terminological combinations are used such as visual fatigue occurs, self-regulation occurs, transplantation is performed, etc. The expressions used in the journalistic style are the workers went on strike, there were clashes with the police, an attempt was made on the minister’s life, etc. In such cases, verbal nouns cannot be avoided and there is no reason to consider them clericalisms.
The use of verb-nominal combinations sometimes even creates conditions for speech expression. For example, the combination to take an active part is more capacious in meaning than the verb to participate. The definition with a noun allows you to give the verb-nominal combination a precise terminological meaning (cf.: help - provide emergency medical care). The use of a verbal-nominal combination instead of a verb can also help eliminate the lexical ambiguity of verbs (cf.: give a beep - buzz). The preference for such verbal-nominal combinations over verbs is naturally beyond doubt; their use does not damage the style, but, on the contrary, gives the speech greater effectiveness.
Nonna BrownIncomplete expressions and words, hackneyed phrases that were originally expressive and vivid, are peculiar patterns called speech stamps. They overload the speaker's speech. Used frequently, they simply lose their meaning and imagery. Such stable phrases and expressions initially sounded expansive and were new in speech. But they very quickly became useless and boring.
Stereotypical, template words and expressions turn live speech into dull and inexpressive. In addition, the narrator often does not take into account the context. Stamps fill speech with template phrases, “killing” colorful phrases and living words.
Types of speech stamps
There are several types of stamps.
- The first type includes universal words, used in various unclear and uncertain senses. They deprive the speech of specifics and do not provide any information. If the speaker wants to speak approximately, then he uses this type of speech cliches.
- The second type of stamps is paired words. These are words that are used together in conversation, but are not phraseological units. These include phrases that contain a stereotyped idea, for example, “stormy applause”, “lasting impression”.
- Third type - "fashionable" words, phrases and word combinations that have become widespread lose their originality and become stereotyped, since they are often used in speech.
Properties or characteristics that reflect the uniqueness of a particular object may, over time, turn into a speech stamp. One example is the word “oil”. It has many synonyms and speech cliches, and one of them is “black gold.”
Controversies regarding speech stamp questions
Some people are advised to abandon speech cliches, and some are encouraged to use a fixed cliche in speech, pointing out that it is an established phrase. We are often satisfied with the simple repetition of speech phrases, automation of the speech process and facilitating communication between colleagues. The main principle of use, the ultimate goal, sometimes unconscious, is saving mental work. Therefore, the use of speech stereotypes or cliches is considered a natural fact, but it is up to you to decide whether you want to use them in your speech.
Similarities and differences: speech cliches, clericalism, language standards, speech cliches
There are many similarities between them. The speech of many people is also overloaded with bureaucracy. They are expressions that are not used for their intended purpose, for example, phrases of the formal business style used in colloquial speech. The use of clericalism and cliches exposes speech to stylistic errors.
Speech cliches of newspaper and journalistic style - language standards
There are quite a lot of phrases that are not speech cliches, since they clearly characterize the subject.
Speech clichés are language standards and stereotypes. They differ from speech cliches in their ready-made, unchangeable form, standard expressions that have long come into use. They are appropriate and appropriate in compelling situations and, like language standards, clearly describe the subject and its characteristics. So, there are expressions that relate to them and do not lose their bright and lively coloring.
The use of clichés in an official and journalistic style is justified and often mandatory. The use of pre-prepared expressions in business speech is justified in the preparation of official papers. Clichés help to quickly compile business papers. With its help, mental energy is saved, communication is facilitated and information is quickly transmitted. It is considered a neutral-normative phenomenon in official speech. In a conversational style, do not use pre-memorized expressions, as this will have a negative effect on others.
Reasons for refusal of stamps
- A speech cliche with hackneyed phrases and expressions deprives ideas and thoughts of concreteness.
- He brings a dull, meager color to the conversation.
- Those people who use these inferior words become unattractive to others.
- People who are accustomed to speech cliches stop thinking in a unique and original way.
Each person attracts attention with the culture and content of speech. Those people who do not have a taste for language succumb more quickly to the power of speech stamps. Let's enrich our vocabulary, think independently, speak expressively, with emotional richness and meaning.
January 24, 2014