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Federal Agency for Education

RUSSIAN STATE

COMMERCIAL AND ECONOMIC UNIVERSITY

VORONEZH BRANCH

Department of Management and World Economy

TEST

In the discipline "Psychology and Pedagogy"

On the topic: “Forms of organizing educational activities”

Voronezh 2006

Introduction

Chapter 1. Concept of forms of organization of educational activities

Chapter 2. Basic forms of organizing educational activities

2.1 Organizational forms of training aimed at theoretical training of students

2.2 Organizational forms of training aimed at practical training of students

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

Implementation of training requires knowledge and skillful use of various forms of organizing the educational process, their constant improvement and modernization.

The form of organization of training or the organizational form of training refers to the external side of the organization of the educational process, which is associated with the number of students being trained, the time and place of training, as well as the order of its implementation. For example, a teacher can teach a group of students, i.e., conduct collective learning, or work with one student (individual learning). In this case, the form of training is related to the quantitative composition of students. At the same time, it can also reflect the time regulation of training sessions. There was a time when students studied from morning until lunch, but there was no definite distinction and breaks between individual types of educational activities. Further, classes can be conducted in the classroom and you can go out (excursion) to the objects being studied, which characterizes the form of training from the point of view of the place where it is carried out. However, being the external side of the organization of the educational process, the form of teaching is organically connected with its internal, content-procedural side. From this point of view, one and the same form of training may have different external modifications and structures depending on the tasks and methods of educational work. For example, an excursion. In one case, it may be devoted to the study of new material, in another, students learn new material in class, and the excursion is conducted with the aim of consolidating it, connecting theory with practice. Thus, the excursions will have a different appearance and will use different teaching methods.

CHAPTER 1. CONCEPT OF FORMS OF ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES

In didactics, the forms of organizing the learning process are revealed through the ways of interaction between the teacher and students when solving educational problems. They are solved through various ways of managing activities, communication, and relationships. Within the framework of the latter, the content of education, educational technologies, styles, methods and teaching aids are implemented. In didactics, attempts are being made to define the organizational form of education. I.M. Cheredov’s approach to determining organizational forms of training seems to be the most reasonable. Based on the philosophical understanding of form as an internal organization of content, covering a system of stable connections of a subject, he defines the organizational form of teaching as a special design of the learning process, the nature of which is determined by its content, methods, techniques, means, and types of activities of students. This design represents the internal organization of content, which is the process of interaction between the teacher and students when working on certain educational material. Consequently, forms of teaching must be understood as constructions of segments of the learning process, realized in a combination of the teacher’s control activity and the controlled learning activity of students in mastering certain content of educational material and mastering methods of activity.

The leading forms of organizing the learning process are the lesson and lecture (at school and university, respectively).

One and the same form of educational organization can change its structure and modification, depending on the tasks and methods of educational work. For example, a game lesson, a conference lesson, a dialogue, a workshop. And also problem lecture, binary, lecture-teleconference.

At school, along with lessons, there are other organizational forms (electives, clubs, laboratory workshops, independent homework). There are also certain forms of control: oral and written exams, control or independent work, assessment, testing, interview.

In addition to lectures, the university also uses other organizational forms of training - seminar, laboratory work, research work, independent educational work of students, practical training, internship in another domestic or foreign university. Exams and tests and a rating system are used as forms of control and evaluation of learning outcomes; abstract and coursework, diploma work.

Within the framework of various organizational forms of training, the teacher ensures active cognitive activity of students, using frontal, group and individual work.

Frontal work involves the joint activity of the entire group: the teacher presents the educational material for the entire group, sets the same tasks, and the students solve one problem and master a common topic. The frontal form of organizing educational activities ensures the general advancement of students in learning, but it cannot be universal, since the specific characteristics and level of development of each student are not sufficiently taken into account.

In group work, the study group is divided into several teams that perform the same or different tasks. The composition of these teams is not permanent and, as a rule, varies in different subjects. The number of students in the group depends on the academic subject and the task (from 2 to 10 people). Group work of students can be used when solving problems and exercises, performing laboratory and practical work, and learning new material. Deliberately applied group work creates favorable educational opportunities and accustoms students to collective activity.

When working individually, each student receives his own task, which he completes independently of the others. The individual form of organizing cognitive activity presupposes a high level of activity and independence of the student and is especially appropriate for such types of work in which the individual characteristics and capabilities of students can clearly manifest themselves. Individual work is of particular importance for developing the need for self-education and developing the skills to work independently.

Frontal, group and individual work of students is used in various organizational forms of training, since it creates different opportunities for the implementation of educational, educational and developmental functions of training. The choice of organizational forms is dictated by the characteristics of the academic subject, the content of the educational material, and the characteristics of the study group.

CHAPTER 2. BASIC FORMS OFORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES

The leading feature for the classification of organizational forms of education is their didactic goals, which are determined by the completeness of the cycle of pedagogical management and guidance of students’ educational activities. The cycle includes preparing students to master new material, assimilate information, perform exercises and solve problems to gain skills.

The structure of the learning process can be distinguished:

1. forms aimed primarily at theoretical training of students;

2. forms aimed primarily at practical training of students;

Each of the organizational forms of training has certain features, without which optimization of the learning process is unthinkable.

The main goal of theoretical education is to equip students with a system of knowledge, while practical education is to develop students’ professional skills. However, this division is quite arbitrary, since theoretical and practical training are closely interrelated.

Forms of organizing theoretical training include lectures, lessons, seminars, excursions, independent extracurricular work; to forms of organizing practical training - practical classes, course design, all types of practices, business games.

2.1 Organizational forms of training aimed at thosetheoretical training of students

A more or less completed segment of the pedagogical process in the classroom-lesson teaching system is a lesson.

The lesson provides for the implementation of teaching functions in a complex (educational, developmental and nurturing).

Didactic structure of the lesson has a strict construction system:

A certain organizational beginning and setting the objectives of the lesson;

Updating the necessary knowledge and skills, including checking homework;

Explanation of new material;

Reinforcing or repeating what has been learned in class;

Monitoring and evaluation of students’ educational achievements during the lesson;

Summing up the lesson;

Homework assignment;

The features of the lesson are determined by its purpose and place in the holistic learning system. Each lesson occupies a certain place in the system of an academic subject when studying a specific discipline.

Types of lessons are determined by the characteristics of the main tasks, the variety of content and methodological instruments and the variability of methods of organizing training.

1. Combined lesson (the most common type of lesson in mass practice). Its structure: organizational part, checking homework, learning new material, consolidating and comparing new material with previously studied material, performing practical tasks, summing up the lesson, homework.

2. A lesson in learning new material is, as a rule, applicable in the practice of teaching high school students. Within this type, a lecture lesson, a problem lesson, a conference lesson, a film lesson, and a research lesson are conducted.

3. A lesson in consolidating knowledge and improving skills is conducted in the form of a seminar, workshop, excursion, independent work and laboratory workshop.

4. The lesson of generalization and systematization is aimed at systematic repetition of large blocks of educational material on key issues of the program, which are crucial for mastering the subject as a whole. When conducting such a lesson, the teacher poses problems to the students, indicates sources of additional information, as well as typical tasks and practical exercises, assignments and creative work. During such lessons, students' knowledge, skills and abilities are tested and assessed on several topics studied over a long period - a quarter, half a year, a year of study.

5. The lesson of monitoring and correction of knowledge, skills and abilities is intended to evaluate the results of the teaching, diagnose the level of students’ training, the degree of students’ readiness to apply their knowledge, skills and abilities in various learning situations. The types of such lessons in school practice can be oral or written questioning, dictation, presentation or independent solution of problems and examples, practical work, test, exam, independent or control work, testing. All these types of lessons are organized after studying major topics and sections of the academic subject. Based on the results of the final lesson, the next lesson is devoted to the analysis of typical errors, “gaps” in knowledge, and the identification of additional tasks.

In school practice, other types of lessons are also used, such as a competition lesson, consultation, mutual learning, lecture, interdisciplinary lesson, game.

A lecture as an organizational form of teaching is a special design of the educational process. The general structural framework of any lecture is the formulation of the topic, communication of the plan and recommended literature for independent work, and then strict adherence to the plan of the proposed work.

Types of lectures

1 . The introductory lecture gives the first holistic idea of ​​the academic subject and orients the student in the system of work for this course.

2. Lecture-information. Focused on presenting and explaining to students scientific information that needs to be comprehended and memorized. This is the most traditional type of lectures in higher education practice.

3. A review lecture is a systematization of scientific knowledge at a high level, allowing for a large number of associative connections in the process of understanding the information presented when disclosing intra-subject and inter-subject connections, excluding detail and specification.

4. Problem lecture. In this lecture, new knowledge is introduced through the problematic nature of a question, task or situation. At the same time, the process of student learning in collaboration and dialogue with the teacher approaches research activity.

5. Lecture-visualization is a visual form of presenting lecture material using TSO or audio-video equipment. Reading such a lecture comes down to a detailed or brief commentary on the visual materials being viewed.

6. A binary lecture is a type of lecture in the form of a dialogue between two teachers (either as representatives of two scientific schools, or as a scientist and a practitioner, a teacher and a student).

7. A lecture with pre-planned errors is designed to stimulate students to constantly monitor the information offered. At the end of the lecture, the students are diagnosed and the mistakes made are analyzed.

8. The lecture-conference is conducted as a scientific and practical lesson, with a pre-defined problem and a system of reports, lasting 5-10 minutes.

9. Lecture-consultation can take place according to different scenarios. The first option is carried out using the “questions and answers” ​​type. The lecturer answers student questions regarding all sections or the entire course during lecture time. The second version of such a lecture, presented in the “questions-answers-discussion” type, is a three-fold combination: presentation of new educational information by the lecturer, posing questions and organizing a discussion in search of answers to the questions posed.

A seminar as an organizational form of training represents a special link in the learning process. Its difference from other forms is that it orients students to demonstrate greater independence in educational and cognitive activities, since during the seminar, students’ knowledge gained as a result of independent extracurricular work on primary sources, documents, and additional literature is deepened, systematized and controlled.

Depending on the method of conducting, the following types of seminars are distinguished:

A seminar - conversation - is conducted in the form of a detailed conversation according to a plan with a brief speech and a conclusion from the teacher, involves preparing students for the lesson on the issues of the seminar plan, and allows you to involve the majority of students in an active discussion of the topic.

Seminar - listening and discussing reports and abstracts involves the preliminary distribution of questions among students and their preparation of reports and abstracts.

A seminar-debate involves a collective discussion of a problem in order to establish ways of reliably solving it.

The mixed form of the seminar is a combination of discussion of reports, free presentations by students, as well as discussion discussions.

An educational excursion is an organizational form of education that allows you to study various objects, phenomena and processes based on their observation in natural conditions. With the help of an excursion, you can establish a direct connection between learning and life, and more clearly show the features of the acquired specialty. Excursions develop students’ cognitive abilities: attention, perception, observation, thinking, imagination.

Depending on the place in the educational process, excursions are distinguished:

introductory, conducted for the purpose of observation or collection of material necessary for use in lessons;

ongoing, carried out simultaneously with the study of educational material during training sessions for the purpose of a more in-depth and thorough consideration of individual issues;

final ones - to repeat previously studied material and systematize knowledge.

An educational conference is another organizational form of training that ensures pedagogical interaction between the teacher and students with maximum independence, activity, and initiative of the latter. The conference is usually held with several study groups and is aimed at expanding, consolidating and improving knowledge. Typically, conferences are rarely used in the educational process, but remember the great educational possibilities of this form of training. It creates conditions for students’ self-expression and self-realization.

Consultation involves a secondary analysis of educational material that is either poorly mastered by students or not mastered at all. The consultations outline the requirements for students to take tests and exams. The main didactic goals of consultations: filling gaps in students’ knowledge, assistance in independent work.

2.2 Organizational forms of training aimed at practical training of students

A laboratory lesson is a form of educational organization when students, on assignment and under the guidance of a teacher, perform one or more laboratory work.

The main didactic goals of laboratory work are experimental confirmation of the studied theoretical principles; experimental verification of formulas and calculations. In the course of work, students develop the ability to observe, compare, analyze, draw conclusions, and present results in the form of tables, diagrams, and graphs.

A practical building is a form of organizing the educational process, which involves students performing one or more practical works on assignment and under the guidance of a teacher.

The didactic goal of practical work is to develop in students professional skills, as well as practical skills necessary for studying subsequent academic disciplines.

Practical classes are especially important when studying special disciplines, the content of which is aimed at developing professional skills.

Course design is an organizational form of training used at the final stage of studying a subject. It allows you to apply the acquired knowledge in solving complex production, technical or other problems related to the field of activity of future specialists.

The didactic goals of course design are to teach students professional skills; deepening, generalizing, systematizing and consolidating knowledge in the discipline; formation of skills and abilities of independent mental work; comprehensive assessment of the level of knowledge and skills.

Course projects are carried out in disciplines of general professional and special cycles.

Industrial (professional) practice is an integral part and a unique form of organizing the educational process.

The purpose of industrial practice is to prepare students for upcoming independent professional activities. Practice connects theoretical training and independent work in production.

The didactic goals of industrial practice are the formation of professional skills and abilities; consolidation, generalization and systematization of knowledge by applying it in practice; expansion and deepening of knowledge through studying the work of specific enterprises and institutions; practical development of modern equipment and technologies, management methods.

Industrial practice is carried out in stages and consists of:

educational practice (usually carried out in the training and production workshops of the technical school);

technological and pre-diploma - directly at the enterprise, organization, institution.

CONCLUSION

The implementation of training content is carried out in various organizational forms of training, which are designed to streamline the educational process.

Organizational forms of training are types of training sessions that differ from each other in didactic goals, composition of students, location, duration, and content of activities of the teacher and students. In organizational forms of training, a system of interaction between teaching and management of educational activities is implemented according to a certain, pre-established order and regime.

The difference between one form and another:

· Location;

· The degree of activity management on the part of students;

· Time and mode of conduct;

· The degree of obligation for students to participate in a particular activity;

· Degree of student independence;

· The degree to which children’s interests in a given cognitive area are taken into account.

The use of various organizational forms of training has a positive impact on the development of students' cognitive independence as a necessary quality of a socially active personality.

The test examines the concept of forms of organizing educational activities, presents the main forms, where the lesson and lecture, which are the leading forms of organizing the learning process, are discussed in detail. Organizational forms of training aimed at theoretical and practical training of students are analyzed separately.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Rean A. A., Bordovskaya N. V., Rozum S. I. Psychology and pedagogy - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. - 432 p.

2. Semushina L. G., Yaroshenko N. G. Contents and technologies of education in secondary special educational institutions - M.: Masterstvo, 2001. - 272 p.

3. Sitarov V. A. Didactics - M.: ACADEMA, 2002

4. Slastenin V. A., Isaev I. F., Shiyanov E. N. Pedagogy: pedagogical theories, systems, technologies - M.: ACADEMA, 2002

5. http://cit.wsi.ru/MIRROR/Practica/Practica_2003_6_pdf

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Educational activity is an activity that involves acquiring knowledge and mastering skills.

Forms of students' educational activities are ways of organizing students' activities that differ in the characteristics of the child's relationship with the people around him.

The following forms of student educational activity are distinguished:

1. Steam room. This is a one-on-one work between a student and a teacher (or peer). This type of training is usually called individual training. It is rarely used in schools due to insufficient teacher time. Widely used for additional classes and tutoring.

2. Group, when the teacher simultaneously teaches a whole group of students or a whole class. This form is characterized by separate, independent completion of educational tasks by students with subsequent monitoring of the results. This form is also called general classroom or frontal work.

3. Collective. This is the most complex form of organizing student activities. It is possible when all students are active and teach each other. A typical example of a collective form is the work of students in rotating pairs.

4. Individually – isolated. It is also often called student independent work. A child doing homework is a typical example of this form of learning activity.

Each organizational form of a teacher’s educational activity must include the following structural elements: presentation of theoretical material, consultations, development of practical skills, control of material mastery. Part of the total volume of consultations and control activities is taken into independent organizational forms to assess the degree of professional and personal development.

Technologies for conducting training sessions are determined by many factors. From the point of view of managing the educational process, the choice of technologies is determined by the university teacher. However, the set of didactic means chosen to achieve the educational goal largely depends on the form of training.

Training sessions are usually conducted in the form of:

Lectures— The main purpose of the lecture is to provide a theoretical basis for training, develop interest in educational activities and a specific academic discipline, and form guidelines for students to independently work on the course. The traditional lecture has undoubted advantages not only as a method of delivering information, but also as a method of the teacher’s emotional impact on students, increasing their cognitive activity. This is achieved through the pedagogical skill of the lecturer, his high speech culture and oratory. High efficiency of a teacher’s activities during a lecture will be achieved only when he takes into account the psychology of the audience, patterns of perception, attention, thinking, and emotional processes of students.

For full-time study Teachers distinguish three main types of lectures used to convey theoretical material: introductory lecture, informational lecture and review lecture.

For distance learning traditional lectures turn out to be practically an unrealistic form of organizing educational activities due to the remoteness of teachers and students, the distributed nature of study groups, etc. To study theoretical material, obviously, other technologies should be used that take into account the specifics of distance learning. At the same time, the quality of assimilation of theoretical material, not inferior to that achieved when giving lectures in full-time training, can be achieved through the creation of computer training programs and the use of telecommunications in the educational process.

In addition to traditional lectures, the following can be identified as the main technologies used to organize the study of theoretical material during distance learning.

Video lectures . In this case, the teacher's lecture is recorded on videotape. Using the nonlinear editing method, it can be supplemented with multimedia applications illustrating the presentation of the lecture. Such additions not only enrich the content of the lecture, but also make its presentation more lively and attractive to students. The undoubted advantage of this method of presenting theoretical material is the opportunity to listen to the lecture at any convenient time, repeatedly turning to the most difficult parts. Video lectures can be delivered to training centers on video cassettes or CDs.

A video lecture can be broadcast via telecommunications to training centers directly from the university. Such lectures are no different from traditional ones given in the classroom. The disadvantage of this technology is its high cost. In addition, the university carrying out the educational process and peripheral educational centers can be geographically widely separated by time zones. Therefore, it is advisable to use such lectures in the absence of educational and methodological material for new courses or in the case when any sections of the course set out in teaching aids are hopelessly outdated, or certain particularly difficult sections of the course require methodological revision by the teacher.

Multimedia lectures. To independently work on lecture material, students use interactive computer training programs. These are textbooks in which theoretical material, thanks to the use of multimedia tools, is structured in such a way that each student can choose for himself the optimal trajectory for studying the material, a convenient pace of work on the course and a method of study that best suits the psychophysiological characteristics of his perception. The educational effect in such programs is achieved not only due to the content and user-friendly interface, but also through the use, for example, of testing programs that allow the student to assess the degree to which he has mastered the theoretical educational material.

Consultations— With distance learning, which involves an increase in the amount of independent work of students, the need to organize constant support for the educational process from teachers increases. An important place in the support system is occupied by consultations, which are now becoming more complex from the point of view of didactic purposes: they are preserved as independent forms of organizing the educational process, and, at the same time, are included in other forms of educational activities (lectures, practices, seminars, laboratory workshops and etc.).

During distance learning the following can be organized:

“face-to-face” consultations conducted by a tutor at a training center (branch); they make up 10-15% of the time allocated by the curriculum for consultations; off-line consultations, which are conducted by the course teacher via email or teleconference and make up about half of the time allocated by the curriculum for consultations; on-line consultations; conducted by the course teacher, for example, using the mirk program; they account for more than one-third of all curriculum advisory time.

Seminars— One of the main organizational forms of educational activities is Seminar classes, which form a research approach to the study of educational and scientific material. The main goal of the seminars is to discuss the most complex theoretical issues of the course, their methodological and methodological elaboration.

In the distance education system, all three levels of seminar classes are implemented: proseminars, seminars, special seminars. Some of the seminars are conducted at the branch in the form of traditional classroom lessons under the guidance of a tutor, since organizing trips for teachers to the branch to conduct seminars is impractical.

Practical classes — Practical classes are intended for in-depth study of the discipline. In these classes, theoretical material is comprehended, the ability to convincingly formulate one’s own point of view is formed, and professional skills are acquired. Various forms of practical training: classes on learning a foreign language, solving problems in physical, mathematical and natural science disciplines, seminars, laboratory workshops - can also be used in distance learning. In this case, they acquire some specificity associated with the use of information technology.

Laboratory work , - allow you to combine theoretical and methodological knowledge and practical skills of students in the process of research activities.

It is reasonable to carry out laboratory work during distance learning during visits of teachers or under the guidance of tutors directly in the branch, using the material resources and personnel potential of the regional university on the basis of which the branch was created.

Control and independent work — Extracurricular independent work of students (CPC) refers to information and developmental teaching methods aimed at the primary acquisition of knowledge. The ratio of time allocated to classroom and independent work is, on average, 1:3.5 throughout the world.

In traditional pedagogy, during full-time teaching, self-learning work most often includes only independent work with literature.

Colloquia- (one topic is deeply studied, many different sources are taken).

The educational process during distance learning includes all the main forms of traditional organization of the educational process: lectures, seminars and practical classes, laboratory workshops, a control system, research and independent work of students. All these forms of organizing the educational process make it possible to implement in practice a flexible combination of independent cognitive activity of students with various sources of information, prompt and systematic interaction with the leading teacher of the course or tutor, and group work of students.

The educational process can be organized in various ways. There is a whole range of forms of its organization: lesson, lecture, seminar, conference, laboratory-practical lesson, workshop, elective, excursion, course design, diploma design, industrial practice, home independent work, consultation, exam, test, subject group, workshop, studio, scientific society, olympiad, competition, etc.

In modern domestic schools, the lesson remains the main form of educational organization. A lesson is a systematically used form of organizing the activities of a permanent staff of teachers and students in a certain period of time to solve the problems of teaching, educating and developing students.

In each lesson, one can identify its main components (explanation of new material, consolidation, repetition, testing of knowledge, abilities, skills), which characterize various types of activities of the teacher and students. These components can appear in various combinations and determine the structure of the lesson, the relationship between its stages, i.e. its structure. The structure depends on the didactic goal, the content of the educational material, the age characteristics of the students and the characteristics of the class. The variety of lesson structures implies a variety of their types. There is no generally accepted classification of types of lessons in modern didactics.

Lecture is a special design of the educational process. The teacher communicates new educational material throughout the entire training session, and students actively perceive it. A lecture is the most economical way to convey educational information, because... The material is presented in a concentrated, logical manner.

Depending on the didactic goals and place in the educational process, introductory, orientation, current, final and review lectures are distinguished.

Depending on the method of implementation, there are:

- informational lectures, during which an explanatory and illustrative method of presentation is used;

- problematic lectures involve the presentation of material using problematic issues, tasks, situations. The process of cognition occurs through scientific research, dialogue, analysis, comparison of different points of view, etc.;

- visual lectures involve a visual presentation of the material using TSO, audio, and video equipment with a brief commentary on the demonstrated materials;

- binary lectures(lecture-dialogue) provide for the presentation of material in the form of a dialogue between two teachers, for example, representatives of two scientific directions, etc.;

- provocative lectures– these are classes with pre-planned mistakes. They are designed to stimulate students to constantly monitor the information offered and search for inaccuracies. At the end of the lecture, the students’ knowledge is diagnosed and mistakes made are analyzed;

- lectures-conferences are conducted as scientific and practical classes with listening to reports and speeches from the audience on a pre-defined problem within the framework of the curriculum. In conclusion, the teacher summarizes, supplements and clarifies the information, and formulates the main conclusions;

- lectures-consultations involve the presentation of material in the “questions – answers – discussion” type.

Seminar– a training session in the form of a collective discussion of the issues being studied, reports, abstracts. Depending on the method of conducting, there are several types of seminars.

The most common type is seminar-conversation. Conducted in the form of an extensive conversation according to plan with a brief presentation and summing up by the teacher.

A special form of the seminar is seminar-debate. It involves a collective discussion of a problem in order to establish ways to solve it.

Conference(educational) – an organizational form of training aimed at expanding, consolidating and improving knowledge.

Laboratory and practical classes, workshops– forms of educational organization in which students, on assignment and under the guidance of a teacher, perform laboratory and practical work. The main didactic goals of such classes are experimental confirmation of the studied theoretical principles; mastery of experimental techniques, the ability to solve practical problems by setting up experiments; developing skills to work with various devices, equipment, installations and other technical means.

Extracurricular activities provide for in-depth study of academic subjects of the choice and desire of students. They are aimed at expanding the scientific and technical knowledge and practical skills of students.

Excursion(educational) - forms of organizing training in the conditions of production, a museum, an exhibition, a natural landscape for the purpose of observing and studying by students various objects and phenomena of reality.

Course design how an organized form of education is used in higher education at the final stage of studying a subject. It allows you to apply the acquired knowledge when solving complex production, technical or other problems related to the field of activity of future specialists.

Graduate design– organizational form used at the final stage of training in an educational institution.

Internship, as a form of organizing the educational process at a university, is aimed at the formation of professional skills, as well as the expansion, consolidation, generalization and systematization of knowledge through application in reality.

Home independent work– an integral part of the learning process related to extracurricular activities.

Consultation as a form of training used to assist students in mastering educational material. There are individual and group consultations.

Exam– a form of training aimed at systematizing, identifying and monitoring students’ knowledge.

Test– a form of training similar in purpose to an exam. The test can also be considered as a preparatory stage before the exam.

Subject clubs and other similar forms of training (laboratories, studios, etc.) are very diverse both in focus and in content, work methods, training time, etc. The work of students in subject clubs contributes to the development of their interests and inclinations, a positive attitude towards learning, and improving its quality. On the basis of circle work, scientific societies (academies, etc.) can be created, which unite and adjust the work of circles, hold public events, organize competitions and olympiads.

Competitions and Olympiads stimulate and intensify the activities of students, develop their creative abilities, and form a competitive spirit.

Teaching methods

The nomenclature and classification of teaching methods is characterized by great diversity depending on what basis is chosen for their development. From the very essence of the methods it follows that they must answer the question “how?” and show how the teacher acts and how the student acts.

Methods are divided according to dominant means into verbal, visual and practical. They are also classified depending on the main didactic tasks: methods of acquiring new knowledge; methods of developing skills, abilities and application of knowledge in practice; methods of testing and assessing knowledge, skills and abilities.

This classification is supplemented by methods of consolidating the material being studied and methods of independent work by students. In addition, the variety of teaching methods is divided into three main groups:

Organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities;

Stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activities;

Monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

There is a classification that combines teaching methods with corresponding teaching methods: information-generalizing and performing, explanatory and reproductive, instructive-practical and productive-practical, explanatory-stimulating and partially searching, motivating and searching.

The most optimal classification of teaching methods proposed by I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin, which takes as a basis the nature of educational and cognitive activity (or the method of assimilation) of students in their assimilation of the material being studied. This classification includes five methods:

Explanatory and illustrative (lecture, story, work with literature, etc.);

Reproductive method;

Problem presentation;

Partial search (heuristic) method;

Research method.

These methods are divided into two groups:

Reproductive (methods 1 and 2), in which the student assimilates ready-made knowledge and reproduces (reproduces) methods of activity already known to him;

Productive (4 and 5 methods), characterized by the fact that the student obtains (subjectively) new knowledge as a result of creative activity.

The problem presentation occupies an intermediate position, because it equally involves both the assimilation of ready-made information and elements of creative activity. However, teachers usually, with certain reservations, classify problematic presentation as productive methods. Taking this into account, let's consider both groups of methods.

a) Reproductive teaching methods

Explanatory and illustrative method. It can also be called information-receptive, which reflects the activities of the teacher and student using this method. It consists in the fact that the teacher communicates ready-made information through various means, and the students perceive, realize and record this information in memory. The teacher communicates information using the spoken word (story, lecture, explanation), the printed word (textbook, additional aids), visual aids (pictures, diagrams, films and filmstrips, natural objects in the classroom and during excursions), practical demonstration of methods of activity (showing a method for solving a problem, proving a theorem, methods for drawing up a plan, annotations, etc.). Students listen, watch, manipulate problems and knowledge, read, observe, relate new information to previously learned information, and remember.

The explanatory and illustrative method is one of the most economical ways to convey the generalized and systematized experience of mankind. The effectiveness of this method has been proven by many years of practice and it has won a strong place at all levels of education. This method incorporates as means and forms of implementation such traditional methods as oral presentation, work with a book, laboratory work, observations on biological and geographical sites, etc. But when using all these various means, the activities of the students remain the same - perception, comprehension, memorization. Without this method it is impossible to ensure any of their targeted actions. Such an action is always based on some minimum of his knowledge about the goals, order and object of the action.

Reproductive method. To acquire skills and abilities through a knowledge system, the activities of students are organized to repeatedly reproduce the knowledge communicated to them and the methods of activity shown. The teacher gives tasks, and the students carry them out - solve similar problems, draw up plans, reproduce chemical and physical experiments, etc. How difficult the task is and the student’s abilities determine how long, how many times and at what intervals he should repeat the work.

Reproduction and repetition of a method of activity according to a model are the main feature of the reproductive method. The teacher uses the spoken and printed word, visual aids of various types, and the students complete tasks with a ready-made sample.

Both described methods enrich students with knowledge, skills and abilities, form their basic mental operations (analysis, synthesis, abstraction, etc.), but do not guarantee the development of creative abilities, do not allow their systematic and purposeful formation. This goal is achieved through productive methods.

b) Productive teaching methods

The most important requirement for educational institutions and an indispensable condition for scientific, technical and social progress is the formation of the qualities of a creative personality. An analysis of the main types of creative activity shows that with its systematic implementation, a person develops such qualities as quick orientation in changing conditions, the ability to see a problem and not be afraid of its novelty, originality and productivity of thinking, ingenuity, intuition, etc., etc. e. such qualities, the demand for which is very high in the present and will undoubtedly increase in the future.

The condition for the functioning of productive methods is the presence of a problem. We use the word “problem” in at least three senses. An everyday problem is an everyday difficulty, overcoming which is important for a person, but which cannot be solved on the spot with the help of the opportunities that a person currently has. A scientific problem is a current scientific problem. And finally, a learning problem is, as a rule, a problem that has already been resolved by science, but for the student it appears as a new, unknown one. An educational problem is a search task for which the learner needs new knowledge, and in the process of solving which this knowledge must be acquired.

In solving an educational problem, four main stages (stages) can be distinguished:

Creating a problematic situation;

Analysis of a problem situation, formulation of the problem and its presentation in the form of one or more problematic tasks;

Solving problematic problems (tasks) by putting forward hypotheses and consistently testing them;

Checking the solution to the problem.

Problem situation is a mental state of intellectual difficulty caused, on the one hand, by an acute desire to solve a problem, and on the other, by the inability to do this with the help of an existing stock of knowledge or with the help of familiar methods of action, and creating a need to acquire new knowledge or search for new methods of action. To create a problem situation, a number of conditions (requirements) must be met: the presence of a problem; optimal problem difficulty; the significance for students of the result of solving the problem; the presence of cognitive needs and cognitive activity among students.

Analysis of the problem situation– an important stage in the student’s independent cognitive activity. At this stage, what is given and what is unknown, the relationship between them, the nature of the unknown and its relationship to the given, the known, is determined. All this allows you to formulate the problem and present it in the form of a chain of problematic tasks (or one task). A problematic task differs from a problem by its clear definition and limitation of what is given and what should be determined.

The correct formulation and transformation of the problem into a chain of clear and specific problematic tasks is a very significant contribution to solving the problem. Next, you need to consistently work with each problematic task separately. Assumptions and conjectures are put forward about a possible solution to the problem problem. From a large number of guesses and assumptions, as a rule, several hypotheses are put forward, i.e. educated guesses are sufficient. Then problematic problems are solved by sequential testing of the hypotheses put forward.

Checking the correctness of solutions to a problem involves comparing the goal, the conditions of the problem and the result obtained. Analysis of the entire path of the problem search is of great importance. It is necessary, as it were, to go back and look again to see if there are other clearer and clearer formulations of the problem, more rational ways of solving it. It is especially important to analyze errors and understand the essence and reasons for incorrect assumptions and hypotheses. All this allows you not only to check the correctness of the solution to a specific problem, but also to gain valuable meaningful experience and knowledge, which is the main acquisition of the student.

The role of the teacher and students at the four considered stages (stages) of solving an educational problem can be different: if all four stages are performed by the teacher, then this is a problematic presentation. If all four stages are performed by the student, then this is a research method. If some stages are carried out by the teacher, and some by the students, then a partial search method takes place.

Learning using productive methods is usually called problem-based learning (Fig. 26).

Rice. 26. Methods of organization and implementation

educational and cognitive activities

Self-test questions:

1. What is the learning process?

2. What is called didactics?

3. Name the principles of learning.

4. What is the content of the educational process?

5. How is the content of education formed?

6. What role do curricula and training programs play in the educational process?

7. Name the forms of organizing educational activities.

8. What teaching methods can you name?

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In modern pedagogy, there are general forms of education (collective, group, individual), forms of organizing the educational process (lesson, subject clubs, technical creativity, student scientific societies, excursions, etc.). The form of educational organization is a historically established, stable and logically completed organization of the pedagogical process, which is characterized by systematicity and integrity, self-development, personal and activity-based nature, constancy of the composition of participants, and the presence of a certain mode of conduct.

In didactics, there are three main systems for organizing the pedagogical process: individual training and education, the classroom-lesson system, and the lecture-seminar system.

Individual training and education is an earlier form of organizing the process of knowledge transfer. Today it is not widespread, but until the 18th century it was dominant.

Class-lesson system(the foundations of which were laid by J.A. Komensky, and later supplemented by K.D. Ushinsky, A. Disterweg and other great scientist-teachers) has, in contrast to individual training and education, clear requirements for the organization of the pedagogical process. These requirements include: a permanent place and duration of training sessions, grouping (classes) of students of the same age, a permanent composition of training groups, a stable schedule of classes, the main form of which is a lesson, which, as a rule, has the following parts: survey, communication by the teacher of new knowledge, exercises to consolidate this knowledge, testing.

An important advantage of the class-lesson system is the ability to combine in it mass (school evenings, competitions, sports festivals, olympiads, conferences, etc.), group (educational - lesson, excursion, laboratory-practical lesson; extracurricular - electives, clubs, sports sections ) and individual (consultations, tutoring) forms of the educational process.

The main advantages of this system include: the ability to use the classroom team as a pedagogical means of stimulating the cognitive activity of each student; clarity and consistency in the sequence of studying educational material; economic benefits of mass training. The disadvantages of this system relate mainly to the organization of the lesson as the main form of the pedagogical process: uniformity of content; orientation towards the average student both in the content and in the pace of mastering educational material; insufficient development of those students whose level differs in one direction or another from the age norm.

Since at school students spend 85-95% of their school time in class, it is considered the main form of organizing the educational process. The class-lesson system has stood the test of life for several centuries and, despite constant sharp criticism, remains to this day almost throughout the world. It has undoubted positive qualities, such as a simple organizational structure, efficiency, and ease of management. But at the same time, it has many negative aspects: insufficient consideration of individual differences, a strict organizational structure, which often creates a formal approach to the lesson.

Lesson, according to M.I. Makhmutov, is a variable form of organizing purposeful interaction (activity and communication) of a certain composition of teachers and students, systematically used (at certain periods of time) for collective and individual solutions to the problems of training, development and education.

As a historical category, the lesson, although slowly but constantly, underwent certain changes. What are the features of a modern lesson? Let's compare it with the so-called traditional lesson. We consider traditional lessons to be lessons that have existed in school from the 50s to the present. The essence of such lessons is revealed in sufficient detail in textbooks on pedagogy. Let us give a summary of the characteristics of the lesson given in the manual by T.A. Ilyina. Let's consider the main structural elements, different combinations of which characterize different types of lessons.

The first element of the lesson is the organizational part. Typically, the organizational part includes a greeting, checking the readiness of students, equipment, and classroom space for the lesson, identifying absentees, and communicating the work plan. The purpose of the organizational part is to create a working environment in the lesson.

The next element of the lesson is checking written homework, which is carried out using different methods depending on the goal.
The third element of the lesson is an oral test of students’ knowledge (or survey), which is usually carried out using different methods (individual, frontal or combined survey).

The fourth element of the lesson is the introduction of new material, which is carried out either on the basis of the teacher’s message, or by studying it independently by the students.

The fifth element of the lesson is homework. This part of the lesson includes an explanation of the essence of the task and, if necessary, the methodology for its implementation.

The sixth element of the lesson is consolidation of new material.

The seventh element of the lesson is its ending, which must take place in an organized manner, since the lesson ends only at the direction of the teacher.

Some lessons include all the elements, others only some, since one or another element of the lesson is not used. Various combinations of elements, as well as the characteristics of the academic subject and the specifics of the educational institution, create many varieties, types and types of lessons. Traditional lessons can also be problematic. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a traditional lesson? Such a lesson allows you to repeat the educational material many times, and this contributes to its memorization and memory development, which greatly helps the formation of knowledge at the level of their assimilation. This is both the advantage and limitation of the lesson: it forms knowledge, but does not determine the overall development of students. None of the specified elements of the structure, while ensuring the assimilation of knowledge, guarantees the development of students, since the elements of the traditional structure do not reflect the process of their independent learning activity.

On the other hand, such a lesson reflects only the external signs of the educational process (organize, ask, explain, consolidate, etc.) and does not reflect its internal side (patterns of development of intellectual, motivational and other spheres, patterns of educational cognition, structure of educational activities, patterns of problem-based developmental learning). From this side, a traditional lesson does not perform regulatory functions and cannot serve as a guide to action for the teacher. The theory of the modern lesson, a lesson that is an integral component of the system of problem-based developmental education, tries to overcome these shortcomings.

What should be considered in order to successfully plan and conduct a modern lesson? To do this, it is necessary, along with fulfilling the general requirements for the process as a whole, to be guided by specific rules for organizing a lesson: first, to determine the goals of the lesson (training, development and education); secondly, prepare the content of educational material taking into account the level of training and age characteristics of students, development goals, training and education; thirdly, choose the most effective combination of teaching methods and techniques; further – determine the structure of the lesson, select and apply in a complex methods of attraction and methods of motivation; finally, plan and implement the structuring of the teaching and learning processes in accordance with the structure of educational activities and motivational support of the educational process.

How to practically implement these rules? Let's consider the methodology for planning a lesson using specific material for preparing a lesson on the topic “Electric current in gases.”

1. Determining the objectives of the lesson is carried out primarily on the basis of the requirements of the curriculum for knowledge and skills and the requirements imposed by society for the development and education of students. Goals are developed taking into account real learning conditions. Consequently, when setting goals, it is necessary to take into account, on the one hand, regulatory requirements, levels of training and motivation of students, levels of their development and upbringing, type and traditions of the school; on the other hand, the real possibilities of this lesson: the teaching and development capabilities of the content, methods, forms and means of teaching, as well as its educational potential. Therefore, setting lesson goals is not a one-time act, but a process that begins and ends planning. Analysis of the curriculum shows that in the planned lesson, students must learn the concepts of non-independent and independent categories. This gives grounds to preliminarily set the following learning goal: to form the concepts of non-independent and independent discharges in gases at the level of applying knowledge in a familiar situation. Clarification of the learning goals and formulation of development and education goals is possible only after analyzing the content of the educational material (and, of course, the conditions of the actual learning process).

2. Preparation of the content of educational material is carried out on the basis of its comprehensive analysis and is subsequently adjusted in accordance with the goals and teaching methods. Let's move on to analyzing the educational material.
Conceptual analysis is necessary, as is known, to isolate basic concepts and facts in order to correctly determine the goals of the lesson and choose teaching methods.

A conceptual analysis of the educational material for this lesson, set out in the physics textbook, shows that the entire volume of material is required to be studied in this lesson, with the exception of the subsection thermionic emission, which can be studied in the next lesson. This material contains new concepts introduced for the first time in the lesson: electric discharge in a gas, electrical conductivity of air, gas discharge, ionization of gases, conductivity of gases, ionization of gases when heated, ionic conductivity, ionizer, recombination, non-self-sustained discharge, self-sustained discharge, electron impact ionization , electron emission (basic and complex concepts are highlighted in italics).

In addition, this material contains repeating, previously covered concepts: flat capacitor, dielectric, electrode, anode, cathode, electric field work, mean free path.

To master the educational material, it is necessary to connect new concepts with previously studied basic concepts and facts: conditions for the existence of electric current, conductors and dielectrics, work of the electric field, kinetic energy.

The identified supporting concepts are subject to updating, both at the first stage of the lesson and as it progresses (incidental updating). New concepts that students have to learn are subject to formation in both the second and third stages. This is due to the fact that in this lesson it is necessary to form five main and eight minor new concepts. Therefore, saving time and devoting most of it to the formation of new concepts, it is necessary to organically merge the stage of concept formation with the stage of applying knowledge.

We will complete the conceptual analysis by highlighting ways to reveal the essence of new knowledge: reporting facts, referring to life observations, analyzing experimental data, analogy, operating with formulas.

Thus, concept analysis helps answer the questions: What do students need to repeat? What should they learn? What methods of learning activities should I master? And, in general, to the question: how to achieve this?
A logical analysis of educational material is necessary in order to outline a certain sequence of its study. In our case, first of all, the basic knowledge is repeated, then the nature of the current in gases is clarified, then the essence of discharges in gases and, finally, methods for creating an independent discharge.

Logical analysis makes it possible to identify contradictory aspects of information: a new fact does not correspond to previously studied ones (is air a conductor or a dielectric?); the material contradicts previously established ideas (is it possible to create free charges in gases?); a contradiction based on the need to apply knowledge in specific conditions (is it possible to create an independent discharge in a gas?). It follows that this material can be studied in a problem-based lesson.

Finally, logical analysis focuses on the definition of physical concepts (facts, conditions, conclusions) that students must learn in this lesson: the conditions under which a gas can become a conductor, the definition of non-self and independent discharges, the conditions for the occurrence of an independent discharge, practical ways of creating them. Psychological analysis of educational material is necessary to determine its accessibility for students. Taking into account the expected average level of training, this material can be studied on the basis of creating problem situations and solving educational problems.

Psychological analysis helps to draw the teacher’s attention to the motivational side of teaching: updating and deepening previously known (explanation of natural phenomena: St. Elmo’s fires, lightning, auroras), reliance on life experience (who has seen plasma? who has observed a discharge in gases?), creation problem situations, using a demonstration experiment, watching a movie. All this should help create the motivational states of students necessary in the lesson (showing attention, interest, a responsible and serious attitude to their actions, the desire for cognitive communication, etc.).

The analysis (albeit still unfinished) of the educational material and its comparison with the educational capabilities of students and the requirements placed on them by problem-based teaching methods allows us to set the following development goal: to continue the development of creative thinking (the ability to detect contradictions in facts, to see the mutual conditionality of phenomena, the ability pay attention to the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones), improve cognitive skills: compare, make assumptions, highlight what is significant in what is observed, highlight the main idea and draw conclusions.

Analysis of the educational significance of the content of educational material. Physics textbooks do not reveal the educational potential of the material. This does not mean that the content of the material being studied does not have educational potential. What are they?

Firstly, we can talk about the contribution of Russian scientists to the development of science using the example of the discovery of the electric arc (Petrov), electric welding (Benardos, Slavyanov), gas-discharge light sources (Vavilov), and the production of high-temperature plasma (Artsimovich, Leontovich). Such facts, without taking up much time, make it possible to reveal the scientific and practical significance of the material being studied and to have an educational impact on students through the example of dedication of these scientists.

Secondly, the content of the material allows us to connect learning with life and talk about the prospects for energy development in our country.

Thirdly, the sequence of studying the material makes it possible to encourage students to learn using the following methods of motivation: explaining the goals of the activity, working with sources of knowledge (movie), connection with life experience, relying in reasoning on a demonstration experiment. Now it is already possible to formulate the purpose of education: to arouse in students the desire to take an active part in the search for new knowledge, to arouse the need for independent search activity, to form a positive attitude towards the work of Russian scientists.

Didactic analysis. The above analysis of educational material allows:
- clarify the learning goal: since, in addition to the concepts indicated in the program, it is necessary to form an understanding of the nature of current, methods of creating a current discharge, ionization and recombination of gases, etc., it would be more correct to formulate the following learning goal: to ensure that students acquire knowledge that reveals the physical nature of electrical discharges in gases at the level of their application in a familiar situation;

Clarify the volume of educational material, the composition of basic knowledge and new concepts. For our lesson, all the concepts highlighted above should be at the center of the teacher’s activities. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to developing methods of action: setting experimental goals, highlighting what is essential in the observed phenomenon, identifying differences;

Outline the types of independent work at each stage of the lesson: at the first - reproductive (possibly logical-search), at the second - search frontal, at the third - a combination of frontal and differentiated forms of learning;
- provide sources of information: informative conversation based on the experience of students, heuristic conversation based on a physical experiment, repeated consideration and analysis of phenomena using a movie;

Consider the implementation of teaching principles in the lesson: problem-solving, motivation, visibility, scientific character and accessibility;

Establish a connection between this lesson and previous lessons - compare the electron current in metals and liquids, and then in gases;

Select the necessary equipment.

Didactic analysis completes the preparation of the content of educational material for the lesson.

If we look at the history of the lesson, we can see that at first the lesson only formed knowledge, but later it becomes more and more developing and educative. As a result, three functions of education were identified: teaching, developing and educating. The lesson began to include three goals: training, development and education. One can also distinguish stimulating, encouraging, etc. But these functions do not exhaust the possibilities of the lesson. The main function of the lesson should be, in our opinion, the development of individuality and the formation of the student’s personality, their individual qualities in unity. Therefore, the main function of the lesson should be an integrative function. Its implementation consists in the formation of:

a) a holistic system of knowledge,

b) algorithms of activity (educational, cognitive, communicative, professional, etc.),

c) systems of basic human spheres and individual qualities in their unity,
d) systems of integrative properties of individuality and personality as a whole.

With the last function we associate the holistic (systemic) properties of the lesson. It is known that the real basis of a person’s individuality and personality lies in the system of activities that are realized by him (A.N. Leontyev). This means that in order to form a holistic system of knowledge that meets the requirements of students’ future life activities, it is necessary to connect the lesson more and more fully with productive work, with the needs of the students themselves, with their future activities, to provide the knowledge that will be needed not so much by society as by a specific individual. Therefore, the more fully the relationship between general and vocational education, the connection between learning and the productive work of students is realized in a lesson, the more effectively this lesson ensures the formation of a holistic system of knowledge that is truly necessary for these students. This is the first property of a lesson as a whole. What does it take for a lesson to have this property?

In the lesson, as you know, not only knowledge is formed, but also methods of action and algorithms of activity. Consequently, the more attention is paid to the formation of activity algorithms, the more the lesson predetermines the active involvement of students in a variety of activities. This is the second holistic property of the lesson. It is easy to see that the first two properties contribute to the development of both individual qualities (human spheres) and the development of personality and its individual aspects. First of all, this is the development of intellectual, motivational and other spheres, as well as the formation of a person’s professional orientation, his views, worldview, cognitive activity and independence.

But in the classroom it is necessary to purposefully form the individual and personal qualities of the student. Therefore, the more the basic spheres of a person and the structural components of personality are activated in a lesson, the more holistic the lesson is. This is the third holistic property of the lesson.

The lesson as an integrity must be considered in conjunction with the entire system of the educational process of the educational institution. This provision requires not only the establishment of interdisciplinary connections, but the coordination of the actions of all teachers working with a particular class. This implies another (fourth) holistic property of the lesson: the level of integrity of the lesson is higher, the more it “works” for the entire educational process.

In order for each individual lesson to have an integrative function and holistic properties, it is necessary that the entire pedagogical process functions as an integrity. Thus, a lesson can be much more effective if it corresponds to the highest level of its integrity, and for this it needs to have systemic, holistic properties.

Three postulates form the basis of the new lesson technology.
The first postulate: “A lesson is the discovery of truth, the search for truth and the comprehension of truth.” The strategy of a modern lesson goes far beyond the simple transfer of knowledge: the path to truth is the path to expanding and enriching the spiritual world of the child’s personality, acquiring the ability to understand life, evaluate life and determine one’s attitude towards the world as such.

A modern lesson is a spiritual communication of a group organized by a teacher, the content of which is scientific knowledge, and the key result is the intelligence of each subject of lesson communication, his spiritual enrichment.
The second postulate is that a lesson is part of a child’s life, and living this life should be accomplished at the level of a high universal human culture. A modern lesson is the passage of a forty-five-minute moment of life as a continuation of it, at home, on the street, as part of the history of a child’s personal destiny. The lesson is lived not only by the child, but also by the teacher, as a person of modern culture, therefore there are cultural norms for his activities in the lesson. He is not an attendant, not a servant of children. He should also be provided with high working conditions. The ethics of interaction adopted in a lesson in a high culture group instructs a school teacher to teach children not to make harsh categorical judgments, not to emphasize the intellectual superiority of someone, not to neglect the opinions of others, and not to interrupt the speaker. And be concise and clear in your statements, avoid familiarity in relation to anyone, note the individual value in everyone’s work, express gratitude to everyone present.

If in a lesson a truth is studied that highlights one of the aspects of life, and therefore, in this way, life itself is studied in a lesson, then the student’s attitude towards learning radically changes. And the learning process is constructed differently.
A teacher must have the courage to live in the classroom, and not frighten children, and be open to all manifestations of life.

The third postulate: “A person as a subject of understanding the truth and a subject of life in a lesson always remains the highest value.” Humanization of education is a key element of new pedagogical thinking, requiring a change in relationships in the “teacher-student” system - establishing an atmosphere of trust, respect for the child’s personality and cooperation with him.

But humanization will remain an empty phrase without the professionalism of the teacher. Only the ability to work with children and pedagogical skill ensure the reality of humanism. The teacher yelling, "Get out!" to a little person - this is not a humane teacher, but a teacher - an unprofessional: he does not know how to cope with the situation in the lesson. A free lesson is, first of all, a lesson freed from fear. A lesson is a communication between a person and another person. The teacher presents children with the highest examples of communication culture.

To implement specific cultural norms of communication in the lesson, the teacher uses a system of five simple organizational rules:

1. Bring the pedagogical requirement to its logical conclusion, keeping each child in the field of attention and maximally promoting compliance with the proposed norm of interaction;

2. Accompany the pedagogical requirement with instructions revealing an easy way to fulfill the requirement;

3. Reveal a positive program of action for each moment of interaction, giving the requirement a positive character, and avoid negative demands, that is, demands not to do something;

4. Do not make demands on children that they cannot cope with at the current period of their development;

5. Advance the success of children’s activities in the lesson.

A modern lesson is a lesson generated by the desire to humanize reality, recognize man as the highest value, and provide him with maximum freedom for individual development. It is in the process of such a lesson that examples of a high culture of relationships are comprehended, the opportunity for free mental work, the joy of communication and intensive spiritual development of each child is provided.

1. Updating of previous (reference) knowledge. Many teachers believe that updating is the same as questioning, only the term is new. But, as M.I. notes. Makhmutov, this is far from true. The meaning of the word “actualization,” he emphasizes, says that it is necessary to make knowledge relevant, necessary at the moment, that is, to “refresh” previous knowledge and methods of activity in memory. Moreover, actualization also means the psychological preparation of the student: focusing attention, awareness of the significance of the upcoming activity, arousing interest in the lesson (it is easy to see how the motivational structure is woven into the actualization stage). In practice, this stage is carried out either in the form of a test dictation (mathematical, physical, etc.), or in the form of a combination of various methods of questioning (oral, written, frontal, individual, etc.), or in the form of repeated explanation from the teacher, or with the help of supporting Shatalov's notes - all these points represent the methodological structure. At the same time, at this stage, many components of the internal structure of the lesson are activated: students reproduce the knowledge they know, realize it, generalize facts, connect old knowledge with new conditions, with new data, etc. In addition, during the process of actualization or as a result of it, a problematic situation is often created and an educational problem is formulated. In other words, at the stage of actualization, such structures, means and techniques are used that are capable of preparing the student for carrying out independent educational activities.

2. Formation of new concepts and methods of action. The most important element of this stage is the assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action. The assimilation of new things begins with perception, if the new thing was not presented at the stage of actualization; there is a process of awareness, comprehension of the meaning of new knowledge or new ways of action. Generalization and systematization lead to actual assimilation. It is at the assimilation stage, Makhmutov emphasizes, that the basic techniques of students’ mental activity are used and cognitive skills are developed: isolation, comparison, analysis, synthesis, identifying contradictions, asking questions, formulating a problem, putting forward hypotheses, etc. At the same time, many components of educational activity develop (planning, performing and other actions). Here the teacher structures his activities, using teaching techniques, motivation, communication and attraction in accordance with the structure of the student’s educational activity and its motivational support. Thus, the combination of external and internal elements of the lesson structure represents the unity of the teacher’s activity and the student’s learning activity.

3. Application – formation of skills and abilities. As already noted, student development is not limited to assimilation. Assimilation should be followed by independent processing of information and impressions, as a result of which the ability to apply the learned methods of action is formed. But the most important thing is that at this stage conditions are purposefully created for the student to develop ways of acting that he was not taught, when he independently discovers new things. This is possible in cases where the teacher gives tasks to apply knowledge in an unfamiliar situation, when the teacher organizes a heuristic conversation and independent work of a creative nature. In these cases, as noted by psychologists (L.V. Zankov, M.V. Zvereva), new formations arise due to internal integrative processes, as a result of internal processing of external influences. The main difference between a modern lesson and a traditional one is that it not only contributes to the student’s acquisition of knowledge, but also creates conditions for his overall development.

Typology of lessons

When systematizing lessons, different authors take as a basis various characteristics of a lesson (methods used in the lesson, ways of organizing activities, the main stages of the lesson, goals, etc.). M.I. Makhmutov proposes a typology of lessons according to the purpose of organizing classes, a determined general pedagogical goal, the nature of the content of the material being studied and the level of students’ training. On this basis, all lessons can be divided into the following types:

Type 1 - lesson on learning new material;

Type 2 - a lesson in applying and improving knowledge and skills;

Type 3 - lesson of generalization and systematization of knowledge;

Type 4 - lesson of control and correction of knowledge, skills and abilities;

Type 5 - combined lesson.

Based on the problem-solving principle, lessons are divided into problematic and non-problematic.
Stage 1: updating basic knowledge and methods of action. Basic knowledge is identified, the connection with past lessons is clarified, the type of independent work is selected (reproductive, productive, partially exploratory) and the form of training (individual, group, frontal), ways of solving problems of motivational support of the lesson are outlined, forms of monitoring the progress of work are thought out, and notes are made. names of students to assess their development and performance.

Stage 2: formation of new concepts and methods of action. New concepts and methods of their formation are identified, main and secondary problems are formulated, the type and form of independent work are selected, the content of educational material is selected, problematic and non-problematic (information) questions are prepared, options for solving educational problems, and possible tips for solving them are outlined.

Stage 3: application of knowledge, formation of skills. The type and form of independent work is planned, its content is prepared (tasks, exercises, instructions, etc.), specific skills and abilities for development are outlined (for example, the ability to plan, control, solve standard and other problems, etc.), methods are selected receiving feedback (information).

Teachers have developed many methodological techniques, innovations, and innovative approaches to conducting various forms of classes. Based on the form of delivery, the following groups of non-standard lessons can be distinguished:

1. Lessons in the form of competitions and games: competition, tournament, relay race, duel, KVN, business game, role-playing game, crossword puzzle, quiz.

2. Lessons based on forms, genres and methods of work known in social practice: research, invention, analysis of primary sources, commentary, brainstorming, interview, report, review.
3. Lessons based on non-traditional organization of educational material: a lesson of wisdom, revelation, etc.

4. Lessons that resemble public forms of communication: press conference, auction, benefit performance, rally, regulated discussion, panorama, TV show, teleconference, report, dialogue, live newspaper, oral journal.

5. Fantasy lessons: fairy tale lesson, surprise lesson, 21st century lesson, Gift from Hottabych lesson.

6. Lessons based on imitation of the activities of institutions and organizations: court, investigation, tribunal, circus, patent office, academic council, editorial council.

The peculiarities of non-standard lessons lie in the desire of teachers to diversify the life of a student: to arouse interest in cognitive communication, in the lesson, in school; satisfy the child’s need for the development of intellectual, motivational, emotional and other areas. Conducting such lessons also testifies to teachers’ attempts to go beyond the template in building the methodological structure of the lesson. And this is their positive side. But it is impossible to build the entire learning process from such lessons: by their very essence, they are good as a release, as a holiday for students. They need to find a place in the work of every teacher, as they enrich his experience in the varied construction of the methodological structure of the lesson.

Lecture-seminar system, which appeared in connection with the creation of the first universities, has undergone almost no significant changes throughout the history of its existence. It is used in the practice of professional training and is designed for the fact that its participants (students) already have skills in educational activities and are capable of independently searching for and assimilating knowledge. The main forms of training in the lecture-seminar system are lectures, seminars, practical and laboratory classes, consultations, colloquiums, tests, exams, and practical training.

A lecture is a detailed, lengthy and systematic presentation of the essence of any educational, scientific, educational or other problem. This is the main form of transmitting a large amount of systematized information as an indicative basis for students’ independent work.

A seminar is an educational session in the form of a collective discussion of the issues being studied, reports, and abstracts.

Practical and laboratory classes are used in the study of natural science disciplines, as well as in the process of labor and professional training. Such classes are conducted in classrooms, laboratories, workshops, and in educational and industrial complexes.

An elective is a form of education that involves in-depth study of academic subjects of the students’ choice and desire.

An excursion is a form of organizing training in the conditions of production, a museum, an exhibition, or a natural landscape with the purpose of observing and studying by students various objects and phenomena of reality.

Tests and exams are aimed at systematizing, consolidating, identifying the accuracy and depth of knowledge, skills and abilities of students.

Recently, elements of the lecture-seminar system have been widely used in secondary schools, combined with forms of teaching in the classroom-lesson system. This, on the one hand, increases the efficiency of schoolchildren’s education, and on the other, ensures continuity between secondary and higher schools.

If we consider the main element of the pedagogical process - training, then the form of organization of training means the collective, group or individual work of students under the guidance of a teacher. Currently, there are more than 1000 forms of organizing the educational process. There are forms of theoretical training, practical, self-education, forms of knowledge control, only the most common ones are presented here.

Lesson- the main form of organization of educational work in a modern school, a complete stage of the educational process in semantic, temporal and organizational terms. The structure of the lesson is determined by the didactic goal. There is a lesson aimed at learning new material, a lesson in developing and improving skills, a lesson in generalizing and systematizing knowledge, a lesson in control and correction, and a combined lesson.

At the moment, there are justified complaints about the class-lesson system. They consist, first of all, of stereotypedness, average approach, lack of consideration of individual characteristics of students, passivity and weak speech activity of students. But, taking into account its advantages: consistency, organizational clarity, logical structure of the material, optimal costs for mass training, there is no real alternative to it yet.

Lecture(educational) is one of the main forms of organizing the educational process and one of the main methods of teaching at a university. A lecture is a method of communicating new knowledge; it is distinguished by high focus and great information content. Its impact on the listener is carried out in two ways: the content and emotional expressiveness of speech. During the lecture, the teacher not only conveys new scientific information in a systematic, holistic form, but can also reveal many connections - with other subjects, problems and practice.

Practical and laboratory classes are used to check the quality of learning the material, to consolidate skills in working with tools, devices, equipment, working with regulatory documents, instructional materials, reference books, making drawings, diagrams, tables, solving problems and carrying out calculations, drawing up technical documentation, etc.

Seminar classes consist of students discussing messages, reports, abstracts completed by them based on the results of educational research under the guidance of teachers. In the course of independent work, students acquire skills in conducting scientific research and its design, learn to defend the developed scientific positions and conclusions. The seminar is also used as an independent form of thematic training sessions not related to lecture courses.

If students’ independent research in a particular area has significance beyond just the educational process, then their results can be submitted to student scientific and practical conference, a platform for the exchange of scientific and creative experiences of students.

Optional course- a discipline studied by students at their request in order to expand and deepen scientific and theoretical knowledge on the latest problems of program material that are of increased interest to students.

Consultation- involves a secondary analysis of educational material that has been poorly mastered or not mastered by students at all. Didactic goals of consultations: eliminating gaps in students’ knowledge, providing assistance in independent work, expanding and deepening knowledge. The teacher’s task is to show cause-and-effect relationships, to reveal patterns in the content of the program material. Consultations are available: individual and group.

Tests and exams– are methods of monitoring and evaluating learning outcomes.

Today, the question of the increasing introduction of active teaching methods into the educational process is particularly acute and, accordingly, a search is being made for new forms. The call itself is not new, but at the moment it sounds especially relevant.

In the face of the challenges that modern society dictates to us, a search is underway for a new paradigm of education, and the motto “education through life” is only one of its components. Within the framework of synergetics, an interdisciplinary scientific approach to the study of complex, human-sized, self-organizing systems, they talk about the need for advanced education, the development of the ability not to repeat models, and not even to improve them, but to get ahead.

Active teaching methods are ways to enhance a student’s educational and cognitive activity, not just the teacher’s presentation of ready-made knowledge and its reproduction, but independent mastery of knowledge and methods of action in the process of active cognitive activity. Learning by doing!

When using active learning methods, the following tasks are solved:

1) involve all mental processes of students at the same time: sensations, perception, memory, thinking, attention, imagination;

2) speech development;

3) development of communication and creative abilities;

4) formation of a personal approach to the problem;

5) development of dialogue methods of interaction and collective forms of problem solving.

The use of active methods is also possible within traditional forms of training, for example, lectures. Problem lecture is contrasted with informational as dialogic and monological. A way to activate students’ cognitive activity within its framework is to pose a problem that needs to be solved during the lecture.

Educational problems must be accessible in their difficulty for students, they must take into account the cognitive capabilities of students, proceed from the subject being studied and be significant for the acquisition of new material and personal development - general and professional.

The teacher’s tasks during the lecture are to formulate problematic questions, put forward hypotheses, introduce students to objective contradictions in the development of scientific knowledge, turn to students for help, evaluate their statements, and bring together the opinions expressed.

Students are forced to use not only perception and memory, but also thinking, speech, and imagination. The information received is assimilated by them as a personal discovery of knowledge that is not yet known to them.

Another way to activate lecture material is to visualize it. Psychological and pedagogical research shows that visibility not only contributes to more successful perception and memorization of educational material, but also allows you to intensify mental activity and penetrate deeper into the essence of the phenomena being studied. Lecture-visualization teaches students to transform oral and written information into visual form, which forms their professional thinking by systematizing and highlighting the most significant, essential elements of the learning content.

There are also more “rare” methods for activating the learning process within the framework of lectures, for example, “lecture together” and “lecture with pre-planned errors.”

IN lectures together educational material with problematic content is given to students in lively dialogical communication between two teachers. Here, real professional situations of discussion of theoretical issues from different positions by two specialists, for example, a theorist and a practitioner, a supporter or opponent of a particular point of view, etc. are modeled.

A two-person lecture forces students to actively engage in the thinking process. With two sources of information presented, the students' task is to compare different points of view and make a choice whether to join one or the other or develop their own. The level of involvement in the cognitive activity of students is comparable to the activity of teachers. Among other things, students gain a clear understanding of the culture of discussion, methods of dialogue, joint search and decision-making.

Lecture with pre-planned errors as a form, it was developed to develop students’ skills to quickly analyze professional situations, act as experts, opponents, reviewers, and identify incorrect or inaccurate information. Elements of an intellectual game with a teacher create an increased emotional background and activate the cognitive activity of students.

This form of lecture can bring tangible benefits to the teacher, since students find not only mistakes deliberately made by the teacher (the lecture is appropriate to conduct as a final lecture on the topic when students already have the necessary knowledge), but also errors that were unwittingly made by the teacher, especially speech ones and behavioral.

Forms of teaching that are fundamentally different from lectures and are active in the methods used are also used. For example, a dispute.

Dispute - This is a lively heated debate on various current topics. The very form of organizing the presentation of educational material, based on a healthy sense of competition inherent in all of us, leads to increased student interest in the topic of dispute and, accordingly, the process of cognition. To participate in debate, you need to know the material, be able to speak, justify and defend your own opinion. Polemics foster a critical approach and a culture of dialogue. Students learn to delve into an opponent's arguments, identify weak points, ask questions that help clarify positions, reveal incorrect statements, etc. This form of presenting educational material helps to avoid the formalism of knowledge and promotes the transformation of knowledge into beliefs.

So-called simulation teaching methods have gained popularity today. They are presented in such forms as a business game (imitation game method), situational task (imitation non-game method).

Business game(or role play) – imitation of real activity, during which the contradiction between the abstract nature of the educational process and the real nature of professional activity is removed. Communication within a business game imitates communication within real activities. Each solves its own individual problem in accordance with its role and function.

Researchers have found that when the material is presented in this form, about 90% of the information is absorbed. In addition, this form of training helps to correlate theoretical material with practice, to see the ambiguity of solving problems in real life. The social significance of a business game is that in the process of solving certain problems, not only knowledge is activated, but also collective forms of communication are developed.

Collective mental activity is based on dialogic communication, one student expresses a thought, the other continues or rejects it. It is known that dialogue requires constant mental tension and mental activity. This form teaches students to listen carefully to the speeches of others, develops analytical skills, teaches them to compare, highlight the main thing, critically evaluate the information received, prove, and formulate conclusions.

The peculiarities of collective mental activity are that there is a strict dependence of the activity of a particular student on a fellow student; helps solve psychological problems of the team; there is a “transfer” of action from one participant to another; self-management skills develop.

All this is especially relevant today, when professional education is faced with the task of preparing not just a knowledgeable, but a competent specialist. Which means the ability to work in a team, develop strategies for solving problems, take responsibility for assigned work, etc.

Positive aspects: correlation of theoretical material with practice, consideration of the problem from different angles, reasoned presentation of one’s position - fully apply to such a form of training as solving situational problems. The so-called "case method"or situational teaching methodology. Its essence is that students are asked to comprehend a real life situation, the description of which simultaneously reflects not only any practical problem, but also actualizes a certain set of knowledge that must be learned when solving this problem. At the same time, the problem itself has no clear solutions.

It cannot be said that the question of the need for more active participation of students in the pedagogical process is new. Comenius also wrote about the importance of clarity in pedagogy, considered drawings to be an organic part of the text, affecting not only the mind, but also the feelings, and he himself wrote the book “The World of Sensual Things in Pictures.” He tried to revive teaching and attract the interest of children by dramatizing educational material, created a “school of play”, and wrote a number of plays himself. The same business game is the brainchild of the 20s of the XX century. But today we are talking about changing the educational paradigm, where knowledge is no longer an end in itself, but a means of personal self-realization. And this requires a restructuring of the entire pedagogical process, including in the sense of the prevalence of active methods and appropriate forms of teaching.

Pedagogical technologies today involve the implementation of the idea of ​​complete controllability of the educational process, both at the level of the educational system as a whole, and at the level of the educational institution, and at the level of training and education of each individual individually. Controllability implies achieving the planned result. The structure of management activities includes the following sequential stages: forecasting, design, quality monitoring, assessment and corrective measures.

Pedagogical forecasting is understood as the anticipation of future changes in the development of society, education, and personality; determining ways to improve the educational system and the individual; design progress of development of the pedagogical process. Quality monitoring education involves establishing the degree of correspondence between goals and results at the level of the system, individual institutions, and individual achievement trajectory; the degree of correspondence of theoretical knowledge and skills to their practical use in practice is determined. In accordance with the results obtained, it is given grade, and are determined corrective measures.

At the same time, given that the modern paradigm of education places emphasis on the development of the student as a unique individual, this contradicts the development of universal methods and forms of education, and the unification of its content. Therefore, today they are increasingly talking not so much about the management of education, but about its “guided” development, which makes it possible to influence the integral characteristics of the process, ensure the desired trends or, conversely, avoid undesirable deviations. This point of view does not negate the need for prognostic schemes that are designed to ensure the sustainable development of modern society. The meaning of management should now be to coordinate the activities of educational institutions in accordance with the value guidelines emerging in society.

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