Table 1.1
|
Basic method |
Variant of the main method |
|
Observation |
External (from the outside) Internal (self-observation) Free Standardized Included Third party |
|
Writing Free Standardized |
|
|
Test questionnaire Test task Projective test |
|
|
Experiment |
Natural Laboratory |
|
Modeling |
Mathematical Technical Boolean Cybernetic |
Observation has several options. External surveillance is a way of collecting data about a person’s psychology and behavior through direct observation of him from the outside. Internal surveillance , or introspection, is used when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly presented in his mind. Internally perceiving the corresponding phenomenon, the psychologist, as it were, observes it (for example, his images, feelings, thoughts, experiences) or uses similar data reported to him by other people who themselves conduct inspections on his instructions.
Free observation has no advance established framework, programs, procedures for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature during the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer. Standardized observation , on the contrary, is predetermined and clearly limited in terms of what is observed. It is conducted according to a specific, pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens during the observation process with the object or the observer himself.
At participant observation (it is most often used in general, developmental, educational, social psychology) the researcher acts as a direct participant in the process, the progress of which he is observing. For example, a psychologist can solve a problem in his mind while simultaneously observing himself. Another option for participant observation: while exploring relationships between people, the experimenter can engage in communication with those being observed, while at the same time continuing to observe the relationships developing between them and these people. Third party surveillance Unlike included, it does not imply the personal participation of the observer in the process that he is studying.
Survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked to him. There are several survey options, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Let's look at them.
Oral survey used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, but it requires special training, training and, as a rule, high costs time to conduct the research. The responses of subjects obtained during an oral survey depend significantly on both the personality of the person conducting the survey and on individual characteristics who is answering the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the interview situation.
Written survey allows you to cover large quantity of people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. Its disadvantage is the fact that when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account in advance the respondent’s reactions to the content of its questions and, if necessary, change them.
Free poll - a type of oral or written survey in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. Survey of this type allows you to flexibly change research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them. In its turn standardized survey , in which the questions and the nature of possible answers to them are determined in advance and are usually limited within a fairly narrow framework, is more economical in time and in material costs than free polling.
Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination, using which you can obtain an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon being studied. Tests differ from other research methods in that they require a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation. With the help of tests, you can study and compare the psychology of different people, give differentiated and comparable assessments.
Test questionnaire is based on a system of pre-thought-out, carefully selected and tested questions from the point of view of their validity and reliability, based on the answers to which one can judge psychological qualities subjects.
Test task involves assessing a person's psychology and behavior based on what he does. In tests of this type, the subject is offered a series of special tasks, based on the results of which, psychologists judge the presence or absence and degree of development of the quality being studied.
The third type of tests is projective . Such tests are based on the projection mechanism, according to which unconscious own qualities, especially the shortcomings that a person tends to attribute to other people. Projective tests are designed to study psychological and behavioral characteristics people calling negative attitude.
Specifics experiment as a method psychological research lies in the fact that it purposefully and structuredly creates an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than all other methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, and to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development.
There are two main types of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other in that they allow one to study the psychology and behavior of people in conditions that are remote or close to reality. Natural experiment organized and carried out in regular living conditions, where the experimenter practically does not interfere with the course of events taking place, recording them as they unfold on their own. Laboratory experiment involves the creation of some artificial situation, in which the property being studied can best be studied.
Modeling as a method is used when the study of a phenomenon of interest by simple observation, survey, test or experiment is difficult or impossible due to complexity or inaccessibility. Then they resort to creating artificial model the phenomenon being studied, repeating its main parameters and expected properties. This model is used to study this phenomenon in detail and draw conclusions about its nature.
Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic. Mathematical model is an expression or formula that includes variables and relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomenon being studied. Technical Modeling involves the creation of a device or device that in its action resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic simulation is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics as model elements. Logic modeling based on ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.
In addition to the listed methods intended for collecting primary information, are widely used in psychology various ways and techniques for processing this data, psychological and mathematical analysis to obtain secondary results, i.e. facts and conclusions arising from the interpretation of processed primary information. For this purpose, in particular, various methods of mathematical statistics, without which it is often impossible to obtain reliable information about the phenomena being studied, as well as methods of qualitative analysis.
A general trend that has clearly manifested itself in the improvement of research methods in different sciences oh for last century, lies in their mathematization And technicalization. This tendency also manifested itself in psychology, giving it the status of a fairly accurate experimental science. Nowadays, radio and video equipment and electronic equipment are used in psychology.
Along with the mathematization and technicalization of research methods in psychology, they have not lost their importance and general, traditional methods of collecting information are still accepted, such as observation And survey(see Table 1).
There are many reasons for their preservation: the phenomena studied in psychology are unique and complex; they cannot always be identified using technical means and describe in exact mathematical formulas. Although modern mathematics and the techniques themselves are extremely complex, they remain quite simple in comparison with the phenomena that psychology studies. To study subtle phenomena and psychological categories that psychology deals with, in many cases they are simply not suitable.
Observation. This is the first of the methods used to collect primary data. It has several different options:
A) external surveillance is a way of collecting data about another
person, his psychology and behavior by observing him with
sides;
b) internal surveillance or introspection- applies
when the researcher sets himself the task of studying
the phenomenon of interest in the form in which it
directly presented to his consciousness. Worrying
corresponding phenomenon, he seems to be observing himself, his
sensations, uses similar data communicated to him
other people who conduct self-observation on his instructions;
Table 1
Basic methods of psychological research used to collect primary information
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V) free observation does not have a predetermined
program and can change its object;
G) standardized observation, on the contrary, is carried out according to
a certain, pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it;
e) at participant observation the researcher himself acts in
as a direct participant in the process followed
surveillance is underway. So, exploring relationships between people,
the experimenter can involve himself in these relationships, at the same time
without stopping to watch them;
e) outside surveillance Unlike the included one, it does not imply the personal participation of the researcher in the process that he is studying.
Each of these types of observation has its own characteristics and is used where it can give the most useful results.
Survey. This is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked to him. Each survey option has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Oral questioning is used in cases where, at the same time, it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions, it allows one to penetrate deeper into human psychology.
A written survey allows you to cover a large number of of people. Its most common tool is a questionnaire.
Tests- these are specialized methods of psychological diagnostic study, using which you can obtain an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon being studied.
They differ from other methods in that they require a standardized, verified procedure for collecting and processing data. With the help of tests, you can study and compare people with each other, assess their psychology and behavior.
Type of tests: test questionnaire is based on a system of questions that have been pre-selected and tested in terms of their validity 1 and reliability, based on the test subjects’ answers to which their psychological qualities can definitely be judged.
Test task involves assessing a person's psychology and behavior not on the basis of what he says, but on the basis of what he does. In tests of this type, a person is given a series of special tasks, based on the results of which the quality being studied is judged.
At the core projective tests lies in the mechanism of projection, according to which the positive and especially negative characteristics he tends to attribute things not to himself, but to other people, to “project” them onto others. When using tests of this kind, the subject is judged on the basis of how he evaluates situations, other people, and what properties he attributes to them.
Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information used to build scientific theories and production practical recommendations. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and efficiently this area knowledge is able to perceive and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences. Where this can be done, there is usually a noticeable breakthrough in knowledge of the world.
All of the above applies to social psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and unique that throughout the history of this science, its successes have directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, it integrated methods from a variety of sciences. These are the methods of mathematics, general psychology, a number of other sciences.
Along with the mathematization and technicalization of research in social psychology, traditional methods of collecting scientific information, such as observation, survey.
In my essay on the topic “” one of the traditional methods collection of scientific information - observation.
If data about the process under study, about the activities of individuals, groups, and the collective as a whole must be “cleaned” as much as possible from the rational, emotional and other properties of respondents, then they resort to a method of collecting information such as observation.
Observation - the oldest method knowledge. Its primitive form - everyday observations - is used by every person in everyday practice. By registering the facts of the surrounding social reality and his behavior, a person tries to find out the reasons for certain actions and actions. Everyday observations differ from scientific observations primarily in that they are random, unorganized and unplanned.
Since sociological observation is associated with direct, immediate perception of events or participation in them, it has much in common with how a person Everyday life perceives what is happening, analyzes and explains people's behavior, connects it with the characteristics of the operating conditions, remembers and generalizes the events of which he becomes an eyewitness. But there are also big differences. Sociological observation as a method of collecting scientific information is always directed, systematic, direct tracking and recording of significant social phenomena, processes, events. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subject to control and verification.
The observation method was used in its infancy Marxist sociology. F. Engels studied the English proletariat, its aspirations, sufferings, and joys directly from personal observations and in personal communication for 21 months.
Interesting experience in using the observation method and analyzing its results was accumulated in Russian literature in the 40s of the 19th century. In the social fiction of this period, the civic feelings and mindsets of the intelligentsia close to the people, the search for an artistic reflection of the life of various social groups, features of scientific, sociological vision social development. Writers close to V.G. Belinsky and N.A. Nekrasov, not only gave accurate sketches of the life, actions, elements of consciousness of representatives of many social and professional communities, but also created typological images, generalized sociological and artistic types of people of his time. The general humanistic pathos of their works, as well as the method they used to collect and comprehend the facts of social life, largely predetermined both the character of later progressive Russian literature and the specifics of the formation of Russian sociology.
Observation is the simplest and most common of all. objective methods in psychology. Scientific observation is directly in contact with ordinary everyday observation. It is therefore necessary first of all to establish the general basic conditions that observation must satisfy in general in order to be a scientific method.
The first requirement is the presence of a clear goal setting: a clearly realized goal must guide the observer. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be determined, recorded in the diagram. Planned and systematic observation constitutes its most essential feature as scientific method. They must eliminate the element of chance inherent everyday observation. Thus, the objectivity of observation depends primarily on its planning and systematicity. And, if observation comes from a clearly realized goal, then it must acquire a selective character. It is absolutely impossible to observe everything in general due to the limitless diversity of what exists. Any observation is therefore selective, or selective, partial.
Observation becomes a method scientific knowledge only insofar as it is not limited to simply recording facts, but proceeds to the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them against new observations. Objective observation is truly scientifically fruitful when it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses. The separation of subjective interpretation from the objective and the exclusion of the subjective is carried out in the process of observation itself, combined with the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
Qualification of events: units and categories of observation.
Unlike everyday scientific observation indirectly research purposes, defining the subject of observation and the area of facts that are included in the reality being studied. It is also mediated by theoretical ideas about the reality being studied and put forward cognitive hypotheses. Observation as a method of collecting data is characterized by an essential feature: the researcher’s theoretical ideas are included not only in the explanations of what is observed, but also in the process of observation itself, in the very description of what is observed. IN everyday life we reflect the world around us in a system of meanings fixed in language. In socio-psychological observation, the subject of observation uses specially designated categories and units that act as a means of qualitatively describing the reality he observes.
Observation of the integral flow of a subject’s activity and its description are possible only by artificially isolating in it certain “units” of activity, which are assigned certain names. Isolating these “units” allows you to: a) limit the observation process within certain limits: in what properties, manifestations and relationships the studied reality is perceived by the observer; b) choose specific language descriptions of what was observed, as well as the method of recording observation data, i.e. the observer's method of reporting a perceived phenomenon; c) systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical “look” at the phenomenon being studied.
Qualitative description constitutes the first stage of reflecting the results of observation, which occurs as a process of qualification of observed events. Empirical fact an observed phenomenon becomes visible only after it is described by the observer. All the diverse approaches to describing phenomena can be reduced to two main types. The first is a description of the object in the dictionary of “natural” language. In everyday life, we use ordinary (“everyday”) concepts to describe what we perceive. So, we say: “the person smiled,” and not “the person stretched and raised the corners of his lips, slightly squinting his eyes.” And scientific observation can also be based on the use of such units, if, in accordance with the objectives of the study, their repertoire is clearly defined as a set of possible concepts in which the properties of the observed phenomenon are recorded.
The second approach to description is the development of systems of conventional names, designations, artificially created signs, and codes. The identification of observation units can be based on theoretical ideas about the observed phenomenon. In this case, the means of observation are categories - such units of description that receive their conceptual meaning only in a certain system of theoretical views of the researcher. Thus, one can say about the same phenomenon in different ways depending on knowledge of the context: “a person is running” or “a person is running away.” In the latter case, the description of the external motor activity interpretation is included, but it is connected only with the inclusion of the context of the situation (you can run away from someone, etc.). Another example: “the child is frozen in place with a frightened face” or “the child demonstrates a defensive reaction in the form of freezing.” The second expression includes concepts (passive-defensive reaction), which already in the description provide an interpretation of the child’s state from the point of view of a certain typology of his reactions. If in the first case the result of observation is described in units, then in the second case it is described in a system of categories.
Conventional notations, for example graphic ones, can refer to both a repertoire of units and a system of categories. That is, it is not the type of designation, but the content of the concepts used in their relation to the theory that makes it possible to distinguish between units and categories.
Categorized observation comes down not only to the isolation by perception of certain units, but also necessarily includes the stage of meaningful categorization of these units, i.e. generalizations in the process of observation itself. Sometimes a category covers the same behavioral act as a unit, i.e. they can be compared in terms of the degree of dissection of the phenomenon being studied and differ only in the degree of its interpretation. More often, categories subordinate a number of units.
Quantitative assessments of observational data.
There are two main ways to obtain quantitative data during observation: 1) psychological scaling, used mainly in the form of scores; 2) measurement of time, or timing. Timing is the basis for the use of the so-called time interval technique.
Its second type is the method of time sampling, when from the entire observable process, to record data, certain specific periods of time are selected, which are considered representative - representative - for a longer period of observation. IN real research quality and quantitative descriptions Observer events are usually used in combinations.
Quantitative assessments can be recorded directly during the observation, or they can be issued after the completion of the observations, including in the so-called retrospective report. The basis of retrospective estimates is general impressions observers who long-term follow-up may, for example, include the frequency of particular episodes observed. Quantitative characteristics can be directly included in value judgments observers. For example: “he often doesn’t go to school”, “he always loses his things”, etc.
Along with such an evaluative description of events, observation based on direct impressions may include scores these impressions. A. Anastasi gives an example of scales designed to identify students’ opinions about teachers teaching a psychology course (4. Vol. 2. P. 232). In them, different forms of events in the system interpersonal relationships-- relations with students -- a certain point is assigned, for example:
“this professor is never at his workplace” - 2, “the professor will stay and talk with students until the next lecture or seminar begins” - 6, etc.
These types of retrospective assessments reflect long-term uncontrolled observations in everyday life, and, as shown individual studies, they can act as the only or one of the main criteria for the adequacy of some psychological tests or assessments of the individual.
Methods of psychological scaling in the process of observation are still rarely used.
An example of the use of the time interval technique is provided by studies of human behavior during the working day. For this purpose, observation is carried out not all day, but for several minutes at a time with long intervals between selected observation periods.
Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method.
The most important advantage of the observation method is that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of the phenomena and processes being studied. It becomes possible to directly perceive people's behavior in specific conditions and in real time. A carefully prepared observation procedure ensures that all significant elements of the situation are recorded. This creates the prerequisites for its objective study.
Observation allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. It does not depend on the desire of the observed to speak out or comment on the situation.
Objective observation, while retaining its importance, for the most part must be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the observation procedure:
- a) defining the task and purpose (for what? for what purpose?);
- b) choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);
- c) choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and provides the most data collection necessary information(how to observe?);
- d) choice of methods for recording what is observed (how to keep records?);
- e) processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?).
The disadvantages of the observation method are divided into two groups: objective - these are those disadvantages that do not depend on the observer and subjective - these are those that directly depend on the observer, since they are associated with the personal and professional characteristics of the observer.
Objective disadvantages primarily include:
limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation. Therefore, no matter how comprehensive and deep the analysis may be, the conclusions obtained can be generalized and extended to wider situations only with the greatest caution and subject to many requirements.
complexity, and often simply impossibility of repeating observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be “replayed” again so that the researcher can record the necessary features and elements of an event that has already taken place.
high labor intensity of the method. Observation often involves participation in the collection of primary information large number highly qualified people.
The subjective difficulties are also varied. The quality of primary information may be influenced by:
difference in the social status of the observer and the observed,
the dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc. For example, addressing each other as “you” in a team of workers often becomes the norm for all its members. But a sociologist-observer, whose inner circle is characterized by a different form of communication, can evaluate this as an example of a disrespectful, familiar attitude of young workers towards older ones. Sometimes proximity can eliminate such errors. social status the observer and the observed. It contributes to a more complete and rapid coverage of the observed situation and its correct assessment.
The quality of information is affected by both the attitudes of the observed and the observer. If the observed know that they are the object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adapting to what, in their opinion, the observer would like to see. In turn, the observer’s having a certain expectation regarding the behavior of those being observed can form a specific point of view on what is happening. This expectation may be the result of prior contact between the observer and the observed. Previously established favorable impressions the observer are transferred to the picture he observes and can cause unjustified positive assessment analyzed events. Conversely, negative expectations (skepticism, prejudice) can lead to an exaggerated negative vision of the activities of the observed community of people, increased rigidity in assessing what is happening.
the results of observation directly depend on the mood of the observer, his concentration, the ability to holistically perceive the observed situation, not only to notice relatively clear external signs of activity, but also to record subtle features of the behavior of the observed. When recording the results of observation, the observer’s own thoughts and experiences may not allow him to describe the observed events adequately enough. This description can occur by analogy with one’s own thoughts and feelings.
So, observation is the oldest method of knowledge. It allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. The main advantage is learning social processes in natural conditions. The main disadvantages are the limitations, the private nature of each observed situation, the impossibility of repeating observations, attitudes, interests, personal characteristics observer. All these shortcomings can greatly affect the results of observation.
|
Basic method |
Variant of the main method |
|
Observation |
External (observation from the outside) |
|
Internal (self-observation) |
|
|
Free |
|
|
Standardized |
|
|
Included |
|
|
Third party |
|
|
Writing |
|
|
Free |
|
|
Standardized |
|
|
Test questionnaire |
|
|
Test task |
|
|
Projective test |
|
|
Experiment |
Natural |
|
Laboratory |
|
|
Modeling |
Mathematical |
|
Boolean |
|
|
Technical |
|
|
cyber netic |
Observation has several options. External observation is a way of collecting data about a person's psychology and behavior by directly observing him from the outside. Internal observation, or self-observation, is then applied.
when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly presented in his consciousness. Internally perceiving the corresponding phenomenon, the psychologist, as it were, observes it (for example, his images, feelings, thoughts, experiences) or uses similar data communicated to him by other people who themselves conduct introspection on his instructions.
Free observation does not have a pre-established framework, program, or procedure for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature during the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer. Standardized observation, on the other hand, is predefined and clearly limited in terms of what is observed. It is conducted according to a certain, pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens during the process of observation with the object or the observer himself.
With participant observation (it is most often used in general, developmental, educational and social psychology), the researcher acts as a direct participant in the process over which he is observing. For example, a psychologist can solve a problem in his mind while simultaneously observing himself. Another option for participant observation: while exploring relationships between people, the experimenter can engage in communication with the people being observed, while at the same time continuing to observe the relationships developing between them and these people. Third-party observation, unlike participant observation, does not imply the personal participation of the observer in the process that he is studying.
Each of these types of observation has its own characteristics and is used where it can give the most reliable results. External observation, for example, is less subjective than self-observation and is usually used where the features to be observed can easily be isolated and assessed from the outside. Internal observation is irreplaceable and often acts as the only available method collection of psychological data in cases where reliable external signs phenomenon of interest to the researcher. It is advisable to carry out free observation in cases where it is impossible to determine exactly what should be observed, when the signs of the phenomenon being studied and its probable course are not known to the researcher in advance. Standardized
observation, on the contrary, is best used when the researcher has an accurate and sufficient full list signs related to the phenomenon being studied.
Participant observation is useful in the case when a psychologist can give a correct assessment of a phenomenon only by experiencing it himself. However, if, under the influence of the researcher’s personal participation, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, the use of which allows a more objective judgment of what is being observed.
Survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked to him. There are several survey options, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Let's look at them.
Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, but requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a lot of time to conduct the research. The answers of the subjects obtained during an oral interview significantly depend on the personality of the person conducting the interview, and on the individual characteristics of the person answering the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the interview situation.
A written survey allows you to reach more people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account in advance the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions and, based on this, change them.
A free survey is a type of oral or written survey in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them. In turn, a standardized survey, in which the questions and the nature of possible answers to them are determined in advance and are usually limited within a fairly narrow framework, is more economical in time and material costs than a free survey.
Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination, using which it is possible to obtain accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristics
ku of the phenomenon being studied. Tests differ from other research methods in that they require a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation. With the help of tests, you can study and compare the psychology of different people, give differentiated and comparable assessments.
Test options: questionnaire test and task test. The test questionnaire is based on a system of pre-thought-out, carefully selected and tested questions from the point of view of their validity and reliability, the answers to which can be used to judge the psychological qualities of the subjects.
The test task involves assessing a person’s psychology and behavior based on what he does. In tests of this type, the subject is offered a series of special tasks, based on the results of which they judge the presence or absence and degree of development of the quality being studied.
The test questionnaire and test task are applicable to people of different ages belonging to different cultures, having different level education, different professions and unequal life experience. It's theirs positive side. The disadvantage is that when using tests, the subject can consciously influence the results obtained at will, especially if he knows in advance how the test is structured and how his psychology and behavior will be assessed based on its results 1 . In addition, the test questionnaire and test task are not applicable in cases where they are subject to study psychological properties and characteristics, the existence of which the subject cannot be completely sure of, is not aware of, or does not consciously want to admit their presence in himself. Such characteristics are, for example, many negative personal qualities and motives of behavior.
In these cases, the third type of tests is usually used - projective. The basis of such tests is the mechanism of projection, according to which a person tends to attribute his unconscious qualities, especially shortcomings, to other people. Projective tests are designed to study the psychological and behavioral characteristics of people that cause negative attitudes. Using tests of this kind, the psychology of the subject is judged on the basis of how he perceives
- This drawback applies to all research methods based on self-control, i.e. associated with the use of speech and behavioral consciously controlled reactions.
understands and evaluates situations, psychology and behavior of people, what personal properties, motives of positive or negative character he attributes to them.
Taking advantage projective test, the psychologist uses it to introduce the subject into an imaginary, plot-undefined situation, subject to arbitrary interpretation. Such a situation could be, for example, the search for a certain meaning in a picture that depicts unknown people, who are not clear about what they are doing. We need to answer the questions of who these people are, what they are concerned about, what they think, and what will happen next. Based on the meaningful interpretation of the answers, the respondents’ own psychology is judged.
Projective type tests place increased demands on the level of education and intellectual maturity of the test takers, and this is the main practical limitation of their applicability. In addition, such tests require a lot of special preparation and high professional qualifications from the psychologist himself.
Specifics experiment as a method of psychological research lies in the fact that it purposefully and thoughtfully creates an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than all other methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, and to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. However, to organize and conduct a real one that meets all the requirements psychological experiment in practice it is not easy, so in scientific research it is less common than other methods.
There are two main types of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other in that they allow one to study the psychology and behavior of people in conditions that are remote or close to reality. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter practically does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they unfold on their own. A laboratory experiment involves creating some artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be studied.
Data received in natural experiment, best correspond to the typical life behavior of an individual
species, the real psychology of people, but are not always accurate due to the experimenter’s lack of ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. results laboratory experiment, on the contrary, they win in accuracy, but they are inferior in the degree of naturalness - correspondence to life.
Modeling as a method is used in the case when the study of a phenomenon of interest to a scientist by simple observation, survey, test or experiment is difficult or impossible due to complexity or inaccessibility. Then they resort to creating an artificial model of the phenomenon being studied, repeating its main parameters and expected properties. This model is used to study in detail this phenomenon and draw conclusions about its nature.
Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic. A mathematical model is an expression or formula that includes variables and relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomenon being studied. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics as model elements. Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.
Most famous examples mathematical modeling in psychology there are formulas expressing the laws of Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner and Stevens. Logic modeling is widely used in studying human thinking and comparing it with problem solving computer. With many various examples technical modeling we encounter in scientific research devoted to the study of human perception and memory. These are attempts to build perceptrons - machines capable, like humans, of perceiving and processing sensory information, remembering and reproducing it.
An illustration of cybernetic modeling is the use of ideas in psychology mathematical programming on a computer. Development software the work of computers over the past few decades has opened up new prospects for psychology to study processes of interest to it and human behavior, since it turned out that mental
the operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning when solving problems are very close to the operations and logic on the basis of which computer programs are developed. This led to attempts to represent and describe human behavior and his psychology by analogy with the operation of electronic computing devices. The pioneers in this regard in psychology were famous American scientists D. Miller, Y. Galanter, K. Pribram 1 . Noting the presence in the body of the same complex, hierarchically constructed system of behavior regulation that characterizes the structure and functioning of computer programs, they concluded that human behavior can be described in a similar way.
In addition to the listed methods intended for collecting primary information, various methods and techniques for processing this data, their logical and mathematical analysis to obtain secondary results, i.e. facts and conclusions arising from the interpretation of processed primary information. For this purpose, they are used, in particular, various methods mathematical statistics, without which it is often impossible to obtain reliable information about the phenomena being studied, as well as methods qualitative analysis.
Topics and questions for discussion at seminars Topic 1. Meaning psychological knowledge for teaching and raising children.
- 1. Psychological problems of training and education.
- 2. The importance of various psychological knowledge for teaching practice.
Topic 2. Definition of psychology as a science.
- 1. Examples of phenomena that psychology studies, their difference from phenomena studied by other sciences.
- 2. Historical transformation of definitions of the subject of psychology.
- 3. Basic concepts with the help of which psychological phenomena are described, their classification.
- 4. Psychology as a system of developing sciences. The main branches of psychology, knowledge of which is necessary for teaching and raising children.
Schiller D., Galanter Y., Pribram K. Plans and structure of behavior // History foreign psychology: 30-60s of the 20th century. Texts. - M., 1986.
Topic 3. Basic branches of psychology.
- 1. Fundamental and applied branches of psychological science.
- 2. General and special branches of psychology.
- 3. Composition and main problems of general psychology.
- 4. a brief description of various branches of psychological science.
T e m a4. Research methods in psychology.
- 1. The problem of research method in psychology.
- 2. Observation and its varieties.
- 3. Types and types of survey.
- 4. Experimental method in psychology.
- 5. Psychological tests.
- 6. Modeling in psychology.
Topics for essays
- 1. The system of phenomena studied in modern psychology.
- 2. The importance of psychological knowledge for pedagogical theory and practice.
- 3. Methods of psychological research.
Topics for independent research work
- 1. Scientific and everyday understanding of psychological phenomena.
- 2. The connection between modern teaching practice and the problems and issues being developed in various industries psychology.
- 3. Modeling as a method of psychological research.
Document analysis
Experiment
Testing
Observation
Question 2. Methods of sociology and management psychology.
Used in sociology and management psychology methods can be divided by purposes of application on the:
1. diagnostic methods;
2. regulatory methods.
Diagnostic methods. Target– study of the management object (employee, group, team, organization) by collecting information about its condition and ongoing changes.
2. Survey (oral: conversation, interview; writing: survey)
| Method | Contents of information |
| Daily observation of a worker in various production situations | Manifestations of temperament, character, relationships with other people, compatibility, conflict, other personality traits |
| Conversation | Interests, needs, life plans, life problems |
| Questionnaire, interview | Employee's opinion on individual issues team life, attitude towards work, colleagues, administration |
| Testing | Professionally important qualities, suitability to perform certain duties, ability to lead |
| Experiment, analysis of performance results | Initiative, efficiency, ability to cooperate, professional competence, Creative skills |
| Document analysis | Main stages life path, employee-specific ways of solving life problems, personality orientation |
Regulatory methods. Target - changing the state of a control object in the desired direction by influencing the object itself or its environment, the conditions of its activity.
| By method of influence | By purpose of influence |
| 1. Direct methods(assume direct influence on the control object, which is achieved by direct demand, request or proposal): a) belief; b) suggestion; V) mental infection; G) compulsion. 2. Indirect (group) methods (involve indirect impact to the control object (either through an employee, a team, or by changing conditions that change the behavior of the object in the desired direction), which is achieved by creating conditions that make it necessary desired behavior and promoting necessary actions): A) socio-psychological training; b) group discussion; V) business game. | 1. Stimulating methods are aimed at influencing the motivation of an individual; they can be either stimulating or contagious in nature. 2. Tonic methods are aimed at emotional sphere personality, suggest its change, acting either exciting or calming. 3. Cognitive methods are aimed at the formation of a certain idea, concept or, on the contrary, the destruction of any idea, stereotype of thinking or behavior. 4. Communication methods provide an impact on people’s relationships, contributing either to their formation, simplification, stabilization, or, conversely, disintegration, aggravation, destabilization. |
Observation - represents specially organized perception of the object being studied. Organization of observation includes determining the characteristics of the object, goals and objectives of observation; choosing the type of observation; developing an observation program and procedure; establishing observation parameters and developing techniques for recording results; analysis of results and conclusions.
According to the attitude of the observer to the object of observation, there are two kinds observations – external And included .
At external surveillance– interaction between the observer and the object is minimized: the observer tries to exclude the influence of his presence on the behavior of the object in order to achieve maximum objectivity of the results.
With participant observation, the observer enters the observed process as its participant, that is, he achieves maximum interaction with the object of observation, without, as a rule, revealing his research intentions.
In practice, observation is most often used in combination with other methods or when the use of other methods is impossible.
Survey – based on the ability of the subject to directly answer the researcher’s questions.
Instead of observing a person, trying to figure out his intentions or his attitude towards what is happening, you can simply ask him about it. However, this simplicity is apparent - a person either cannot answer many questions or does not want to. The matter is often complicated by the fact that he may hide his ignorance or his reluctance. Different kinds surveys seek to overcome these difficulties in different ways.
Basic types of survey – conversation, interview, survey.
Conversation – verbal communication with the person being studied. A conversation can be called observation, supplemented by communication, but also limited by this communication, i.e. This observation during communication.
During the conversation, the researcher (manager, HR employee) analyzes not only verbal responses, but the most diverse manifestations of a person’s feelings and thoughts - facial expressions, pantomime (body movements, postures), intonation of speech, observes the behavior of the interlocutor, trying to determine the degree of his sincerity and understanding of the subject of the conversation, his attitude towards the interlocutor and the issues discussed, his desire to participate in the conversation.
Interview, Unlike a conversation, it involves presenting the subject with a list of pre-formulated questions.
As in a conversation, responses are recorded by the researcher himself. Formalization of questions that can be asked in the same thoughtful form to a variety of people makes it possible to significantly expand the circle of respondents. A survey-interview can be conducted by performers, and not by the researcher himself - the developer of the interview, which is impossible in the conversation method, which requires the direct participation of a competent researcher.
Those. in an interview, a division of labor is possible between the developer - the researcher and the performer collecting information. The interview is a type formalized conversation.
Questionnaire – written type of survey . Like an interview, a questionnaire involves a set of clearly formulated questions that are presented to the respondent in a in writing and to which he must respond in writing by filling out a questionnaire.
Questions may require free-form answers ( "open questionnaire") or in a given form (“closed questionnaire”), when the respondent chooses one of the answer options offered to him.
Advantages of the questionnaire method before other survey methods:
o the time for registering respondents’ answers was reduced due to “self-service”;
o it became possible to cover any number of respondents in the study by printing the required number of questionnaires;
o formalization of responses creates the opportunity to use automated processing of questionnaires and thereby solves the problem of processing a huge amount of information.
o thanks to the anonymity of the questionnaire, it is decided the most important problem of achieving sincerity in answers.
Disadvantages of the method:
How more formalized answers, the less actual socio-psychological content they contain, the less they reflect the personality of a particular person.
The more the general question is, the less socio-psychological information the answer contains.
Testing. Test is a specific test, including a task that is the same for all subjects, involving the use of a strictly defined technique for assessing performance and obtaining numerical value result.
Any test must answer at least two main requirements- be reliable And valid.
Test reliability determined by the repeatability of its results when repeated testing and the degree of their spread. Validity, or test suitability, is determined by the degree of compliance of the test as a model test of the real activity of which it is a model (test validity is a concept that indicates to us What the test measures and how well it does it).
intelligence tests, personal properties, general, special (musical) and professional (office) abilities - all of them represent certain tasks, based on the results of which the degree of development of a particular personality trait is judged.
Document analysis – this method is the establishment of the correctness of evidence, evidence, what a document is, in other words, it presupposes a critical attitude to the information the carrier of which it is.
Distinguish internal And external criticism of the document. Internal criticism means establishing the meaningfulness of the information, the consistency of the information reported in the document, its completeness, focus, nature of presentation, etc. External criticism means establishing the authenticity of the document, its author, time, place and thoroughness of writing.
An example of such documents that a manager has to deal with and which must be able to analyze are personal documents of employees– personnel records sheet, autobiography, characteristics, etc. Using these documents, the manager must determine how suitable a given employee is, whether he will be able to fit into the team, how conflict-prone he is or, on the contrary, flexible. However, one can only indirectly judge these qualities of an employee by analyzing documents. This method, like the previous ones, is most productive not on its own, but in combination with other methods of studying workers.
Social-psychological training – a generalized name for a group of methods aimed at developing communication skills, heightening sensitivity in the perception of people (intonation, facial expressions, posture), the ability to understand other people and oneself, i.e. personality development, which is achieved in conditions of free communication and through specially organized communication.
One of main features socio-psychological training – topics of communication in the group are not planned in advance; the subject of discussion is events that arise directly in the process of communication. The content of communication consists of mutual expressions of the attitudes and feelings of the training participants. Groups may consist of members who know or do not know each other. Optimal size groups – 7-15 people.
Successful work group, the main condition of which is the achievement of an atmosphere of trust, is largely determined by the actions of the coach - the group leader, who acts as the bearer of the model of behavior in the group, setting the form of communication, the way of expressing feelings and perceptions of other people.
Business games are components socio-psychological training. A business game is an imitation of a real situation, task or activity that involves the division of functions and interaction of participants. In this case, each of the participants plays a certain role and, in accordance with this role, builds their relationships with other participants in the game.
Purpose of the method is to develop during training the skills of operational cooperation and interaction in the conditions of simulated activity. These skills are determined by the role that dictates the behavior of each participant. Participants must master the role, understand its content and expediency, and comprehend its place in the system of relations of other participants.
An essential technique of this method, which promotes understanding of the role and mutual understanding of the participants, is role reversal, when each of the participants in the game successively becomes each character in the game. This allows you to examine and play out the relationships that arise during the game every time from a new position.