Introduction to Geography. II

Modern geography.
Let's consider this example. Suppose you need to get acquainted with some new mechanism. How does this happen? First you look at it from all sides, you are surprised at how beautiful and shiny everything is, how many different buttons there are. That is, first you study the appearance of the new product - examine and describe it. What's next? Then you begin to figure out how to use this mechanism. What happens if you press one button or another? In order for the mechanism to serve you for a long time or if something happens it could be repaired, you need to understand how this mechanism works. The same thing happened with geography.

The man described the Earth, and he liked it. But he doesn’t just admire his planet. Man lives on it, uses its wealth: extracts minerals from the depths, builds cities, lays roads, blocks rivers with dams, plows fields, harvests crops, burns huge amounts of fuel, thanks to which all generations of people live on Earth. In order for our planet to ensure the life of humanity for as long as possible, you need to know how it is structured, by what laws the nature of the planet lives, how all its components are interconnected, how to make sure that economic activity does not destroy nature, and how it is possible would correct what was broken.

CONTENT
From the authors 3
SCIENCE GEOGRAPHY
§ 1. What is geography 6
§ 2. Methods of geographical research 9
THE EARTH AND ITS IMAGE
§ 3. From a flat Earth to a globe 16
§ 4. Shape, dimensions and movements of the Earth 20
§ 5. Globe and map 24
§ 6. Orientation 29
HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
§ 7. In the footsteps of Stone Age travelers 36
§ 8. Travelers of antiquity 40
§ 9. Travels of the sea peoples 45
§ 10. The first Europeans on the edge of Asia 49
§ 11. Traveling beyond the three seas 54
§ 12. Sea route to India 58
§ 13. Discovery of America 64
§ 14. First circumnavigation 69
§ 15. Discovery of the Southern Continent 75
§ 16. The search for the Southern Land continues 80
§ 17. Russian travelers 84
§ 18. Around the world under the Russian flag 89
JOURNEY THROUGH PLANET EARTH
§ 19. The oceans and its parts 98
§ 20. The importance of the World Ocean for nature and humans 103
§ 21. Traveling through Eurasia 107
§ 22. Travel through Africa 114
§ 23. Traveling around North America 120
§ 24. Travel to South America 126
§ 25. Traveling around Australia 132
§ 26. Travel to Antarctica 138
NATURE OF THE EARTH
§ 27. What is nature 146
§ 28. Shells of the Earth 149
Application
Glossary of terms 155.

Download the e-book for free in a convenient format, watch and read:
- fileskachat.com, fast and free download.

Download pdf
Below you can buy this book at the best price with a discount with delivery throughout Russia. Buy this book

Download the book Geography, 5th grade, Introduction to Geography, Domogatskikh E.M., Vvedensky E.L., Pleshakov A.A., 2013 - pdf - depositfiles.

Download the book Geography, 5th grade, Introduction to Geography, Domogatskikh E.M., Vvedensky E.L., Pleshakov A.A., 2013 - pdf - Yandex.Disk.

Info

Title of textbook book:

Textbook subject: Geography

Student class: 5th grade

Book publisher: Russian word…

Parts (textbooks) of the book: 1 textbook.

Year of publication of the textbook, book: year 2013

Pages in the textbook: 160 pages.

Textbook format: file in pdf.

Volume (manual) of the textbook: 34.4 MB.

Minor description of the textbook (manual):

The textbook (manual) covers geographical topics; they will always help schoolchildren (students in the 5th grade) to get acquainted with geography not only as the subject of the location of, say, a continent, but also as a science, to learn about the development of the Earth and the history of its discovery. The textbook meets all state education standards. The textbook is specialized for general educational institutions: lyceums, schools and gymnasiums...

Domogatskikh E.M. Geography 5th grade, reading online

Geography and an introduction to geography, all this information is collected in this book. No, there is no point in discussing this compulsory school discipline here, but we will only bring to your attention how diligently you can study using a textbook online.

So, the student manual from the author Domogatsky has twenty-eight paragraphs, which seem to have very little information, in fact, everything in the textbook says the opposite. Simply, it is laid out here compactly enough so that students can easily understand it. And when you start reading the book online, you will remember every phrase well, because geography is a very important science that is needed by the whole society. Moreover, those phrases that easily give answers to endless questions should be easily learned in all classes on this subject.

1. Scope of the program

Teaching the subject “Geography. Introduction to Geography" in primary school is carried out in accordance with the main regulatory documents and instructional and methodological materials:

Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of December 17, 2010 N 1897 “On approval of the federal state educational standard of basic general education.”
Federal list of textbooks recommended (approved) for use in the educational process in educational institutions implementing educational programs of general education for the 2012-2013 academic year,” approved by order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation dated December 27, 2011 No. 2885.
Regional basic curriculum, approved by order of the Smolensk Region Department of Education, Science and Youth Affairs dated 04/09/2012 No. 299;
Instructional and methodological letter of the State Autonomous Institution DPOS "Smolensk Regional Institute for Educational Development" "On teaching the subject "Geography"" in the 2012-2013 academic year"

“Introduction to Geography” is the first systematic course in a new academic discipline for schoolchildren. In the process of studying the course, an idea of the Earth as a natural complex, the characteristics of the earth’s shells and their interrelations is formed.

When studying this course, the formation of a geographical culture and the teaching of a geographical language begins; students master initial ideas and concepts, and also acquire the ability to use sources of geographic information.

Much attention is paid to the study of human influence on the development of geographical processes. Studying your local area is used to accumulate knowledge that will be necessary in the future when mastering geography courses.

The program of the academic discipline can be used in institutions of secondary (complete) general education that implement the educational program of secondary (complete) general education.

2. The place of the academic discipline in the structure of the main educational program:

The work program fully complies with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for Basic General Education (FSES LLC), is included in the cycle of social studies subjects and is compiled on the basis of the author’s program of E.M. Domogatskikh, N.I. Alekseevsky, Moscow “Russian Word” 2012.

“Introduction to Geography” is based on the propaedeutic knowledge of students from the “World around us” courses at the initial stage of education.

3. Goals and objectives of the academic discipline - requirements for the results of mastering the academic discipline:

The main goal of the course “Introduction to Geography”– systematization of knowledge about nature and man, preparing students to accept a regional studies course by considering cause-and-effect relationships between geographical objects and phenomena.

To successfully achieve the main goal of the course, you must solve the following: educational and methodological tasks:

to update the knowledge and skills of schoolchildren developed while studying the course “The World around us”;
develop the cognitive interest of 5th grade students in objects and processes of the surrounding world;
teach to apply knowledge about your area when studying the nature of the Earth and humans;
teach to establish connections in the system of geographical knowledge.

As a result of mastering the academic discipline, students must:

1. Know (understand):

shape and size of the Earth;
poles, equator;
parts of the World Ocean;
types of water movement in the ocean;
continents and oceans of the Earth;
geographical objects provided for by the program;
routes of geographical research and travel.

2. Be able to:

analyze, perceive, interpret and summarize geographic information.
use sources of geographic information to solve educational and practice-oriented problems; knowledge about geographical phenomena in everyday life.
find patterns in the occurrence of phenomena based on the results of observations (including instrumental ones).
describe the relative location of geographical objects using maps.
explain the features of the components of the nature of individual territories.
give examples of geographical objects.
carry out the simplest classification of geographical objects, processes and phenomena.
distinguish and compare studied geographical objects, processes and phenomena; geographical processes and phenomena that determine the characteristics of the nature and population of continents and oceans.
compose descriptions of geographical objects, processes and phenomena using different sources of geographical information.
formulate patterns of occurrence of phenomena based on the results of observations (including instrumental ones).

The structuring of the presented program and textbooks is carried out in accordance with the Basic curriculum (one hour in grades 5–6, two hours in grades 7–9)

Introduction to geography is studied in 5th grade. The total number of teaching hours per year of study is 35 (1 hour per week).

II. LIST OF DEVELOPED COMPETENCIES

The result of mastering an academic discipline is mastery of general (GC) competencies:

Results of studying the academic subject.

Personal results:

mastery at the general education level with a complete system of geographical knowledge and skills, skills of their application in various life situations;
awareness of the values of geographical knowledge as an essential component of the scientific picture of the world;
the formation of stable attitudes of socially responsible behavior in the geographical environment - the habitat of all living things, including humans.

The substantive results of mastering the geography program are:

formation of ideas about geographical science, its role in human exploration of the planet, about geographical knowledge as a component of the scientific picture of the world, its necessity for solving modern practical problems of humanity and one’s country, including the problem of environmental protection and rational use of natural resources;
formation of primary skills in using the territorial approach as the basis of geographical thinking to understand one’s place in a holistic, diverse and rapidly changing world and adequate orientation in it;
the formation of ideas and fundamental theoretical knowledge about the integrity and heterogeneity of the Earth as a planet of people in space and time, the main stages of its geographical development, the characteristics of nature, life, culture and economic activities of people, environmental problems on different continents and in individual countries;
mastering basic practical skills in using instruments and instruments to determine the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the components of the geographic environment, including its environmental parameters;
mastering the basics of cartographic literacy and the use of a geographic map as one of the “languages” of international communication;
mastering the basic skills of finding, using and presenting geographic information;
developing skills and abilities to use a variety of geographical knowledge in everyday life to explain and evaluate various phenomena and processes, independently assess the level of environmental safety, adapt to the conditions of the territory of residence, and comply with safety measures in the event of natural disasters and man-made disasters;
formation of ideas about the characteristics of environmental problems in various territories and water areas, skills and abilities of safe and environmentally appropriate behavior in the environment;
name the most outstanding results of geographical discoveries and travels, describe the ideas of ancient people and modern people about the Earth;
show continents and the largest geographical objects on the map;
name the brightest representatives of the flora and fauna.

Meta-subject results:

The meta-subject results of studying the course “Introduction to Geography” is the formation of universal learning activities (UAL).

Personal UUD:

awareness of oneself as a member of society at the global, regional and local levels (resident of planet Earth, resident of a specific region);
the ability to evaluate one’s own actions and the actions of other people from the standpoint of social norms;
emotional and value-based attitude towards the environment, the need for its conservation and rational use;
patriotism, love for one’s locality, one’s region, one’s country.

Regulatory UUD:

the ability to independently acquire new knowledge and practical skills, the ability to manage one’s cognitive activity;
the ability to organize one’s activities, determine its goals and objectives, choose means of achieving the goal and apply them in practice, evaluate the results achieved.

Cognitive UUD:

formation and development through geographical knowledge of cognitive interests, intellectual and creative abilities of students;
the ability to conduct independent search, analysis, selection of information, its transformation, storage, transmission and presentation using technical means and information technology.

Communication UUD:

independently organize educational interactions in a group (determine common goals, distribute roles, negotiate with each other, etc.)

III. STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF THE ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

1. Scope of academic discipline and types of academic work

No. topic, section	Topic name	Topic content	Number of hours
Topic 1	Science geography	Geography as a science. Subject of geography. Methods of geographical research: descriptive, cartographic. Space methods. Sources of geographical knowledge.	2
Topic 2	Earth and its images	First ideas about the shape of the Earth. Evidence of the sphericity of the Earth. Eratosthenes' experience. Shape, size and movement of the Earth. Globe is a model of the Earth. Geographic map and area plan. Physical map of the world. Aerial photographs. Space photographs. Compass. Location orientation.	5
Topic 3	History of geographical discoveries	Travels of primitive man. Thor Heyerdahl's expedition to the Kon-Tiki. The Phoenicians' voyage around Africa. Geography of Ancient Greece. Travel of Pytheas. Geographical discoveries of the Vikings. Travels of Marco Polo. Sailing across three seas. Life and work of Christopher Columbus. First circumnavigation of the world. Searches for the Unknown Southern Land. Russian travelers and sailors in northeast Asia. Russian round-the-world expeditions. Discovery of Antarctica.	14
Topic 4	Traveling around planet Earth	The world ocean and its parts. Characteristics of the oceans. Seas and their types. Movements of water in the ocean. Currents. Interaction of the ocean with the atmosphere and land. The importance of the World Ocean for nature and humans. Features of the nature and population of the Earth's continents.	10
Topic 5	Nature of the Earth	What is nature? Natural objects. Geographical envelope of the Earth and its parts: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.	2
	Reserve hours		2
			35

I quarter – 8 hours, 5 assessment practical works;

II quarter – 8 hours, 1 assessment practical work;

III quarter – 10 hours, 2 assessment practical works;

IV quarter – 9 hours, 2 assessment practical works;

Practical work

Practical work is carried out under the guidance of a teacher to develop the skills of independent practical work on the course content.

Total practical work: 23 (individual practical work is repeated for several topics). Application

Thus, there are 10 frontal assessment works per year (in bold). When implementing the curriculum, training, independent and creative work is carried out using a textbook, geographical maps, additional literature and Internet materials. Students learn to work with contour maps, tables, diagrams, and graphs. Each lesson carries significant educational functions: general educational skills are formed, scientific views on the world around us are consolidated, hard work is developed, learning skills appear, students’ creative abilities and their cognitive interest develop.

IV. conditions for the implementation of the academic discipline

1. Minimum logistics requirements

The implementation of the academic discipline requires the presence of a study room “Geography” designed in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard.

Classroom equipment:

Documentation support; Federal State Educational Standards classroom passport, classroom work plan, safety magazine.
Educational and methodological support: list of practical classes, manuals for performing practical work, task cards on topics, slide presentations.
Stands by sections of geography.

Technical training aids:

Projector;
Maps based on lesson topics;
Videos on lesson topics;
Tellurium;
Layouts;
Globes.

2. Information support for training

Basic literature for students
1. Domogatskikh E.M., Vvedensky E.L., Pleshakov A.A. Geography. Introduction to geography: textbook for 5th grade of general education institutions.
2. Molodtsov D.V. Geography workbook for the textbook by E.M. Domogatskikh, E.L. Vvedensky, A.A. Pleshakov “Geography. Introduction to Geography. 5th grade"
3. Bannikov S.V., Domogatskikh E.M. Atlas. Geography. Beginner course. 5-6 grade.
4. Bannikov S.V., Domogatskikh E.M. Contour maps. Geography. Beginner course. 5th grade.
Basic literature for teachers
1. Bannikov S.V., Molodtsov D.V. Methodological manual for teachers for the textbook by E.M. Domogatskikh, E.L. Vvedensky, A.A. Pleshakov “Geography. Introduction to Geography. 5th grade"
2. Kasyanov N.V. Current and final control: tests for the course “Geography. Introduction to Geography. 5th grade": didactic materials.
additional literature
1. Clients A.E. Christopher Columbus text: historical novel / A.E. Clients. – M.: White City, 2006. – 63 p.
Periodicals
1. Geography. Methodological journal for teachers of geography, ecology and environmental management. Publishing house "First of September". Electronic version. Subscription 2012, 2013.
Internet resources
1. Website about geography “Entertaining geography. Interesting figures and facts." http://earth06.narod.ru/index.htm
2. Publishing house "Russkoe Slovo" Methodological section http://www.russkoe-slovo.ru/new/methodics.html

V. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE LEVEL OF TRAINING

use various sources of geographic information (cartographic, text, video and photographic images) to search and retrieve information;
based on the results of observations, find and formulate dependencies and patterns;
identify and compare qualitative and quantitative indicators characterizing geographical objects, processes and phenomena;
compose descriptions of geographic objects, processes and phenomena using different sources of geographic information;
navigate the terrain using a compass;
build simple plans of the area;
create simple geographical maps of various contents;
use knowledge about geographical phenomena in everyday life to maintain health and comply with environmental behavior in everyday life and the environment.

Geographic nomenclature

Continents: Eurasia, North America, South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica.

Oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic.

Islands: Greenland, Madagascar, New Zealand, New Guinea.

Peninsulas: Arabian, Hindustan.

Bays: Mexican, Bengali, Persian, Guinean.

Straits: Gibraltar, Magellan.

Mountain systems: Himalayas, Cordillera, Andes, Caucasus, Urals.

Mountain peaks, volcanoes: Chomolungma (Everest), Kilimanjaro, Key Hill, Elbrus, Vesuvius.

Seas: Mediterranean, Black, Baltic, Red, Caribbean.

Rivers: Nile, Amazon, Mississippi, Congo, Volga, Indus, Ganges, Yellow River, Yangtze.

Lakes: Caspian sea-lake, Baikal, Victoria.

Countries: Russia, China, India, Indonesia, USA, Canada, Mexico, Australia.

VI. Monitoring and evaluation of the results of mastering the Academic Discipline

Monitoring and evaluation of the results of mastering an academic discipline is carried out by the teacher in the process of conducting practical classes, testing, as well as students completing written and oral surveys.

Value guidelines for the content of the academic subject
(from a sample geography program)

Forms and methods of monitoring and assessing learning outcomes

1. formation of ideas about geography, its role in human exploration of the planet, about geographical knowledge as a component of the scientific picture of the world, its necessity for solving modern practical problems of humanity and one’s country, including the problem of environmental protection and rational use of natural resources;
2. formation of primary competencies to use the territorial approach as the basis of geographical thinking for understanding one’s place in an integral, diverse and rapidly changing world and adequate orientation in it;
3. the formation of ideas and fundamental theoretical knowledge about the integrity and heterogeneity of the Earth as a planet of people in space and time, the main stages of its geographical features of nature, life, culture and economic activities of people, environmental problems on different continents and in individual countries;
4. mastery of basic practical skills in using instruments and instruments to determine the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the components of the geographic environment, including its environmental parameters;
5. mastery of the basics of cartographic literacy and the use of a geographical map as one of the languages of international communication;
6. mastery of basic skills in finding, using and presenting geographic information;
7. formation of skills and abilities to use a variety of geographical knowledge in everyday life to explain and evaluate phenomena and processes, independently assess the level of environmental safety, adapt to the conditions of the territory of residence, and comply with safety measures in the event of natural disasters and man-made disasters;
8. formation of ideas about the characteristics of people’s activities leading to the emergence and development or solution of environmental problems in various territories and waters, skills and abilities of safe and environmentally appropriate behavior in the environment.

· Practical work
· Testing
· Written survey
· Oral survey
· Work with cartographic materials
· Reports
· Protection of presentations

To achieve educational results, the following techniques and technologies are used, the main forms of organizing the educational process:

Forms of organizing student work:

Individual
Collective: frontal; steam room; group

Forms of training sessions: games on a competitive basis, role-playing; mini-lectures; dialogues and conversations; practical work; discussions; project activities.

Types of student activities: personal messages; discussions; working with sources; reports; protection of presentations; reflection.

Stage I. Familiarization and elaboration of theoretical material.

1.1 Introduction: geography as a science. Methods of geographical research and sources of geographical information.

You cannot engage in politics and economics without knowing geography.

Each scientific discipline contributes to shaping our understanding of the world. The role of geography in the system of sciences is unique, since only it gives an idea of the nature of our planet and human society, and forms the image of a specific territory. Geographical knowledge and skills are one of the necessary elements of culture.

♦ How did geography develop as a science?

The ancient peoples already possessed certain geographical knowledge. The first written information about this that has reached us dates back to the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. These are basically maps of territories.

A special place in the history of geography belongs to the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The main incentives for travelers at that time were the search for new trade routes and military conquests.

In the XVII-XIX centuries. Geography developed most intensively in foreign Europe and Russia. Along with the discovery and description of new lands, geographers searched for patterns in the distribution of geographical objects. The breadth and depth of geographical research of that time can be judged by the example of works Carl Ritter And Peter Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.

Geographic mosaic: K. Ritter and P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky

K. Ritter (1779-1859) - German geographer, honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He developed the comparative method in geography, applying it to the study of landforms. In explaining social phenomena he joined the school in the following way:

so-called geographical determinism, which proves the decisive influence of nature on the destinies of peoples. The main work is “Earth Science”. During the scientist’s lifetime, 19 volumes devoted to Asia and Africa were published. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) - Russian traveler, geographer, botanist, entomologist, statistician, public and statesman. In 1856-1857 traveled to the Tien Shan, established the non-volcanic origin of the mountains, discovered a vast glacial region, explored lake. Issyk-Kul, compiled the first diagram of the location of the Tien Shan ridges. For these studies in 1906 he received the prefix Tian-Shansky to his surname. Compiled the “Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire.” He was the initiator of the first general census of Russia. He proposed a zoning scheme for Russia. Together with the historian V.I. Lamansky, he directed the multi-volume publication “Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland." He was a member of many Russian and foreign scientific societies. Published the three-volume “History of half a century of activity of the Russian Geographical Society.”

The main goals of modern geography are the geographical substantiation of the rational territorial organization of society and environmental management, the creation of a strategy for the environmentally safe development of civilization. The most important areas of interest of geography are the processes of interaction between man and nature, patterns of placement and interaction of components of the geographical environment and their combinations at the local, regional, national (state), continental, oceanic and global levels.

♦ What elements form the system of scientific knowledge in geography?

Like any other science, geography has its own system of scientific knowledge. Famous Russian geographer Vladimir Maksakovsky formulated their characteristics.

Teaching- a set of theoretical provisions (theories, concepts, etc.). An example is the doctrine of the biosphere, noosphere, nature management, the origin of cultivated plants, soils, geographic envelope, geographic zonality, PTC, etc.

Theory- a system of basic ideas in a particular branch of knowledge. An example is the theory of lithospheric plate tectonics and economic zoning.

Law- a necessary, essential, stable, repeating relationship between phenomena in nature and society. An example is the laws of the origin and geographical distribution of the world’s soils, developed by the famous Russian soil scientist Vasily Dokuchaev.

Pattern- compliance with the law, consistent manifestation of the law.

Concept- a set of the most essential elements of the theory, a point of view, the main idea for understanding the essence of certain processes and phenomena. In economic geography, the concept of the supporting framework of a territory, put forward in the middle of the 20th century, is known. Nikolai Baransky, big loop concept Nikolai Kondratiev and etc.

Hypothesis- an assumption about the causes of any phenomena that has not been tested or confirmed by experiment. Examples: hypotheses of the formation of the Solar system, continental drift, stabilization of the Earth's population, etc.

Concept- a thought reflecting the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena; is considered as an element of teachings, theories, concepts and hypotheses.

Term- a word or phrase that denotes a concept and captures it in a brief summary. Concepts and terms are the language of science. Mastery of geographic terminology is the first step to mastering geographic culture.

♦ What sources contain geographic information?

In modern geographical science, as in all spheres of human activity, the flow of information is constantly increasing. There are various sources for obtaining geographic information: statistical, cartographic, historical documents, scientific literature, encyclopedias, periodicals, the Internet, etc.

The modern world is developing very quickly, the situation is changing literally before our eyes. Internet sources can be widely used to obtain up-to-date information. For example, general trends in the socio-economic development of the world, its individual regions and countries can be considered on the basis of UN data (http://www.un.org/russian). Current information about the population and economy of Russia is contained on the website of the Federal State Statistics Service (http://www.gks.ru). To obtain the most complete and objective information, you need to use several different sources.

♦ What methods of geographical research exist?

As in any other science, there are various research methods in geography. Some of them are typically geographical, others are general scientific (Fig. 2).

A special place among methods of geographical research is occupied by geographic forecasting, which has always been the traditional method in geography. Without a forecast, it is impossible to imagine the prospects for the development of any country or territory. In order to determine changes in a specific territory that may occur as a result of human economic activity, scientists create a hypothesis for the future development of the object. For example, a geographical forecast has been created for the development of the situation in the Aral Basin, where various problems are closely intertwined.

Object, subject, concepts and methods of geography. Characteristics of the system of geographical sciences. Analysis of the main achievements of geography in different periods of its development. Features of the Earth as a planet of the solar system, properties and composition of its geographical shell.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Test

on the topic: Introduction to geography (Earth science)

1. Define geography. Why is it important to distinguish between the object of study and the subject in defining geography?

Geography is a system of natural and social sciences that study natural and industrial geographical complexes and their components.

The phenomenon of modern geography is that it combines sciences that study both natural phenomena - physical geography, and sciences that study social patterns - socio-economic geography.

The subject of geography is the properties of various elements of geographical reality, the patterns of the structure of the functioning and development of its individual aspects, the patterns of its relationship with other objects.

The definition of geography looks like this: geography is a system of natural (physical-geographical) and social (economic-geographical) sciences that study the geographic envelope of the Earth, natural and industrial geographic complexes and their components.

Geographical sciences are united by the close relationship between the objects studied and the commonality of the final goal. This goal is a comprehensive study of nature, population, and economy.

Thus, geography combines two very different branches, which is why geographers prefer to say: not a geographical science, but a system of geographical science, and even a system of geographical sciences.

2. Describe the system of geographical sciences

The Geography system distinguishes:

Natural sciences, which usually include physical geography in the full sense of the word (including landscape science, general geoscience and paleogeography), climatology, geomorphology, land hydrology, glaciology, oceanology, geocryology, as well as soil geography and biogeography,

Social geographical sciences are regional and general economic geography, agricultural geography, geography of economic sectors (geography of transport and geography of industry), political geography and population geography,

Cartography is a technical science, which is also included in the system of modern geographical sciences due to historical reasons and the commonality of its main tasks with other geographical sciences.

Regional studies is also commonly referred to as geography.

3. Why is cartography considered an integral science?

The model-cognitive concept considers it as the science of knowing reality through cartographic modeling, and the map itself as a model of reality. According to the communication concept, cartography is considered the science of transmitting spatial information, and the map is a channel of information, a means of communication. The concept of map semiotics considers cartography as the science of the language of the map, and the map itself as a special text composed using conventional signs (written in the language of the map).

Gradually, in modern cartography the trend of convergence begins to prevail, different points of view on the subject of cartography are coming together, and there is an integration of ideas about the model, communicative, and linguistic functions of maps and cartography.

In the 1980s An integral geoinformation concept began to take shape, according to which cartography is considered as the science of systemic information-cartographic modeling and knowledge of geosystems. It is closely related to geoinformation science, earth sciences and social sciences. The map appears as a figurative-sign geoinformation model of reality, in other words, it is simultaneously a tool of cognition, a method of analog modeling of reality, and a means of transmitting information in digital form.

4. What is “Geographical horizon”?

Geographical horizons is a concept that presupposes the sum of human knowledge about the external features of the earth's surface (the outlines of continents and oceans, main rivers and mountain systems, etc.), about the nature of its various parts - relief, climate, vegetation cover, etc. , about geographical differences in the lives of peoples, the economic uniqueness of countries and a whole range of other geographical knowledge.

5. Define the concept “Geographical picture of the world”

The geographical picture of the world is a holistic idea of the world in its spatio-temporal and unique certainty; it contains many elements of physical, biological and other private scientific pictures of the world, but does not completely coincide with them.

6. What are the main achievements of geography in ancient times? Name the most outstanding geographers of the ancient period

Discovery of the shape of the Earth.

Knowledge of the shape of our planet was extremely important for the further development of geography and especially for the creation of reliable maps. In ancient times (VIII century BC - IV century AD), the highest development of knowledge, including geographical knowledge, was in ancient Greece. Travelers and merchants of that time reported on the newly discovered lands. Scientists were faced with the task of bringing this disparate information into one whole. But the first thing that is important is to decide which Earth - flat, cylindrical or cubic - the data obtained concerns. Did Greek scientists think about many things? Why? "Why does a ship, moving away from the shore, suddenly disappear from sight? Why does our gaze come across some obstacle - the horizon line? Why does the horizon expand as it rises? The idea of a flat Earth did not answer these questions. Then hypotheses about the shape of the Earth appeared. In science hypotheses are unproven assumptions or guesses.

Geographical literature and maps.

The information received by travelers and seafarers about previously unknown lands was summarized by Greek scientists and philosophers. They wrote a lot of works. The first geographical works were created by Aristotle, Eratosthenes, and Strabo.

First information about Ukrainian lands.

VVst. BC e Greek traveler and historian Herodotus visited the Northern Black Sea region - where Ukraine is now located. He outlined everything he saw and heard during this and other travels in 9 books of “History”. For this legacy, Herodotus is called the father of history. However, in his descriptions he provided a lot of geographical information. The information of Herodotus is not the only attraction of the geography of southern Ukraine. At that time there was a large country called Scythia, the size of which caused the greatest surprise to the overseas guest. For centuries, people have learned about Europe, Asia and Africa from Herodotus's History. The learned Greek left us reliable information about our area. Guided by them and the later testimony of Strabo, 500 years later, We received a clear understanding of our land.

7. What is the era of great geographical discoveries famous for?

Discovery of America and the “South Sea”

First circumnavigation of the world

Completion of the discovery of a new world

Northeast Sea Route

Searches for the Southern Continent

10. Describe the outstanding achievements of Russian geography at the beginning of the 19th century

8. Formation of the Russian Geographical Society and its contribution to the development of geography. Contribution of A.I. Voeikova and V.V. Dokuchaev in the development of geography?

The All-Russian public organization "Rumskoye Geographical Society" (abbreviated as VOO "RGO") is a geographical public organization of Russia, founded on August 18, 1845.

9. Describe the main directions of development of geography during the Soviet period

During Soviet times, the study of the geography of our country was continued. New scientific schools were created.

Traditions and innovation are the most important features of Soviet geography. Several periods can be distinguished.

I period. After the revolution, the first difficulty emerged - the lack of maps. A gigantic amount of work was carried out to create a million-scale map of the country's territory. Work began in 1918 and ended in 1946. A total of 180 map sheets were compiled. For example, the coastline of the Arctic Ocean (AO) was re-mapped. At the same time, on the one hand, new islands were discovered (Severnaya Zemlya), on the other, old ones were established, that is, “closed” (Vasilievsky Island to the west of the New Siberian Islands). This island was mapped in 1912 by the famous polar explorer B.A. Vilkitsky, and in 1936 there was a shoal on the site of the island. It was also established that the legendary islands “Sannikov Lands” (north of the New Siberian Islands) and “Andreev Lands” (west of Wrangel Island) do not exist.

In mountainous countries, altitudes were determined, the highest peaks of the USSR were discovered - Communism Peak - 7,495 m, Lenin Peak - 7,134 m, new ridges were identified, and the location of mountain systems was clarified.

Particularly large discoveries have been made in the northeast of the country. For example, it has been established that the so-called Chersky Ridge is actually a mountain system of 9 parallel chains. The Suntar-Khayata ridge was put on the map for the first time. In Central Asia, the “Roof of the World” - the Pamirs - was studied in detail, hard-to-reach mountain areas were photographed - for example, the ridges of the Academy of Sciences, the longest Fedchenko glacier in the USSR, Kamchatka was studied in detail. For the first time, accurate maps were compiled and a unique region of geysers was discovered.

The whole country became an arena for the activities of surveyors, who were often pioneers. Currently, there are accurate maps for the entire territory of the CIS, the significance of which is enormous. Modern detailed special maps are created on the basis of aerial photography and space photography. All farms are provided with special maps of soils and forests, scale 1: 10,000, 1: 25,000.

II period. Tremendous work has been done to study the Arctic. The development of the northern regions required knowledge of natural resources and reliable transport services. But for this it was necessary to know the peculiarities of the nature of the northern seas, ice drift, etc. Can the Northern Sea Route, which Lomonosov dreamed of, be a reliable transport route? The first positive answer to this question was the through flight of Sibiryakov in 1932.

In 1934, the icebreaker Litke passed from Vladivostok to Murmansk during one navigation along the Northern Sea Route (NSR). In 1939, the first double through voyage of the icebreaker Joseph Stalin took place in history. geography science earth

In the study of the Arctic, an entire era is associated with drifting stations, which received the romantic name “North Pole” - “SP”. The history of "SP" was opened in 1937 by the station "SP - 1". It was headed by a legendary man, a hero of the Arctic and then a hero of the Great Patriotic War - I.D. Papanin (1894 -- 1986). The following took part in the drift: geophysicist E.K. Fedorov, oceanologist P.G. Shirshov, radio operator E.T. Krenkel. The station received a lot of interesting data about ice drift, ocean depths, characteristics of sea waters (salinity, temperature, etc.), and studied magnetic phenomena.

Much time has passed since then, but the station is still drifting in the ice; in 1987 it was the 29th.

Pilots played a huge role in the exploration of the North. Mobile “jumping” teams landed on the ice, not without risk, and carried out a series of observations. In 1937 V.P. Chkalov flew across the relatively inaccessible North Pole (north of Wrangel Island).

Almost the entire water area of the Arctic Ocean became accessible for navigation by icebreaking vessels after the creation of nuclear engines. Successful voyages to the geographic North Pole were carried out by nuclear-powered icebreakers Lenin, Arktika, and Sibir. Now there is a whole system of ground and drifting stations operating in the Arctic. Observations are also carried out from specially equipped aircraft and icebreakers. Satellites and rockets monitor the weather. This huge amount of information is automatically processed. All scientific and organizational work in the Arctic is controlled by the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute.

III period. An important achievement in the study of the natural environment is the observation system newly created after the revolution. This includes a network of meteorological stations, observatories, and hydrological posts - water flow is studied at special sites, and the influence of sea waves on the coast is studied at coastal stations.

Research in nature reserves. Complex - climate, vegetation, fauna. Geological museums.

A great achievement was the creation of the “Water Cadastre of the USSR,” which summarized data on all rivers and lakes in the country. Creation of reference books on the climate of various territories.

Large-scale work has been carried out and summarized on water balance and agroclimatology. General monographs have been created on climate, relief, soils, vegetation and other components of the natural environment.

In 1937, the Great Soviet Atlas of the World was created, in 1950 - 1953 - a three-volume Marine Atlas, an atlas of heat balance, in 1964 - a Physiographic Atlas of the World, a climate atlas, an agricultural atlas and numerous other special atlases were compiled for countries as a whole, and individual republics, territories and regions.

A series of books have been published containing a comprehensive physical-geographical or economic-geographical description of the country and regions, for example, the “Soviet Union” series.

10. Methods of geography

Methods of geographical research - methods of obtaining geographical information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography, Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky, is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of the relative position of objects, their sizes, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises out of nowhere, therefore, to understand modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative production indicators, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, fertility, mortality and natural population growth, balance of migration, resource availability, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Geographical zoning method. Identification of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the research methods of geographical science.

6). Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison: more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower. Only comparison allows us to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observation. Geography cannot be studied only while sitting in classrooms and offices. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography are great assistants in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature conservation, and in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method. Creating geographic models is an important method for studying geography. The simplest geographical model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science must not only describe the objects and phenomena being studied, but also predict the consequences that humanity may come to in the course of its development. Geographic forecast helps to avoid

many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rational use of resources, solve global problems

11. Solar system. Features of the Earth as a planet in the solar system. Earth movements and their consequences

The solar system is a planetary system that includes the central star - the Sun - and all natural space objects revolving around the Sun. It was formed by gravitational compression of a gas and dust cloud approximately 4.57 billion years ago.

The movement of the Earth around the Sun: change of seasons - the Earth's climate changes throughout the year; The earth revolves around the sun every year (365 days); Changes in the speed of the Earth's movement when passing through different parts of the Earth's orbit are different processes in nature at different times of the year.

Movement around its axis: Change of day and night; The occurrence of ebbs and flows; local time different at the same moment on different meridians.

12. The concept of Geographical envelope. Properties of G.O

The geographic envelope is a material system that arose on the earth's surface as a result of the interaction and interpenetration of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere saturated with organisms.

The main properties of the geographical shell are: the rhythm of natural phenomena, the circulation of substances and energy, integrity and unity, self-regulation.

13. Atmosphere. Structure and composition

The atmosphere is the outer gaseous shell of the Earth.

Structure:

Exosphere

Thermosphere (ionosphere)

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere

Composition: The atmosphere consists of constant and variable components. Constants include nitrogen (78% by volume), oxygen (21%) and inert gases (0.93%). The constancy of the amount of active components of nitrogen and oxygen is determined by the balance between the processes of release of free oxygen and nitrogen and their absorption during chemical reactions. Noble gases do not participate in reactions occurring in the atmosphere. Variable components are carbon dioxide, water vapor, ozone, aerosols.

14. Air masses. Atmospheric circulation

Air masses are large volumes of air in the lower part of the earth's atmosphere - the troposphere, having horizontal dimensions of many hundreds or several thousand kilometers and vertical dimensions of several kilometers, characterized by approximately uniform temperature and moisture content horizontally.

Atmospheric circulation is a set of air currents over the earth's surface. Air currents vary in scale from tens and hundreds of meters (such movements are created by local winds) to hundreds and thousands of kilometers, leading to the formation of cyclones, anticyclones, monsoons and trade winds in the troposphere. In the stratosphere, predominantly zonal transfers occur (which determines the existence of latitudinal zonality).

15. Climate formation factors

Factors: solar radiation, atmospheric circulation and terrain.

Solar radiation is a factor that determines the flow of solar energy to certain areas of the earth's surface. The amount of heat is determined by geographic latitude. All life processes on Earth, as well as other climate indicators - pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, atmospheric circulation, etc., directly depend on the amount of heat.

Atmospheric circulation is a factor that determines the movement of air masses both vertically and along the earth's surface. Thanks to this, inter-latitudinal exchange of air occurs, as well as its redistribution from the surface to the upper layers of the atmosphere and vice versa. Air masses carry clouds, which determines precipitation; they significantly redistribute pressure, temperature and humidity of the air and form winds.

Relief is a factor that qualitatively changes the influence of the first two climate-forming factors. Mountain elevations and ridges have a specific temperature and precipitation regime depending on the exposure, orientation of the slopes and the height of the ridges. They can reflect large amounts of solar energy, creating vast shaded mountain areas, and the highest peaks, thousands of meters away from the plain, receive less solar energy and are often covered with ice and snowfields throughout the year. Mountains serve as mechanical barriers to the movement of air masses and fronts, in some cases they are the boundaries of climatic regions, sometimes they change the nature of the atmosphere or exclude the possibility of air exchange. There are many areas on the surface of the Earth where, due to this, either a lot of precipitation falls or there is not enough of it. Thus, the dryness of Central Asia is explained by the fact that powerful mountain systems rise along its outskirts.

16. Structure, structure of the hydrosphere. Properties of natural waters

The hydrosphere is the totality of all the waters of the Earth: continental, oceanic and atmospheric. The hydrosphere includes all natural waters of the Earth that participate in the global cycle of substances, including groundwater in the upper part of the earth’s crust, atmospheric moisture and water of living organisms (V.N. Mikhailov, A.D. Dobrovolsky, 1991). The upper boundary of the hydrosphere is drawn along the surface of the ocean, since water vapor in the atmosphere constitutes a very small part of the hydrosphere. The lower boundary is drawn along the ocean floor, in the lithosphere - along the boundary of the distribution of groundwater, i.e. at a depth of several hundred meters. Chemically bound water is water in minerals; it is not included in the hydrosphere. According to V.N. Mikhailov and A.D. Dobrovolsky, the boundaries of the hydrosphere coincide with the boundaries of the GO, since the hydrosphere is a continuous shell formed by the interaction of all geospheres of the GO.

The hydrosphere occupies 361 million km 3 and contains 1,454,000 thousand km 3 of water. The main mass of water is concentrated in the oceans - 1370.0 million km 3, or 94.2% (97.2% according to other sources) of all water in the hydrosphere, of which about 35 thousand km 3 are icebergs.

Groundwater takes second place - 60 million km 3 (4.12%). About 4 million km 3 circulates in the zone of active water exchange. According to scientists, in the 10-15 kilometer thickness of the lithosphere there is about 150 million km 3 of water, which does not participate in moisture circulation, but represents a reserve of liquid water.

The third place in terms of water volume is occupied by polar glaciers, they contain 24 million km 3 of water. Polar glaciers contain about 90% of the fresh water on Earth.

Surface waters on land concentrate a small fraction of the planet's water. The volume of lake water is estimated at 279 thousand km 3, the volume of rivers is only 1.2 thousand km 3.

Water is an excellent solvent of acids, alkalis and salts, many gases, including those important for life such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. At the same time, substances that do not contain charged or polarized groups in their molecules are practically insoluble in water. The ability to interact with the hydrogen bonds of water divides all substances into hydrophilic - soluble or, at least, wetted by water, and hydrophobic - insoluble and even actively, with the release of energy, displaced by water and aqueous solutions. The combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of various organic substances is used by living organisms to create very strong structures of ultramicroscopic dimensions - cell membranes and other “molecular structures” that ensure the occurrence of the most important life processes at the cellular level.

Although fresh water makes up a small part of all water on Earth, it largely determines the level and very possibility of life on land, and its quality is of the most immediate importance for humans and their economy. Depending on the rocks underlying reservoirs and watercourses, natural waters can not only have different total salinity, but also vary greatly in the content of various elements, acidity and suspended particle content. This, as well as differences in temperature, seasonal changes in composition, content of dissolved gases and other physicochemical characteristics of natural reservoirs, largely determines both the total “amount of life” in them and the presence of various adaptations in aquatic plants and animals developed over a long period of time. evolution. These adaptations cover all levels of life organization, from biochemical processes at the cellular level and physiological regulation of organ systems to morphological characteristics and behavioral features associated with periodic changes in the state of water bodies.

17. Boundaries of the lithosphere. Dynamics of the lithosphere

Earth's crust

Upper mantle

Lower mantle

Outer core

Inner core

18. Biosphere. Soil cover

The biosphere is a special volume of the geographic envelope, a kind of supersphere that unites almost all geospheres where life exists or existed.

The upper biologically active shell of the earth is usually called soil. Its most important quality is fertility, which makes it suitable for cultivating plants and thereby using the land as the main means of agricultural production.

Famous Russian scientist V.V. Dokuchaev identified five factors of soil formation: parent rock, plant and animal organisms, climate, terrain, and age of the country. Their various combinations lead to the formation of many thousands of types and varieties of soils. The quality of soils is determined by their physical condition, mechanical and chemical composition, humus content and many other parameters. Their favorable combination is achieved through a set of various reclamation measures. The main indicator of the quality of lands used in agriculture is their fertility, the ability to provide the water, air and food regimes necessary for the growth and development of plants. Fertile soils are characterized by good moisture holding capacity, a high content of active humus, aggregated soil mass, and rich in beneficial microflora.

19. Stages of development of the geographical shell

Scientists identify three historical stages in the development of the geographical envelope.

The first stage is geological (or prebiogenic). This is the earliest stage of Earth's history. At this stage, at first there was no life yet, and then, although it appeared, it still did not have a significant impact on the geographical envelope. Life was represented exclusively by the simplest organisms, and they did not have a significant influence on the formation of the geographical envelope. There was very little molecular oxygen in the atmosphere, but there was a lot of carbon dioxide.

This stage lasted from the formation of the Earth (about 4.5 billion years ago) until about 600 million years ago. That is, this stage is the longest, it lasted about 3 billion years.

During the geological stage, the formation of the earth's crust took place, continents appeared, life originated in the ocean and reached its peak there.

The second stage is biological. It began approximately just under 600 million years ago. At this time, the atmosphere and hydrosphere became as they are now, the ozone layer appeared, life spread over land, and soil was formed. Living organisms had a significant influence on the development of the geographical envelope. Rocks of organic origin were formed. The third stage is anthropogenic (modern). The exact moment of the appearance of man is unknown, but scientists believe that the anthropogenic stage of development of the geographical envelope began approximately 40 thousand years ago, when man began to have a noticeable impact on nature.

20. Laws and patterns of the geographical envelope

The development of GO has its own patterns and characteristic features: integrity, rhythm and zonality, cycles of matter and energy. The integrity of GO is manifested in the fact that a change in one component of nature inevitably causes a change in all the others. The rhythmicity of natural phenomena lies in the repeatability of similar phenomena over time. Examples of rhythm: daily and annual periods of the Earth's rotation. Zoning is a natural change in all components of GO from the equator to the poles. It is caused by the rotation of the spherical Earth with a certain tilt of the axis of rotation around the Sun.

Posted on Allbest.ru

...