Average thinking. The concept of thinking, types, operations and forms of thinking

The term “thinking” was understood differently by representatives of various sciences. By thinking they meant the entire psychology of man and contrasted it with the really existing material world (17th century French philosopher R. Descartes). IN late XIX V. thinking began to be understood as one of the cognitive processes. From the middle of the 20th century. it turns out that it represents quite difficult process and it is not possible to accurately define thinking as a concept. There is still no single, generally accepted definition of thinking.

And yet thinking in its modern understanding can be defined from different sides, as one of cognitive, mental processes person. Its goal is to understand the world around us through the senses or through other psychological processes.

Thinking is the process of solving problems, questions, problems by transforming initial conditions according to certain rules and laws of logic.

Thinking is the process of a person’s generalized cognition of reality at the conceptual level (knowledge about the most important and essential things that are associated with a certain word, content.

Thinking is also a process of indirect (using special means) human knowledge of reality.

Thinking is a type of activity through which a person, including it in other cognitive processes, transforms them into higher mental functions. The highest forms of perception, attention, imagination, memory and speech of a person are most closely related to thinking.

Features of thinking

Thinking- is a mental cognitive process of reflecting significant connections and relationships of objects and phenomena objective world. It acts as the main tool of cognition. Thinking is mediated (cognition of one thing through another) cognition. The thinking process is characterized by the following features:

1. Thinking always has indirect nature. Establishing connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the objective world, a person relies not only on immediate sensations and perceptions, but also on the data of past experience preserved in his memory.

2. Thinking based on available to a person knowledge about the general laws of nature and society. In the process of thinking, a person uses the knowledge of general provisions that has already been established on the basis of previous practice, which reflects the most general connections and patterns of the surrounding world.

3. Thinking comes from “living contemplation”, but is not reduced to it. Reflecting connections and relationships between phenomena, we always reflect these connections in an abstract and generalized form, as having a general meaning for all similar phenomena of a given class, and not just for this specifically observed phenomenon.

4. Thinking is always there reflection of connections and relationships between objects in verbal form. Thinking and speech are always in inextricable unity. Due to the fact that thinking takes place in words, the processes of abstraction and generalization are facilitated, since words by their nature are very special stimuli that signal reality in the most generalized form.

5. Human thinking is organic connected With practical activities. In its essence, it is based on human social practice. This is by no means Not simple “contemplation” of the external world, but such a reflection of it that meets the tasks that arise before a person in the process of labor and other activities aimed at reorganizing the surrounding world.

Thought, however, is different from other cognitive processes. for example, from perception, imagination and memory.

The image of perception always contains only that which directly affects the senses. Perception always more or less accurately, directly or indirectly, contains or reflects information that affects the senses.

Thinking always represents what is in reality, in physical form does not exist. The concept of phenomena and objects is the result of thinking. Thinking reflects only the essential and ignores many random, non- essential features objects and phenomena.

Imagination and thinking are purely internal and different processes. However, they are significantly different. The result of thinking is a thought, and the result of imagination is an image. Thinking helps a person to know deeper and better the world. The result of imagination is not any law. The further the fantasy image departs from reality, the better the imagination. The closer to reality the product of thinking is, the more perfect it is.

A person with a rich imagination is not always creatively gifted or intellectually developed, and a person with a well-developed thinking does not always have a good imagination.

Memory remembers, stores and reproduces information about the surrounding world. It does not introduce anything new, does not generate or change thought. Thinking, on the contrary, generates and changes precisely thoughts as such.

Basic types of human thinking. There are several approaches to the classification of types of thinking: empirical (experienced) and static, logical, genetic principles.

So, in humans we can distinguish the following main types of thinking:

theoretical and practical,

productive (creative) and reproductive (non-creative),

intuitive (sensual) and logical,

autistic and realistic,

visually effective, visually figurative and verbal-logical thinking.

Theoretical is called thinking that occurs in the mind, without resorting to practical actions, i.e., thinking based on theoretical reasoning and inferences. For example, proof of any non-obvious position by mental transformation of already known provisions, definition of concepts, formulation and justification of theories that explain any phenomena of reality.

Practical they call thinking, the purpose of which is to solve some practical, life problem, different from those purely cognitive problems that were called theoretical. Such thinking can contain both mental and practical actions of a person. Practical thinking - thinking based on judgments and inferences based on solving practical problems.

Productive or creative they call such thinking that generates some new, previously unknown material (object, phenomenon) or ideal (thought, idea) product. Productive(creative) thinking - thinking based on creative imagination.

Reproductive or reproducing thinking deals with problems for which solutions have been found. In reproductive thinking man walking an already traveled, well-known path. Nothing new is created as a result of such thinking. Therefore, it is sometimes also called uncreative. Reproductive(reproducing) thinking - thinking based on images and ideas drawn from certain sources.

The names “productive” and “reproductive” in relation to thinking appeared and began to be used at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. Currently, the preferred names are “creative thinking” and “non-creative thinking”.

Intuitive is called thinking, the peculiarity of which is that a person has a special intellectual ability and a special feeling - intuition. Intuition is the ability to quickly find the correct solution to a problem without much reasoning and to be convinced, to feel its correctness, without having strong evidence of its truth. this decision. A person is guided by intuition, and it also leads his thinking along the right path.

Intuitive thinking - thinking on the basis of direct sensory perceptions and direct reflection of the effects of objects and phenomena of the objective world.

Intuitive thinking is usually unconscious. A person does not know, cannot give a conscious account of how he came to this or that decision, cannot logically justify it. Discursive thinking is thinking mediated by the logic of reasoning, not perception.

Logical They call thinking that is recognized as a process and can be proven and verified in terms of its correctness or error using logical rules.

There is an assumption that a person’s predominance of intuitive or logical thinking to some extent genetically determined. Scientists admit that in people for whom the leader is right hemisphere brain, intuitive thinking predominates, and in people for whom the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant, logical thinking is dominant.

Autistic thinking- a special type of thinking that does not always reveal the truth to a person or lead to the correct solution of a particular problem. “Autism” is translated into Russian as “having your head in the clouds”, “free flight of fantasy”, “detachment from reality”. We are talking about thinking that does not take into account or is poorly oriented towards reality, solving problems without taking into account objective life circumstances. Such thinking in most cases is not quite normal from the point of view of the usual understanding of the norm. This thinking, however, cannot be called sick (pathological), since its presence in a person does not indicate the presence of any disease.

In contrast to autistic thinking, realistic thinking is distinguished. This type of thinking is always guided by reality, seeks and finds solutions to problems as a result of a careful study of this reality, and the solutions found, as a rule, correspond reality. Autistically thinking people are sometimes called dreamers, and realistically thinking people are called pragmatists, realists.

Visually effective is called thinking, the process of which comes down to real, practical actions of a person with material objects in a clearly perceived situation. Internal, mental actions are practically reduced to a minimum; the problem is mainly solved by practical manipulations with objects. Visually effective- this is the simplest of known species thinking characteristic of many animals. Visually effective thinking is thinking directly involved in activity.

It represents genetically the earliest type of human thinking.

Visually figurative called thinking in which problems are solved by a person through internal, psychological actions and transformations of images of objects. This type thinking appears in children aged 3-4 years. Figurative thinking is thinking carried out on the basis of images, ideas of what a person perceived before.

Verbal-logical called the highest level of development of human thinking, which arises only at the end preschool age and improving throughout life. Such thinking deals with concepts about objects and phenomena and proceeds entirely in the internal, mentally, it is not obligatory for him to rely on a clearly perceived situation.

Abstract thinking is thinking carried out on the basis of abstract concepts that are not represented figuratively.

Thinking processes. Thinking processes These are the processes by which a person solves problems. It could be like internal, so and external processes, as a result of which a person discovers new knowledge and finds solutions to the problems that arise before him. In different types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical - these processes appear as different.

In visual-effective thinking, they represent purposeful practical actions of a person with real objects, leading him to a given goal. These actions are determined by the conditions of the problem and are aimed at transforming them in such a way as to lead a person to the desired goal - the desired solution to the problem - in a minimum number of relatively simple actions.

In visual-figurative thinking, its process is already purely internal, psychological process, the content of which is the manipulation of images of relevant objects.

The processes that characterize verbal-logical thinking are understood as the internal reasoning of a person, where he acts with concepts according to the laws of logic, searching for the desired solution to a problem through comparison and transformation of concepts.

Under judgment understand a certain statement containing a certain thought. Under reasoning They mean a system of logically interconnected judgments, the constructed sequence of which leads to a conclusion that represents the desired solution to the problem. Judgments can be statements about the presence or absence of a specific feature in an object or phenomenon. Logically and linguistically, propositions are usually represented by simple sentences.

In psychology and logic, the processes related to verbal-logical thinking turned out to be the most studied in detail. Over the centuries, in the process of searching for the right ways to deal with concepts - ones that guarantee the avoidance of mistakes, people have developed rules for dealing with concepts, which are called logical operations thinking.

Logical operations of thinking - These are mental actions with concepts, as a result of which new knowledge, and true knowledge, is obtained from generalized knowledge presented in the corresponding concepts. The basic logical operations of thinking are as follows: comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization And specification.

Comparison is a logical operation as a result of which two or more different objects are compared with each other in order to establish what is common and different in them. The identification of common and different is the result of a logical comparison operation. Comparison - this is an operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or differences between them.

Analysis - This is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts.

Analysis is a logical operation of dividing a complex or composite object into separate parts, the elements of which it consists. Sometimes the connections that exist between parts or elements are also clarified in order to determine how the corresponding complex object is internally arranged.

Synthesis call the logical operation of combining parts or elements into a complex whole. As in the case of analysis, this is sometimes done in order to further determine how a complex whole is structured, what special properties it differs from the elements of which it is composed. Synthesis - This is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking.

It rarely happens in human thinking that it includes only one logical operation. Most often, logical operations are present in a complex manner.

Abstraction is called such a logical operation, as a result of which any particular property of one or several different objects is isolated and considered, moreover, a property that in reality does not exist as separate and independent from the corresponding objects. Abstraction - a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects and phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.

Generalization- this is a logical operation, as a result of which some particular statement, valid in relation to one or several objects, is transferred to other objects or acquires a generalized, rather than private, character. Generalization - This is the unification of many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic.

Specification - this is the movement of thought from the general to the specific.

Specification is a logical operation opposite to generalization. It manifests itself in the fact that some general statement transferred to any specific object, that is, properties inherent in many other objects are attributed to it.

Participating in a holistic process of thinking, logical operations complement each other and serve the purpose of such transformation of information, thanks to which it is possible to quickly find the desired solution to a certain problem. All processes of thinking and all logical operations included in it have an external organization, which is usually called forms of thinking or inferences.

Coming from the outside world. Thinking is carried out in the course of the flow of thoughts, images, and various sensations. A person, receiving any information, is able to imagine both the external and internal aspects of a specific object, predict its change over time, and imagine this object in its absence. What is a thinking type? Are there any techniques for determining types of thinking? How to use them? In this article we will look at the main types of thinking, their classification and features.

General characteristics of thinking

Studying information about the types and types of thinking, we can come to the conclusion that there is no single characteristic to define them. The opinions of scientists and psychologists are similar in some ways and different in others. The classification of the main types of thinking is a rather arbitrary thing, since the most characteristic types and types of human thinking are supplemented by their derivative, individual forms. But before moving on to considering the various types, I would like to find out how the process of mental activity itself proceeds. Thinking can be divided into certain mental operations that result in the formation of a concept.

• First of all, through analysis, a person mentally breaks the whole into its component parts. This occurs due to the desire for a deeper knowledge of the whole by studying each of its parts.
• As a result of synthesis, a person mentally connects individual parts into a single whole, or groups individual signs, properties of an object or phenomenon.
• In the process of comparison, many types and types of thinking are able to identify the common and different in objects or phenomena.
• The next operation of the thinking process is abstraction. This is a simultaneous mental distraction from non-existent properties while highlighting the essential features of an object.
• The generalization operation is responsible for systematizing the properties of an object or phenomenon, bringing together general concepts.
• Concretization is a transition from general concepts to a single, specific case.

All these operations can be combined in various variations, resulting in a concept - the basic unit of thinking.

Practical (visual-effective) thinking

Psychologists divide human thinking types into three groups. Let's consider the first type - visual-effective thinking, as a result of which a person is able to cope with a task as a result of a mental transformation of the situation based on previously gained experience. From the name itself it comes that initially there is a process of observation, a trial and error method, then, based on this, it is formed theoretical activity. This type of thinking is well explained by the following example. Man first learned in practice to measure his land plot using improvised means. And only then, based on the knowledge gained, geometry was gradually formed as a separate discipline. Here practice and theory are inextricably linked.

Figurative (visual-figurative) thinking

Along with conceptual thinking, figurative or visual-figurative thinking appears. It can be called thinking by representation. The imaginative type of thinking is most clearly observed in preschoolers. To solve a certain problem, a person no longer uses concepts or conclusions, but images that are stored in memory or recreated by imagination. This type of thinking can also be observed in people who, by the nature of their activities, are called upon to make decisions, taking as a basis only observation of an object or visual images of objects (plan, drawing, diagram). The visual-figurative type of thinking provides the opportunity mental representation, selection of various combinations of objects and their properties.

Abstract logical thinking

This type of thinking does not operate on individual details, but concentrates on thinking as a whole. Developing this type of thinking since early age, in the future you won’t have to worry about problems solving important problems. Abstract logical thinking has three forms, let's consider them:

• A concept is a combination of one or more homogeneous objects using essential features. This form thinking begins to develop in young children, introducing them to the meaning of objects, giving them definitions.
• Judgment can be simple or complex. This is a statement or denial of any phenomenon or relationship of objects. A simple judgment takes the form of a short phrase, and a complex one can take the form declarative sentence. “The dog barks”, “Mom loves Masha”, “The water is wet” - this is how we teach kids to reason while introducing them to the outside world.
• Inference is logical conclusion, following from several judgments. Initial judgments are defined as premises, and final judgments are defined as conclusions.

Everyone is capable of independently developing a logical type of thinking; for this there are a lot of puzzles, rebuses, crosswords, and logical tasks. Properly developed abstract-logical thinking in the future makes it possible to solve many problems that do not allow for close contact with the subject being studied.

Types of economic thinking

Economics is that branch of human life that everyone faces. Learning something every day daily practice, the individual forms his own guidelines that relate to economic activity. This is how economic thinking is gradually formed.

The ordinary type of thinking is subjective. Individual economic knowledge not so in-depth and are not able to prevent mistakes and errors. Ordinary economic thinking is based on one-sided and fragmentary knowledge in this industry. As a result, it is possible to perceive part of an event as a single whole or a random phenomenon - as constant and unchanging.

Opposite the ordinary is scientific economic thinking. A person who owns it knows the methods of rational and scientifically based economic activity. The reasoning of such a person does not depend on anyone’s opinion; she is able to determine the objective truth of the situation. Scientific economic thinking covers the entire surface of events, reflecting the economy in its comprehensive integrity.

Philosophical thinking

The subject of philosophy is spiritual experience human, both psychological and social, and aesthetic, moral and religious. Both the worldview itself and the types of philosophical thinking have their origin in productive doubt about the correctness of everyday opinions. Let's consider the main features of this type of thinking:

• Conceptual validity is the sequence of solving worldview issues in accordance with the established order.
• Consistency and systematicity implies the construction by a philosopher theoretical system which provides answers to many worldview questions.
• The universality of theories lies in the following: a philosopher rarely gives answers to questions that concern a particular person; his theories only indicate the right path to find these answers.
• Openness to criticism. Philosophical judgments lend themselves constructive criticism and are open to revision of the main provisions.

Rational type of thinking

What type of perception and processing of information operates with competence and knowledge, ability and skill and does not take into account such operations as feeling and premonition, impulse and desire, impression and experience? Right, rational thinking. This cognitive process, which is based on a reasonable and logical perception of an object or situation. A person does not always have to think about anything during his life; sometimes he makes do with feelings and habits that have become automatic. But when he “turns on his head,” he tries to think rationally. You can attract such a person only with facts based on reality, and only after realizing the importance of the final result will he begin to act.

Irrational thinking

Irrational thinking does not obey logic and control over its actions. Irrationalists are active individuals. They take on many things, but there is illogicality in their actions. Their thoughts and judgments are not based on real facts, but on the expected result. Irrational thinking can be based on distorted conclusions, on understatement or exaggeration of the significance of any events, personalization or overgeneralization of the result, when a person, having failed once, draws a corresponding conclusion for the rest of his life.

Synthesizing type of thinking

Using this type of thinking, a person creates a holistic picture based on various fragments and pieces of information. Human encyclopedists, librarians, office workers, scientists, enthusiastic programmers - all of them are representatives of synthesizing thinking. It is impossible to expect them to be interested in extreme sports and travel; their usual field of activity is a constant work routine.

Human analysts

Observers, people who are able to get to the root cause of an event, those who like to think about life path Having only a few facts in their arsenal, detectives and investigators are typical representatives of the analytical type of thinking.

This is a kind of scientific type of thinking, the strong point of which is logic. This type of information perception can be compared to the rational one, but it is more long-term. If a rationalist, solving one problem, quickly moves on to solving the next, then the analyst will spend a long time digging, assessing the development of events, and thinking about what could have been the root cause.

Idealistic type of thinking

The most common types of human thinking include idealistic thinking. It is typical for people with somewhat inflated demands on others. They subconsciously try to find previously created ideal images in others; they tend to harbor illusions, which entails disappointment.

Idealists can operate with social and social factors in their decisions as accurately as possible. subjective factors, they try to avoid conflict situations, considering them an unnecessary waste of time. In their opinion, all people can agree among themselves. To do this, it is important for them to correctly determine final goal. Their standards may seem too high, but the quality of their work is truly high and their behavior is exemplary.

People "Why?" and people "Why?"

Another characteristic of thinking types was proposed by Stephen Covey. He came up with the idea that different types of thinking can be divided into only two types. Later, his theory was supported by Jack Canfield, who deals with human motivation. So what is this theory? Let's figure it out.

People of the first type live in thoughts about their own future. All people’s actions are aimed not at realizing their desires, but at thinking about tomorrow. At the same time, they don’t think about whether “tomorrow” will come at all. The result of this is a lot of missed opportunities, an inability to make fundamental changes, and dreams of a bright future often never come true.

Why people live in the past. Past experience, past victories and achievements. At the same time, they often do not notice what is happening at the moment, and may not think about the future at all. They look for the causes of many problems in the past, and not in themselves.

Methodology “Type of Thinking”

Today, psychologists have developed many methods that can be used to determine own type thinking. The respondent is asked to answer questions, after which his answers are processed, and the dominant type of perception and processing of information is determined.

Determining the type of thinking can help in choosing a profession, tell a lot about a person (his inclinations, lifestyle, success in mastering a new type of activity, interests and much more). After reading the test question, you should answer affirmatively if you agree with the judgment, and negatively if you do not.

The “Type of Thinking” technique showed that it is rare to meet people whose type of thinking is defined in pure form, most often these are combined.

It is worth noting that there are many various exercises, allowing you to train and develop certain types of thinking. Thus, types of creative thinking can be developed with the help of drawing, logical thinking, as mentioned earlier, with the help of crosswords and puzzles.

Different types of thinking help us solve hundreds of emerging problems every day. To do this, we use all kinds of tools from the arsenal of our brain. Systematization, generalization, analysis, synthesis and much more give us the opportunity to develop and more fully perceive the picture of the world around us. However, they are only special cases of large-scale processes occurring inside consciousness.

Basic structures are the main types of thinking:

• concretely effective (practical);
• concrete-figurative;
• abstract.

A concretely effective type of human thinking. This type is based on direct perception of objects through the senses and provision of an adequate motor response. It is one of the first to manifest itself in humans, therefore it is the most shining example, the ability of young children to use various items, appropriately capturing analogies. Used by a person to solve technical problems, its characteristics include attention to particulars and the ability to use them according to the situation, observation, the ability to operate with spatial images, as well as a quick switch from mental activity to practice. Predominant among people of technical professions (engineers, doctors, designers, etc.)

The concrete-figurative type of human thinking is characterized by the perception of information through the construction of images, that is, by combining disparate images a person is able to create something completely new.

This mindset is also called artistic. People with pronounced imaginative thinking find themselves in the professions of an artist, writer, fashion designer, etc.

The abstract type of human thinking (verbal-logical) is based on concepts and is aimed at finding various patterns in the structure of everything, be it nature as a whole or specific relationships in human society.

Presentation on the topic: "Thinking and its types"

Mainly uses wide conceptual categories, although images are present here, they only play a supporting role. If this type of thinking prevails, then, most likely, a person will choose the profession of a philosopher, psychologist, or theorist in some scientific fields.

These were the main types of thinking, but there are also other types of human mental activity.

Minor types of thought processes

Based on the above, a classification was formed minor species thinking and their characteristics.

Based on the type of problems being solved, practical and theoretical types of thinking are distinguished:

• Practical is preparation for physical stage activities. An example would be building a diagram, drawing up a plan, etc.
• Theoretical is the knowledge of rules and laws, which reflects the essence of phenomena, objects and their interactions.

Theory and practice interact with each other, since the people who make up the theory do not care at all how it will look in practice. While practitioners are trying to make this theory work.

The nature of subtypes of thought processes

Based on structure and time extension, types of thinking are distinguished as analytical and intuitive.

• Analytical is a person’s mental activity, unfolded over time, in which individual stages of thought are clearly expressed. His technique promotes full awareness of the content of your thoughts as a whole, and also conveys the essence of each stage separately.
• Intuitive is the opposite of the analytical type. It is characterized by folding in time and the absence of clearly defined stages.

The nature and types of thinking, characterized by different directions:

• The realistic type, in which a person’s thinking is aimed at the surrounding reality. All thoughts at a given moment in time are aimed at solving problems only indirectly related to his personality.
• Autistic - this type of thinking implies that all actions performed are aimed at satisfying own needs and solving problems of a purely personal nature.
• Egocentric – the inability to put oneself in someone else’s place prevails. In this case, all thoughts are aimed only at obtaining one’s own benefit.
• Based on the novelty of the resulting knowledge products, Z. I. Kalmykova’s research methodology distinguishes reproductive and productive (creative) mental activity:
  • Reproductive is a type of reproduction of information previously acquired by an individual. Considering this feature, they speak of a close relationship between this type of mental activity and memory.
  • A productive type of thinking involves the assimilation of new information and its subsequent use.

Particular types of mental activity

The nature and types of thinking that arises on the border of basic types and has independent expression:

• Empirical – makes it possible to build primary generalizations based on previously gained experience. These processes are the lowest level of cognition and are based on the simplest abstractions.
• The algorithmic type of thinking is oriented towards previously established rules; it reproduces the sequence of actions that is always used in the process of solving such problems.
• Discursive - based on reasoning reproduced in a system of mental conclusions logically interconnected.
• Non-standard or heuristic is a subtype whose goal is to obtain solutions for non-standard tasks.

Every person uses all types and types of thinking throughout his life, but under the influence external factors they develop differently. Solving any problem requires the use of various types, both individually and in combination with each other.

But only by taking into account all types and forms of thinking can we build the most clear and complete model of human consciousness.

The methodology for studying thought processes includes a huge number of stages and helps to derive the most rational and systematized decisions.

For some reason, people often complain about it, but no one complains about thinking. And in general, it seems that the very need to develop thinking concerns us little. Don't you think this is strange? For the majority of people, the process of the birth of thought is no less mysterious than the birth of the Galaxy. But thinking can also be different. But before we talk about types of thinking, let's figure out what it is.

Every second a person receives a variety of information from the outside world. The result of the work of our senses is visual images, sounds, smells, taste and tactile sensations, data about the state of the body. We receive all this as a result of the direct sensory. This primary information, the building material with which our thinking works.

The process of processing sensory data, their analysis, comparison, generalization, conclusions - this is thinking. This is a higher cognitive process, during which new, unique knowledge is created, information that is not in our sensory experience.

An example of such a birth of new knowledge is the simplest construction - a syllogism, consisting of two premises - empirical (given in direct experience) knowledge and one conclusion - a conclusion.

• The first premise: all students take exams in winter.
• Second premise: Ivanov is a student.
• Conclusion: Ivanov takes exams in winter.

This conclusion is the result of elementary thinking, because we do not know whether Ivanov passes exams in winter, but we obtain this knowledge through reasoning. Although, of course, most often the process of the birth of a thought is more complex and even confusing.

Birth of a thought

Everyone knows that thoughts are born in the head, or more precisely, in the brain. But answering the question of how this happens is not easy.

The main role in thinking and in mental activity in general is played by nerve cells - neurons. And we have at least a trillion of them, and each neuron is a whole data processing factory. It is connected by numerous nerve fibers to other neurons and exchanges with them electrochemical impulses that carry information. Moreover, the transmission speed of this information is 100 m/sec. It is this high-speed exchange of data that is thinking, and it was not without reason that in ancient times they believed that the fastest thing in the world is human thought.

If you imagine the thinking process in the form of a bright image, it resembles fireworks. First, one star flashes - an impulse or signal from external stimulus. Then it spreads out in breadth and depth along the chain of nerve cells with new bursts of activity, covering more and more space in the brain.

It's interesting that while passing through neural circuits brain, the impulse must overcome certain “obstacles” at the junctions nerve fibers. But each subsequent signal along this path will pass much easier. That is, the more we think, the more often we force our brain to work, the easier the thinking process becomes.

Knowledge, of course, has high value. But they are necessary primarily as material for thinking. We become smarter not when we receive new knowledge, but when we comprehend it, incorporate it into activity, that is, think.

The mystery of the two hemispheres: right-hemisphere and left-hemisphere thinking

In what form is a thought born in our head? It is not easy to answer this question, since thought is a process and a product of information processing, and information in the brain exists in two forms.

1. Sensory and emotional images. From the outside world it comes in the form of sensory images: sounds, colors, pictures, smells, tactile sensations, etc. Very often these vivid images are also emotionally colored.
2. Abstract signs - words, numbers, verbal structures, formulas, etc. Words can denote (replace) any sensory images or be of an abstract nature, such as numbers.

Scientists say that a person thinks in two languages ​​- the language of words and the language of images. There is even a special type of thinking - conceptual, that is, verbal. Moreover, the centers responsible for conceptual and figurative thinking are located in different hemispheres of the brain, and these two types of information are processed differently. The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for the operations of our consciousness with words and numbers, and the right hemisphere is responsible for operations with sensory images. By the way, the center of creative abilities is also located in the right hemisphere; it is associated with intuition and the subconscious.

The famous physiologist I.P. Pavlov believed that among us there are people who clearly have one of two types of mental activity:

• right-hemisphere - this is an artistic type, thinking based on images and sensory perception;
• left-hemisphere - a thinking type that operates better with concepts and abstract signs.

However, all people should not be divided into these two types. Most of us are of the average type and use both words and images in our mental activity. And depending on the goal, task, problem facing us, either the right or left hemisphere is activated.

In general, an adult has full developed person All types and types of thinking are represented, including its three main types:

• visually effective;
• figurative;
• abstract-logical.

Although all these three types of thinking are not formed at once.

Visual-effective thinking

This is the most ancient look mental activity, which arose among the primitive ancestors of man and was first formed in a small child. And, according to scientists, it is precisely this type of mental activity that higher animals have.

Thinking is called mediated mental activity because, unlike direct sensory perception, it uses “intermediaries” - images or words. But visual-effective thinking is distinguished by the fact that material objects act as such “intermediaries” in it. This type of thinking arises only in the process of objective activity, when a person manipulates objects.

Children's manual thinking

I think everyone has seen how a small child of 2-3 years old plays: he makes a tower of cubes, assembles a pyramid, folding the wheels to fit, or even unscrews the wheels of a new car. This is not just a game. This is how the baby thinks and develops mentally. While only visual-effective thinking is available to him, his mental operations take on the form of objective, manipulative activity:

• Comparison - choosing a suitable size circle or cube.
• Synthesis is the composition of individual cube elements into a single whole - a tower.
• Well, and analysis, when a child disassembles a whole thing (a car or a doll) into individual components.

Scientists call visual-effective thinking pre-thinking, emphasizing that there is more direct-sensory thinking in it than indirect thinking. But it's very important stage development of mental activity, including the mental development of the child.

Visual-effective thinking in adults

This type of thinking cannot be considered primitive or inferior. In adults, it is also present and actively participates in objective activities. For example, we use it when making soup, digging beds in the garden, knitting socks or fixing the faucet in the bathroom. And for some, this type of thinking even at times prevails over the abstract-logical and figurative. Such people are called masters “from God”; they say that they have “golden hands”.

By the way, it’s the hands, not the head. Because such people can repair a complex mechanism without completely understanding the principle of its operation. To do this, they just need to disassemble it and then reassemble it. By disassembling, they will understand what caused the breakdown, and by reassembling, they will fix it, and even improve the unit.

Visual-figurative thinking

The main visual tools imaginative thinking are images as a result of sensory perception and comprehension of reality. That is, an image is not a photographic imprint of an object, but the result of the work of our brain. Therefore, it may differ to one degree or another from the original.

The role of images in mental activity

Our thinking operates with three types of images.

1. Images-perceptions are associated with the direct activity of our senses: visual pictures, sounds, smells, etc. These are also not photographic copies of reality, because we may not hear something, not see some details - the brain will guess, add missing.
2. Images-representations are figurative information that is stored in our memory. And when saved, the images become even less accurate, since not very significant and important details are lost or forgotten.
3. Imagination images are the result of one of the most mysterious cognitive processes. With the help of imagination, we can recreate from a description or invent an image of a never-seen creature or object. However, these images are also connected with reality, since they are the result of processing and combining information stored in memory.

All three types of images actively participate in cognitive activity, even if we are talking about abstract logical thinking. Without this type of information, neither problem solving nor creativity is possible.

Specifics of imaginative thinking

Imaginative thinking - more high level mental activity, but it also does not need words too much. After all, we can comprehend even such abstract concepts as “love”, “hate”, “loyalty”, “resentment” through images and feelings.

A child’s imaginative thinking begins to form around the age of 3, and the peak of its development is considered to be 5-7 years. It is not for nothing that this time is called the age of dreamers and artists. On this period development, children already have a good command of speech activity, but words do not interfere with the images at all, they complement and clarify them.

It is believed that the language of images is more complex than the language of words, because there are many more images, they are diverse, colored with numerous shades of feelings. Therefore, there are not enough words to describe all the images involved in our thinking.

Imaginative thinking is the basis of the highest cognitive process - creativity. It is inherent not only to artists, poets, musicians, but also to all those who have a high level of creativity and love to invent new things. But for the majority of people, visual-figurative thinking fades into the background, giving way to abstract-logical thinking.

Abstract logical thinking

This type of thinking is considered higher, it is specially taught to children at school, and the level of its development is often identified with intelligence. Although this is not entirely correct, because without the participation of imaginative thinking, with the help of only logical thinking, only elementary problems can be solved - albeit complex ones, but having one only correct solution. There are many such problems in mathematics, but in real life they are rare.

But abstract-logical thinking is also valuable because it allows you to operate abstract concepts, which do not have support for real images, such as, for example, function, differential, justice, conscience, volume, length, etc.

Logical Thinking Tools

This type of thinking is closely related to speech activity, therefore the prerequisites for its development appear in children when they have fully mastered speech. Words and verbal constructions - sentences - act as tools of logical thinking. The very name of this type of thinking comes not so much from the word “logic” as from the Greek “logos” - word, concept, thought.

Words in abstract logical thinking replace images, actions, and feelings. This allows you to think abstractly, abstractly, without connection with a specific situation or object. Animals, even higher ones, not endowed with the ability to speak, are deprived of this opportunity.

The process of abstract logical thinking is sometimes called inner speech, since it occurs in verbal form. Moreover, if reflection (inner speech) does not bring success in solving a problem or understanding an issue, then psychologists recommend switching to external speech, that is, reasoning out loud. In this case, the person will no longer be distracted by randomly and spontaneously arising images and associations.

Features of abstract-logical thinking

We said that imaginative thinking is voluminous, multifaceted and allows you to see a situation or problem as a whole, on a large scale. In contrast, abstract-logical thinking is discrete, since it consists of individual bricks and elements. Words and sentences are such building blocks. The use of words allows you to organize thinking and streamline it. Such organization makes vague, vague thoughts clearer and clearer.

Logical thinking is also linear; it is subject to the laws of the algorithm, which require sequential transition from one mental operation to another. The most important thing for him is the consistent construction of reasoning.

Development of abstract logical thinking

This way of thinking can cause difficulties when thoughts begin to get confused, as if scattering in different directions, or flickering like mosquitoes summer evening. Before a person has time to seriously think through one thought, it is replaced by the next one, often unrelated to the main problem. Or dawns brilliant idea, flashes for a moment and flies away to get lost in the labyrinth of convolutions. And it’s such a pity, because the idea is not bad, sensible! But you can't catch her anymore. This stupid “catching thoughts” irritates, tires and makes you want to give up on these chaotic thoughts and search ready-made solution in the Internet. The reason for such difficulties is simple - the lack of mental activity skills. Thinking, like any other activity, needs constant training.

You know the saying: “He who thinks clearly speaks clearly”? This law can be read in reverse. Logical thinking requires well-developed, clear, orderly speech. But this is not enough. If imaginative thinking is spontaneous, spontaneous, intuitive and depends on inspiration, then ordered logical thinking obeys strict laws, which were formulated back in the era of Antiquity more than 2 thousand years ago. At the same time, a special science arose that studies the laws of thinking - logic. Knowledge of the laws and rules of mental activity - required condition mastering logical thinking.

And although this type of thinking is considered the highest, it should not be limited. This is not a panacea or a unique multifunctional tool. The problem facing us can be solved most effectively by using imaginative thinking.

Creative thinking

There is one more species that stands somewhat apart. They began to study it relatively recently, but research has already proven the fundamental importance of this type of thinking not only for full life human, but also for development human civilization. This . But it’s worth talking about it separately.

Thinking is the most generalized and mediated form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects.

In its development, thinking goes through two stages: pre-conceptual and conceptual. Preconceptual thinking is initial stage development of thinking in a child, when his thinking has a different organization than that of adults; Children's judgments are isolated, about this particular subject. When explaining something, they reduce everything to the particular, the familiar. Most judgments are judgments by similarity, or judgments by analogy, since during this period memory plays the main role in thinking. The earliest form of proof is an example. Taking into account this feature of the child’s thinking, when convincing him or explaining something to him, it is necessary to support your speech with clear examples.

The central feature of pre-conceptual thinking is egocentrism (not to be confused with egoism). Due to egocentrism*, a child under 5 years old cannot look at himself from the outside, cannot correctly understand situations that require some detachment from own point vision and acceptance of someone else's position. Egocentrism determines such features of children's logic as: 1) insensitivity to contradictions, 2) syncretism (the tendency to connect everything with everything), 3) transduction (the transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general), 4) the lack of an idea of ​​​​the conservation of quantity. At normal development there is a natural replacement of pre-conceptual thinking, where concrete images serve as components, with conceptual (abstract) thinking, where concepts are components and are applied formal operations. Conceptual thinking does not come immediately, but gradually, through a series of intermediate stages. So, L.S. Vygotsky identified 5 stages in the transition to the formation of concepts. The first - for a child 2-3 years old - is manifested in the fact that when asked to put together similar objects that match each other, the child puts any objects together, believing that those placed next to each other are suitable - this is the syncretism of children's thinking. At stage II - children use elements of objective similarity between two objects, but already the third object can be similar only to one of the first pair - a chain of pairwise similarity arises. Stage III appears at the age of 7-10, when children can combine a group of objects by similarity, but cannot recognize and name the features that characterize this group. And finally, in adolescents aged 11-14 years, conceptual thinking appears, but it is still imperfect, since primary concepts are formed on the basis of everyday experience and are not supported by scientific data. Perfect concepts are formed in the V E1in, in adolescence when the use of theoretical principles allows you to go beyond your own experience. So, thinking develops from concrete images to perfect concepts, designated by words. The concept initially reflects the similar, unchangeable in phenomena and objects.

Types of thinking:
Visual-effective thinking is a type of thinking based on the direct perception of objects, the real transformation of the situation in the process of actions with objects.

Visual-figurative thinking is a type of thinking characterized by reliance on ideas and images; the functions of figurative thinking are associated with the representation of situations and changes in them that a person wants to obtain as a result of his activities that transform the situation. A very important feature of imaginative thinking is the formation of unusual, incredible combinations of objects and their properties. In contrast to visual-effective thinking, with visual-figurative thinking the situation is transformed only in terms of image.

Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out using logical operations with concepts.

There are theoretical and practical, intuitive and analytical, realistic and autistic, productive and reproductive thinking.

Theoretical and practical thinking are distinguished by the type of problems being solved and the resulting structural and dynamic features. Theoretical thinking- this is the knowledge of laws and rules. For example, opening periodic table elements of D. Mendeleev. The main task of practical thinking is to prepare a physical transformation of reality: setting a goal, creating a plan, project, scheme. One of the important features of practical thinking is that it unfolds under conditions of severe time pressure. In practical thinking there are very limited opportunities for testing hypotheses; all this makes practical thinking sometimes more complex than theoretical thinking. Theoretical thinking is sometimes compared to empirical thinking. The following criterion is used here: the nature of the generalizations with which thinking deals; in one case these are scientific concepts, and in the other - everyday, situational generalizations.

A distinction is also made between intuitive and analytical (logical) thinking. Three characteristics are usually used: temporal (time of the thinking process), structural (divided into stages), and level of occurrence (awareness or unconsciousness). Analytical thinking unfolds in time, has clearly defined stages, and is largely represented in the consciousness of the thinking person himself. Intuitive thinking is characterized by rapidity, the absence of clearly defined stages, and is minimally conscious.

Realistic thinking is aimed mainly at the external world and is regulated by logical laws, while autistic thinking is associated with the realization of a person’s desires (who among us has not passed off what we wanted as something that actually exists). The term "egocentric thinking" is sometimes used and is characterized primarily by the inability to accept another person's point of view.

It is important to distinguish between productive and reproductive thinking, based on “the degree of novelty of the product obtained in the process of thinking in relation to the subject’s knowledge.”

It is also necessary to distinguish involuntary processes thinking from voluntary: involuntary transformations of dream images and purposeful solution of mental problems.

There are 4 stages of problem solving:
- Preparation;
- maturation of the decision;
- inspiration;
- checking the solution found.

Structure of the problem solving thinking process:
1. Motivation (desire to solve the problem).

2. Analysis of the problem (highlighting “what is given”, “what needs to be found”, what missing or redundant data are available, etc.).

3. Finding a solution:

3.1. Search for a solution based on one well-known algorithm (reproductive thinking).

3.2. Search for a solution based on choosing the optimal option from a variety of known algorithms.

3.3. A solution based on a combination of individual links from various algorithms.

3.4. Search for a fundamentally new solution (creative thinking).

3.4.1. Based on in-depth logical reasoning (analysis, comparison, synthesis, classification, inference, etc.).

3.4.2. Based on the use of analogies.

3.4.3. Based on the use of heuristic techniques.

3.4.4. Based on the use of empirical trial and error.

In case of failure:

3.5. Despair, switching to another activity “period of incubation rest” - “ripening of ideas”, insight, inspiration, insight, instant awareness of a solution to a certain problem (intuitive thinking).

Factors contributing to "insight":

a) high passion for the problem;

b) belief in success, in the possibility of solving the problem;

c) high awareness of the problem, accumulated experience;

d) high associative brain activity (during sleep, at high temperature, fever, with emotionally positive stimulation).

4. Logical justification of the found solution idea, logical proof of the correctness of the solution.
5. Implementation of the solution.
6. Checking the solution found.
7. Correction (if necessary, return to stage 2).

Mental activity is realized both at the level of consciousness and at the level of the unconscious, and is characterized by complex transitions and interactions of these levels. As a result of a successful (purposeful) action, a result is obtained that corresponds to a previously set goal, and a result that was not foreseen in the conscious goal, it is a by-product in relation to it (a by-product of the action). The problem of conscious and unconscious was concretized into the problem of the relationship between direct (conscious) and by-products (unconscious) of action. The by-product of the action is also reflected by the subject; this reflection can participate in the subsequent regulation of actions, but it is not presented in verbalized form, in the form of consciousness. The by-product “is formed under the influence of those specific properties of things and phenomena that are included in the action, but are not significant from the point of view of the goal.”

The main mental operations are distinguished: analysis, comparison, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, etc.

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics.

Comparison is a mental operation based on establishing similarities and differences between objects.

Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to mentally move from parts to the whole in a single process.

Generalization is the mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.

Abstraction - distraction - mental-operation, based on highlighting the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from other, non-essential ones.

Basic forms of logical thinking: concept, judgment, inference.

A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena, expressed in a word or group of words. Concepts can be general and individual, concrete and abstract.

Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects connections between objects and phenomena; affirmation or denial of something. Judgments can be true or false.

Inference is a form of thinking in which a definite conclusion is drawn based on several judgments. Inferences are distinguished between inductive, deductive, and analogical. Induction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general. Deduction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific. Analogy is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from particular to particular (based on some elements of similarity).

Individual differences in the mental activity of people can manifest themselves in the following qualities of thinking: breadth, depth and independence of thinking, flexibility of thought, speed and criticality of the mind.

Breadth of thinking is the ability to embrace the entire issue, without at the same time missing the details necessary for the matter. Depth of thinking is expressed in the ability to penetrate into the essence of complex issues. The opposite quality to depth of thinking is superficiality of judgment, when a person pays attention to little things and does not see the main thing.

Independence of thinking is characterized by a person’s ability to put forward new problems and find ways to solve them without resorting to the help of other people. Flexibility of thought is expressed in its freedom from the constraining influence of techniques and methods of solving problems fixed in the past, in the ability to quickly change actions when the situation changes.

Quickness of mind is a person’s ability to quickly understand a new situation, think about it and make the right decision.

Haste of the mind is manifested in the fact that a person, without thoroughly thinking through a question, picks out one side, rushes to give a solution, and expresses insufficiently thought-out answers and judgments.

A certain slowness of mental activity may be due to the type nervous system- its low mobility. “The speed of mental processes is the fundamental basis of intellectual differences between people” (Eysenck).

Criticality of the mind is a person’s ability to objectively evaluate his own and others’ thoughts, carefully and comprehensively check all put forward provisions and conclusions. TO individual characteristics thinking refers to the preference for a person to use visual-effective, visual-figurative or abstract-logical types of thinking.

Ingredients of Mental Productivity
Now let us turn to the question of how we can promote the development of thinking. First of all, it is necessary to note the special role of self-organization, awareness of the techniques and rules of mental activity. A person must understand the basic techniques mental work, be able to manage such stages of thinking as setting a problem, creating optimal motivation, regulating the direction of involuntary associations, maximizing the inclusion of both figurative and symbolic components, using the advantages of conceptual thinking, as well as reducing excessive criticality when assessing the result - all this allows you to activate the mental process, making it more efficient. Passion, interest in the problem, optimal motivation are one of the most important factors in productivity of thinking. Thus, weak motivation does not provide sufficient deployment thought process, and vice versa, if it is too strong, then this emotional overexcitation disrupts the use of the results obtained, previously learned methods in solving other new problems, and a tendency towards stereotyping appears. In this sense, competition is not conducive to solving complex mental problems.

Factors that hinder successful thought processes:
1) inertia, stereotypical thinking;
2) excessive adherence to the use of familiar solution methods, which makes it difficult to look at the problem “in a new way”;
3) fear of mistakes, fear of criticism, fear of “being stupid,” excessive criticism of one’s decisions;
4) mental and muscle tension, etc.

To activate thinking, you can use special forms of organizing the thought process, for example, “brainstorming” or brainstorming - the method was proposed by A. Osborne (USA), and is intended for producing ideas and solutions when working in a group. Basic rules for brainstorming:

1. The group consists of 7-10 people, preferably different professional orientation(to reduce stereotyping of approaches), there are only a few people in the group who are knowledgeable about the problem under consideration.

2. “Prohibition of criticism” - you cannot interrupt or criticize someone else’s idea, you can only praise, develop someone else’s idea or suggest your own idea.

3. Participants must be in a state of relaxation, i.e. in a state of mental and muscular relaxation and comfort. The chairs should be arranged in a circle.

4. All ideas expressed are recorded (on a tape recorder, in shorthand notes) without attribution.

5. The ideas collected as a result of brainstorming are transferred to a group of expert specialists dealing with this problem to select the most valuable ideas. As a rule, such ideas turn out to be about 10 percent. Participants are not included in the “jury of experts”.

The effectiveness of brainstorming sessions is high. Thus, in one of the American companies, at 300 brainstorming sessions, 15 thousand ideas were proposed, of which 1.5 thousand ideas were immediately implemented. “Brainstorming,” conducted by a group that gradually accumulates experience in solving various problems, forms the basis of the so-called synectics proposed by the American scientist W. Gordon. During the “synectic assault”, it is mandatory to perform four special techniques based on analogy: direct (think about how problems similar to this one are solved); personal or empathy (try to enter into the image of the object given in the problem and reason from this point of view); symbolic (give a figurative definition of the essence of the task in a nutshell); fantastic (imagine how fairy-tale wizards would solve this problem).

Another way to activate search is the method of focal objects. It consists in the fact that the characteristics of several randomly selected objects are transferred to the object under consideration (focal, in the focus of attention), resulting in unusual combinations that allow one to overcome psychological inertia and rigidity. So, if a “tiger” is taken as a random object, and a “pencil” as a focal object, then combinations like “striped pencil”, “fanged pencil”, etc. are obtained. By considering these combinations and developing them, it is sometimes possible to come to original ideas.

The method of morphological analysis consists in first identifying the main characteristics of the axis object, and then recording all possible variant elements for each of them.

Thus, considering the problem of starting a car engine in winter conditions, we can take as axes energy sources for heating, methods of transferring energy from the source to the engine, methods of controlling this transmission, etc. The elements for the “energy sources” axis can be a battery, a chemical heat generator, a gas burner, a running engine of another car, hot water, steam, etc. Having a record on all axes and combining combinations of different elements, you can get a large number of different options. In this case, unexpected combinations that would hardly have come to mind may also come into view.

The method also helps to intensify the search test questions, which involves using a list of guiding questions for this purpose, for example: “What if we do the opposite? What if we change the shape of the object? What if we take a different material? What if we shrink or enlarge the object? Etc.”

All considered methods of activating creative thinking capabilities involve targeted stimulation of associative images (imagination).

Human mental activity can be developed and stimulated through various tasks. Thus, to develop the ability to abstract the main from the secondary, tasks with redundant data that lead away from the right decision. The need to reformulate the problem for a deeper understanding develops tasks with partially incorrect data: they require the ability to adjust the formulation of the problem or point out the impossibility of solving it. The ability to distinguish tasks that only allow probabilistic solution, - also significantly develops human thinking.

When studying the solution of creative problems, we observe the following pattern (Ponomarev): first, primary, automated methods of solution are used (which corresponds to the lower levels), and the primary methods of action are implemented until it becomes clear that the problem cannot be solved using this method. The next stage involves understanding failures ( average level), the reason for these failures is realized, namely, that the means do not correspond to the task, a critical attitude towards own funds and methods of action, as a result, a wider range of means is applied to the conditions of the task (3rd stage, middle level), the development of “search dominant” programs occurs, then at the lower (unconscious) level an intuitive solution occurs, a “solution in principle”, and then at the last stages (highest level) there is a logical justification, verbalization and formalization of the decision.

To enhance creative thinking capabilities, “exotic” techniques are also used: introducing a person into a special suggestive state of the psyche (activation of the unconscious), suggesting in a state of hypnosis to incarnate into another person, into a famous scientist, for example, Leonardo da Vinci, which dramatically increases creativity in an ordinary person .

There are different individual thinking styles:
The synthetic style of thinking manifests itself in creating something new, original, combining dissimilar, often opposing ideas, views, implementing thought experiments. The motto of the Synthesizer is “What if...” Synthesizers strive to create the broadest possible, generalized concept that allows them to combine different approaches, “remove” contradictions, and reconcile opposing positions. This is a theoretical style of thinking, such people like to build theories and build their conclusions on the basis of theories, they like to notice contradictions in other people’s reasoning and draw the attention of people around them, they like to sharpen the contradiction and try to find a fundamentally new solution that integrates opposing views, they tend to see the world constantly changing and love change, often for the sake of change itself.

The idealistic style of thinking is manifested in a tendency to intuitive, global assessments without carrying out a detailed analysis of problems. Feature of Idealists - increased interest to goals, needs, human values, moral problems, they take into account subjective and social factors, strive to smooth out contradictions and emphasize similarities in different positions,

Creative Problem Solving Process
They easily perceive various ideas and proposals without internal resistance, successfully solve problems where emotions, feelings, assessments and other subjective aspects are important factors, sometimes utopianly striving to reconcile and unite everyone and everything. "Where are we going and why?" - a classic question from Idealists.

The pragmatic style of thinking is based on direct personal experience, on the use of those materials and information that are easily available, trying to obtain a specific result (albeit limited), a practical gain, as quickly as possible. The motto of the Pragmatists is “Anything will work”, “Anything that works” will do. The behavior of Pragmatists may seem superficial and disorderly, but they adhere to the following attitude: events in this world occur uncoordinatedly and everything depends on random circumstances, so in an unpredictable world you just need to try: “Today we’ll do this, and then we’ll see...” Pragmatists have a good sense of the situation , supply and demand, successfully determine behavioral tactics, using the prevailing circumstances to their advantage, showing flexibility and adaptability.

The analytical style of thinking is focused on a systematic and comprehensive consideration of the issue or problem in those aspects that are asked objective criteria, tends to have a logical, methodical, thorough (with an emphasis on detail) manner of solving problems. Before making a decision, Analysts develop detailed plan and try to collect as much information and objective facts as possible, using deep theories. They tend to perceive the world as logical, rational, orderly and predictable, and therefore tend to look for a formula, method or system that can provide a solution to a particular problem and can be rationally justified.

The realistic style of thinking is focused only on the recognition of facts, and “real” is only what can be directly felt, personally seen or heard, touched, etc. Realistic thinking is characterized by specificity and an attitude towards correction, correction of situations in order to achieve a certain result. The problem for Realists arises whenever they see something is wrong and want to fix it.

Thus, it can be noted that the individual style of thinking affects the ways of solving problems, the ways of behavior, and the personal characteristics of a person.

Psychologists are quite good at determining the forms and levels of thinking disorders, the degree of its deviation from standards, “norms.”

We can distinguish a group of short-term or minor thinking disorders that occur in completely healthy people, and a group of thinking disorders that are pronounced and persistently painful.

In the second group of significant disorders, we can distinguish the following classification of thinking disorders, created by B.V. Zeigarnik and used in Russian psychology:
1. Violations of the operational side of thinking:
reduction in the level of generalization,
distortion of the level of generalization.
2. Violation of personal and motivational component thinking:
diversity of thinking,
reasoning.
3. Disturbances in the dynamics of mental activity:
lability of thinking or “jumping ideas”,
inertia of thinking or “viscosity” of thinking,
inconsistency of judgments, responsiveness.
4. Dysregulation of mental activity:
impairment of critical thinking,
violation of the regulatory function of thinking,
fragmented thinking.
Let us briefly explain the features of these thinking disorders.

Violations of the operational side of thinking manifest themselves as a decrease in the level of generalization, when it is difficult to identify common features of objects, and in judgments direct ideas about objects prevail, only specific connections between objects are established. It becomes almost impossible to classify, find the leading property of objects, highlight the general, a person cannot grasp the general figurative sense proverbs, cannot arrange pictures in a logical sequence. With mental retardation, there are similar stable manifestations, but with dementia (advancing senile dementia), a previously mentally competent person begins to show impairments and a decrease in the level of generalization. There is a difference between dementia and mental retardation: mentally retarded people are very slow but able to form new concepts and skills, so they are learnable.

Dementia patients, although they possess the remnants of previous generalizations, are not able to assimilate new material, cannot use their previous experience, they are unteachable.

The distortion of the generalization process is manifested in the fact that a person in his judgments reflects only the random side of phenomena, and the essential relationships between objects are not taken into account, although they may be guided excessively common features, inadequate relationships between objects, for example, “a mushroom, a horse, a pencil, such a patient places it in one group according to the “principle of connection between the organic and the inorganic,” and l and combines “beetle, shovel,” explaining: “They dig the ground with a shovel, and the beetle also digs in earth,” or combines “a watch and a bicycle,” explaining: “Both measure, a watch measures time, and a bicycle measures space when riding it.” Similar thinking disorders are found in patients with schizophrenia and psychopaths.

Violations of the dynamics of thinking manifest themselves in various ways:

Lability of thinking, or “jump of ideas” - a person does not have time to finish one thought before he moves on to another, each new impression changes the direction of thoughts, a person talks continuously, laughs without any connection, the chaotic nature of associations, a violation of the logical flow of thinking.

Inertia, or “stickiness of thinking,” is when people cannot change the way they work, change the course of their judgments, or switch from one type of activity to another. Such disorders often occur in patients with epilepsy and as a long-term consequence of previous severe injuries brain. In extreme cases, a person cannot cope with even a basic task if it requires switching. Therefore, a violation of the dynamics of mental activity leads to a decrease in the level of generalization: a person cannot complete a classification task even at a specific level, since each picture acts as a single copy and he cannot switch to another picture, compare them with each other, etc.

Inconsistency of judgments - when the adequate nature of judgments is unstable, that is, correct ways of performing mental actions alternate with erroneous ones. Against the background of fatigue and mood swings, this can also occur in completely healthy people. Such fluctuations in correct and incorrect ways of performing the same mental action are expressed in 80% of patients with vascular diseases of the brain, in 68% of patients who have suffered a brain injury, in 66% of patients with manic psychosis. The fluctuations were not caused by the complexity of the material; they also appeared on the simplest tasks, i.e., they indicated instability of mental performance.

“Responsiveness” - when the instability of the way of performing actions manifests itself in an excessive form, correct actions alternate with absurd actions, but the person does not notice this. Responsiveness is manifested in the fact that a person unexpectedly reacts to various random stimuli of the environment that are not addressed to him, and as a result, the normal course of the thinking process becomes impossible: any stimulus changes the direction of thoughts and actions, and at times the person reacts correctly, and at times his behavior is extremely ridiculous , he does not understand where he is, how old he is, etc. The responsiveness of patients is a consequence of a decrease in the level of activity of the cerebral cortex and contributes to the destruction of the purposefulness of mental activity. Such thinking disorders occur in patients with severe cerebrovascular diseases and hypertension. “Slipping” is when a person, while reasoning correctly about an object, suddenly gets confused. the right move thoughts based on a false, inadequate association, and then again is able to reason correctly, without repeating the mistake made, but also without correcting it. Thinking is associated with the needs, aspirations, goals, and feelings of a person, therefore, violations of the motivational, personal component of thinking manifest themselves as:
Diversity of thinking, when judgments about a phenomenon occur on different planes. Moreover, judgments are inconsistent and occur at different levels of generalization, i.e. from time to time a person cannot reason correctly, a person’s actions lose purpose, he loses his original goal and cannot complete even a simple task. Such thinking disorders occur in schizophrenia, when thinking “seems to flow along different channels at the same time,” bypassing the essence of the problem under consideration, losing the goal and switching to an emotionally subjective attitude. It is precisely because of the diversity of thinking and emotional richness that ordinary objects begin to act as symbols. For example, a patient with delusions of self-blame, having received a cookie, comes to the conclusion that today he will be burned in the oven, since the cookie for him acts as a symbol of the oven in which he is to be burned. Such absurd reasoning is possible because, due to emotional preoccupation and diversity of thinking, a person views any objects in inadequate, distorted aspects.

Reasoning is verbose, fruitless reasoning, due to increased affectivity, inadequate attitude, the desire to bring any phenomenon under some concept, while the intellect and cognitive processes of a person are not impaired. Reasoning is often characterized as a person’s tendency “to make large generalizations in relation to a small object of judgment and to form value judgments.”

Violation of the regulatory function of thinking appears quite often even in completely healthy people, but when strong emotions, affects, feelings, when a person’s judgments under the influence of feelings become erroneous and inadequately reflect reality, or a person’s thoughts may remain correct, but cease to regulate his behavior, inappropriate actions, absurd actions arise, in extreme cases up to “insanity.” “For feelings to prevail over reason, the mind must be weak” (P.B. Gannushkin). Under the influence of strong affect, passion, despair, or in a particularly acute situation, healthy people may experience a state close to “confusion.”

Impaired critical thinking. Violation of the ability to act thoughtfully, check and correct one’s actions in accordance with objective conditions, without noticing not only partial errors, but even the absurdity of one’s actions and judgments. But these errors can disappear if someone else forces this person check their actions, but more often they react: “it will do.” Lack of self-control leads to these disorders, from which the person himself suffers, i.e. his actions are not regulated by thinking, are not subordinated to personal goals, and lack purposefulness in both the person’s actions and thinking. This impairment of criticality is usually associated with damage to the frontal lobes of the brain. I.P. Pavlov wrote: “The strength of the mind is much more measured by a correct assessment of reality than by the mass of school knowledge, which you can collect as much as you like, but this is the mind of a lower order. A much more accurate measure of intelligence is right attitude In reality, correct orientation is when a person understands his goals, anticipates the result of his activities, and controls himself."

“Disconnected thinking” - when a person can pronounce monologues for hours, regardless of the presence of other people, and in long utterances there is no connection between the individual elements of a person’s statements, there is no meaningful thought, only an incomprehensible flow of words. That is, speech in this case is not an instrument of thought, is not a means of communication, does not regulate the behavior of the person himself, but acts as a manifestation of speech motor automatisms.

With euphoria, high mood, passion (for some people - in initial phase intoxication) there is an extraordinary acceleration of the thought process, one thought seems to “run into” another. Continuously arising thoughts and judgments, becoming more and more superficial, fill our consciousness and pour out in whole streams onto those around us.

An involuntary, continuous and uncontrollable stream of thoughts is called "mentism".

The opposite disorder of thinking is sperrung, i.e. a sudden stop in thinking, a break in the thought process. Both of these types of thinking disorders occur almost exclusively in schizophrenia.

Unjustified "thoroughness of thinking." It becomes, as it were, viscous, inactive, and the ability to highlight the main, essential is usually lost. When talking about something, people suffering from such “thoroughness” diligently and endlessly describe all sorts of little things, details, details that have no meaning.

Emotional and excitable people sometimes try to combine incomparable things: completely different circumstances and phenomena, contradictory friends ideas and provisions allow for the substitution of some concepts by others. Such “subjective” thinking is called paralogical.

The habit of making stereotyped decisions and conclusions can lead to the inability to independently find a way out of unexpected situations and make original decisions, that is, to what in psychology is called functional rigidity of thinking. This feature of thinking is associated with its excessive dependence on accumulated experience, whose limitations and repetition are then reproduced by thought stereotypes.

A child or an adult dreams, imagining himself as a hero, an inventor, a great man, etc. An imaginary fantasy world, reflecting the deep processes of our psyche, becomes a determining factor in thinking for some people. In this case, we can talk about autistic thinking. Autism means so much deep dive into the world of their personal experiences, that interest in reality disappears, contacts with reality are lost and weakened, and the desire to communicate with others disappears.

An extreme degree of thinking disorder - or “intellectual monomania”. Thoughts, ideas, reasoning that do not correspond to reality and clearly contradict it are considered delusional. In all other respects, I think normally thinking people suddenly they begin to express ideas that are extremely strange to those around them, without succumbing to any convincing. Some, without medical education, invent a “new” “method of treating, for example, cancer, and devote all their strength to the struggle for the “implementation” of their brilliant discovery<"бред изобретательства"). Другие разрабатывают проекты совершенствования общественного устройства и готовы на все ради борьбы за счастье человечества ("бред реформаторства"). Третья поглощены житейскими проблемами: они или круглосуточно "устанавливают" факт неверности своего супруга, в которой, впрочем, и так заведомо убеждены ("бред ревности"), либо, уверенные, что в них все влюблены, назойливо пристают с любовными объяснениями к окружающим "эротический бред"). Наиболее распространенным является "бред преследования": с человеком якобы плохо обращаются на службе, подсовывают ему самую трудную работу, издеваются, угрожают, начинают преследовать.

The intellectual quality and degree of “persuasiveness” of delusional ideas depend on the thinking capabilities of the one who is “captured” by them. Detecting the “delusional” nature of skillfully presented ideas is far from easy, and not always possible. Therefore, delusional interpretations and positions can easily “infect” others , and in the hands of fanatical or paranoid individuals, turn out to be a formidable social weapon.