Observation method. Observation stages

Observation is carried out by the researcher by inclusion in an experimental situation or by indirect analysis of the situation and recording the phenomena and facts of interest to the researcher.

Stages of observational research (according to K.D. Zarochentsev):

1) Definition of the subject of observation, object, situation.

2) Choosing a method for observing and recording data.

3) Creation of an observation plan.

4) Choosing a method for processing the results.

5) Actually observation.

6) Processing and interpretation of received information.

Similarities and differences between observation and experiment

Observation according to Meshcheryakov B.G. - “organized, purposeful, recorded perception of mental phenomena for the purpose of studying them under certain conditions.”

Experiment according to Meshcheryakov B.G. - “an experiment conducted under special conditions to obtain new scientific knowledge through the purposeful intervention of a researcher in the life activity of a subject.”

Analyzing the specifics of observation and experiment methods, we will determine their similarities and differences.

Common features in observation and experiment:

Both methods require preliminary preparation, planning and goal setting;

The results of research using observation and experiment require detailed processing;

The results of the study may be influenced by the personal characteristics of the researcher.

Differences in observational and experimental methods:

The ability to change the situation and influence it in an experiment and the inability to make changes in observation;

The purpose of observation is to state the situation, the purpose of the experiment is to change the situation, to monitor the degree of influence of certain means on the situation;

The experimental method requires clear knowledge about the object being studied; this knowledge is often acquired through observation.

Practical task

The topic of the survey was developed taking into account the characteristics of the target group with which we intended to work. Teenagers from high school were selected as such. According to Vygotsky L.S. The leading activity at this age is intimate and personal communication. Through communication with peers and adults, a teenager builds his personal attitude towards the world and forms his own unique image. In this regard, it is dangerous for a teenager not to be among his peers. It is extremely important to have friends and associates at this age.

That is why the following topic was chosen for the survey: “Me and my friends.”

The purpose of the survey: to determine the level of formation of friendships among modern teenagers of high school age.

To achieve the goal, a questionnaire was developed:

Questionnaire “Me and my friends”

Instructions:

Hello.

You are invited to take part in a scientific study.

Please read each question carefully and answer it as honestly as possible by circling the answer that seems correct to you, or by entering the answer you need in the special answer field. For multiple choice questions, you only need to choose one.

Personal data:

Last name, first name_______________________________________ Class_________________

1. Do you have a circle of friends?

a) yes; b) no.

2. What unites you?_____________________________________________

3. Which friend would you trust with your secret?______________

4. Which friend would you turn to for help in a difficult situation?_________________________________________________

5. What qualities do your friends value in you?___________________________

6. Remember the times when you helped one of your friends cope with any problem________________________________

7. How do you feel with your friends?

a) good, fun;

b) boring, sad;

c) first one thing, then another.

8. What kind of friends would you like to have?________________________

9. What character qualities are most valued among your friends?___________________________________________

10. What would you call the group where you spend your free time?

a) my friends;

b) my company;

c) party;

d) my yard;

e) my team;

f) your own version_________________________________________________________

11. Do you have adults with whom you communicate? Who is this?_______________________________________________________

12. Do you have conflicts? If so, how are they usually resolved?

b) a fight;

c) thanks to the intervention of the leader;

d) thanks to the intervention of an adult;

e) a compromise of some of the guys.

13. How do adults feel about your group?

a) kindly;

b) hostile;

c) neutral.

14. Mark which statements you agree with:

a) I am often consulted;

b) I can’t make an important decision without my friends;

c) no one truly understands me;

d) it’s easier for me to make a decision myself and tell others about it;

d) it’s easier for me to make a decision together with everyone.

15 How would you describe your mood when you are with your friends?_________________________________

The questionnaire contains fairly informative instructions that help you understand the essence of the task. In total, the questionnaire contains 15 questions, both open and closed. The different types of questions are mixed, which helps the interviewee focus on each question. The most difficult questions that require the most honest answers are located in the middle of the questionnaire.

12 people took part in the survey - students in grades 9-10 of a secondary school. The gender and age composition of the target group is presented in the diagrams below.

Diagram 1-2. Sex and age composition of respondents

Let's move on to analyzing the data obtained and their interpretation.

Absolutely all teenagers answered the first question positively, saying that they have friends. Among the factors that unite respondents with their friends were: common interests, studies, spending time together, mutual acquaintances, and parent-friends.

Diagram 3. Factors that unite friends

In the answer column to the third question, the names of friends or the number of friends were often indicated. The number of friends to whom respondents could entrust personal secrets did not exceed 1-2.

The answers to the fourth question were similar. The respondents' circle of help consisted of the same people as their circle of trust.

Among the qualities valued by the respondents' friends in the respondents themselves were: humor, the ability to understand, the ability to trust, the ability to help, and sociability.

Diagram 4. Qualities valued by friends

To question 6, the most common answers were “I find it difficult to answer” or “I can’t remember.” It was also not uncommon for respondents to skip a question. Only 15% of the total number of respondents answered this question. Among the answers, there were cases from personal life that practically did not intersect with each other.

80% of respondents responded that they feel fun in the company of their friends. 20% of respondents have mixed feelings.

Among the qualities of ideal friends, respondents named honesty, sense of humor, responsibility, devotion, and respect.

Most of these qualities were also named among those considered basic among the respondent’s friends.

The answers to question 10 were distributed as follows:

Diagram 5. Name of circle of friends by respondents

Among the adults with whom teenagers communicate, the following stood out: parents, teachers, and coaches. Adults often have a neutral (55%) or negative (30%) attitude towards age groups.

Conflict situations do not arise often and are resolved by finding a compromise between the children.

The answers to the penultimate question were divided as follows:

a) people often consult me ​​- 25%;

b) I can’t make an important decision without my friends - 20%;

c) no one truly understands me - 15%;

d) it’s easier for me to make a decision myself and tell others about it - 20%;

e) it’s easier for me to make a decision together with everyone - 20%.

85% characterize their mood among friends positively, 15% negatively.

Interpretation of the data obtained during the survey leads to the following conclusions:

1. Among schoolchildren and teenagers there is a great desire to form peer groups;

2. All teenagers believe that they have a large circle of friends. Meanwhile, they can only tell a secret or turn to a small number of people for help.

3. Most teenage groups are formed on the basis of common leisure, educational activities and interests.

4. Teen groups often change their composition and are unstable.

5. Teenage groups influence the opinions of the teenagers included in them, but often are not a resource for making serious decisions regarding the teenager’s personality.

6. Teenagers have rather vague ideas about friendship. They call a large number of people friends.

7. Adults are practically distant from the processes of forming and managing teenage groups.

8. Modern teenagers value reliability, honesty, mutual assistance, trust and the ability to help.

What is observation? These are facts obtained by a person as a result of noting some phenomena, actions and other manifestations in life. The very concept of observation relates to psychology and acts here as a method of cognition, and it can be divided into two types:

1. Scientific observation.

Despite the fact that the final result of both types is generally the same - the acquisition of some knowledge, their nature and course are significantly different.

Scientific observation

As stated above, observation is form of psychic research However, this is only true if it is aimed at knowing something with an obligatory transition to identifying the essence of this phenomenon. In simpler terms, observation as a mental method should not just state this or that fact, but find an explanation for it, why it happened this way and not otherwise, and what follows from this.

Scientific observation is obliged to record the acquired knowledge in any accessible form; in addition, it is permanent and has a certain structure. The object of study is subjected to systematic observation according to a specific plan. This allows us not only to draw some conclusions, but to give them an explanation, as well as to identify certain patterns, for example, the permanent nature of the phenomenon or its temporary manifestations.

Unlike scientific it has no clearly defined purpose, there is no need to get to the bottom of the truth, and all acquired knowledge is taken for granted. Everyday observation is chaotic and essentially constant. One way or another, a person constantly records certain events, and they turn into certain data. Everyday observation does not have a system, it is not subject to planning, but, despite its random nature, it has serious significance in a person’s life, as well as in the interpretation of events occurring around him.

An interesting fact is that in the absence of everyday observation the goal of getting to the bottom of things and obtaining an explanation for this or that phenomenon, it happens by itself. As a rule, a person accidentally registers certain events, and then an understanding of a specific process is formed. For example, thunder rumbles, a person records the sound, lightning appears among the clouds - another element, rain begins - the third fact. All of them form a logical chain - after lightning, thunder is heard and this is a harbinger of rain. That is, there was no special analysis or observation in this case, but random facts formed a certain sequence and gave an understanding of the process. The next thing in this chain may be the appearance of the sun and rainbow, which will continue the logical chain.

All people record what is happening around them differently. Many people do not have the gift of everyday observation at all; as a rule, they do not really wonder how this or that process occurs and why it is this way and not otherwise. In general, the presence of questions, how and why, to some extent, gives rise to a person’s tendency towards everyday observation. Worldly wisdom can be formed from it.

There is an interesting saying regarding this: “The wise man is not the one who knows a lot, but the one who knows what is necessary.” It perfectly characterizes the significance of everyday observation and its importance over scientific observation. Very often, in everyday matters, people without education reason much smarter and more rationally than people with academic degrees. This just means that everyday knowledge obtained through everyday observation is more important than scientific knowledge.

In general, everyday observation is aimed at surrounding things, and scientific observation is aimed at their essence, which very often in ordinary life is not very important. This knowledge is, of course, necessary for science and can lead to grandiose discoveries, but it is rarely applicable in the lives of ordinary people. For example, information that all substances consist of atoms or molecules is not very useful for ordinary people, but is of serious importance in the study of various processes, for example, nuclear reactions associated with nuclear fission, which in turn help obtain the necessary for modern man electricity.

Everyday and scientific observation. Relationship and importance

There is no direct connection between these two phenomena, but they are somewhat similar. It is typical for everyday observation:

• The random nature of acquiring knowledge.
• Drawing conclusions based on relationships.
• Combining some data into worldly wisdom that has no scientific basis, but has been alive for decades.

Scientific observation:

• The clear nature of its flow.
• The need to understand the essence of what is happening.
• Obtaining chains of relationships that may require follow-up observations.

If you try to understand the essence of both types of observation, then everyday observation says that this certain event happens because it always happens, and it was noticed, and scientific observation will explain why it happens this way.

Everyday observation turns the received information into sayings, signs and proverbs, and sometimes the conclusions obtained can carry erroneous information, although this rarely happens. Scientific observation turns its data into laws with evidence; there is no place in them for explanations like “because this is repeated from year to year or day to day” and random explanations. Everything here is logical and correct.

Federal Agency for Education

Federal State Educational Institution

Higher professional education

St. Petersburg State University

Faculty of Journalism

Coursework on the topic

“The main differences between the observation method and experiment”

Discipline: Fundamentals of creative activity of a journalist

Completed: 2nd year student, 7th full-time group, specialty “Journalism” Tsuman A.P.

Scientific adviser: political candidate sciences

Baychik A.V.

Saint Petersburg

Introduction 4

Chapter 1. Characteristics of methods 6

1.1 Observation method 6

1.2 Experiment 11

Chapter 2. Analysis of publications 16

Conclusion 20

References 22

Applications 23

Introduction

In the most general sense, a method is a path or method of achieving a goal, a certain ordered activity. It is also a system of intangible means of cognition and transformation of reality; a way of cognition and practical activity, which is a sequence of certain operations. Method also means a special system for processing and analyzing the content of the phenomenon being studied. Today, method is understood as a way of knowing, studying natural phenomena and social life.

Some researchers believe that journalism does not have its own methods; it borrows them from other sciences of sociology, psychology, literary logic, and economics 1 . There is not yet a clear answer to the question of whether it is worth highlighting the specifics of journalism as a science and comparing its methods with other areas of scientific activity. However, in this work we will try not to touch upon such “pitfalls”.

A journalist in his creative work uses various ways of interpreting situations and phenomena that he witnesses, explains or comments on the facts that he encounters. He deals with various forms of knowledge - scientific, non-scientific, empirical, thus mastering reality and cognizing the world around him. Ideally, the main goal of a journalist’s knowledge is to find the truth and accurately convey this truth to the reader, so the question cannot help but arise about the reliability of the facts presented. In many ways, the objectivity and truth of what a journalist writes depends on the degree of mastery of the methods of mastering reality. Prominent representatives of such methods are observation and experiment. Both of these methods belong to the group of rational cognitive methods, and more specifically, to the empirical level of knowledge 1, and their result appears in journalism as a stream of information publications 2.

So, finding the differences between observational method and experiment is of interest and relevant for research because:

Firstly, today there is a tendency towards complementarity and interpenetration of methods, which increases the level of culture of journalistic work.

Secondly, it is still important to understand the boundaries of the application of methods and techniques and not allow the possibility of their overlap.

Purpose The work is to analyze and find the main differences between two methods of journalism - observation and experiment.

The goal is revealed through the following tasks:

explore each method separately;

analyze examples of the use of these methods in journalistic creativity;

find the distinctive features of each method;

draw conclusions from the study.

Chapter 1. Characteristics of methods

1.1 Observation method

Observation is one of the methods for collecting sociological information, which allows you to study an object in a multifaceted way, therefore it is distinguished among traditional methods first of all. The use of this method is associated with obtaining preliminary material about a social object and for obtaining primary information on any problem. As G.V. Lazutina writes, the key link here is “a person’s ability to perceive the objective-sensory concreteness of the world in the process of audiovisual contacts with it” 1 . Journalistic observation can act as both a primary and an additional method and, unlike ordinary observation, always has a goal and a clearly defined character. “It is the intentionality of perception and awareness of tasks that allows you to look - and see” 2. It is no coincidence that this is one of the very first methods that is explained to students.

The subject of journalistic observation is the person himself, his appearance, character, how and what he says, his behavior, as well as his reaction to what is happening, including various aspects of the relationship and interaction of the individual and the team. The nature of communication, the level of culture of the individual, the means of communication (such as gestures, facial expressions, words, speech), and even the surrounding material environment are given attention. Therefore, the observation method is very often used in the work of a reporter, for which there are many other reasons: a journalist, being involved in a certain event, has the opportunity to trace its dynamics. The material creates an atmosphere of involvement in what is happening before the reporter’s eyes. A journalist can identify some of the most significant characteristics of an event and determine the factors under the influence of which the characteristics of the objects observed in the event change. Also, direct observation of people’s behavior allows us to see details that are inconspicuous at first glance, characteristic personality traits 1 .

There are several types of journalistic observation. They are classified based on various criteria, for example, methods of organization, subject, nature of the information of interest.

On the first basis, observation is divided into hidden And open. A distinctive feature of open observation is that a journalist, having arrived to carry out a task, say, in some organization, declares his goal, editorial task, what kind of help he may need from the employees of this organization. So, the people with whom he will communicate know that among them there is a journalist collecting material for publication, they can imagine the nature of this speech (positive or negative) and behave accordingly.

In contrast to open, covert surveillance implies that the journalist, for a certain period of time, does not inform the people whose actions he is observing that he is a journalist and is collecting the information he needs, as well as what type of information interests him. Moreover, they may never know that a journalist was among them. Covert surveillance is most often used when studying any conflict situations in individual groups or when conducting a journalistic investigation. Before the investigation, the journalist has a fragment of the information picture, checks it, and reconstructs the picture again. Often a journalist conducting an investigation becomes a participant in an event, influencing its course and shaping the outcome.

Depending on the conditions of studying the subject to which the journalist’s attention is directed, observation can be classified as direct And indirect. In the first case, the author observes the object directly, in the second (due to its remoteness, hiddenness or other conditions) - using indirect data, that is, indirectly.

Observations are also divided according to time: short-term And long-term. If the publication needs to be prepared as quickly as possible, short-term observation is used. Long-term observation is used when it is necessary to study a subject thoroughly and in detail. Long-term observation is not necessarily one-time: a journalist can repeatedly return to the life of a group and observe the changes taking place for several years. This type of observation is widely used when working in analytical genres.

IN structured observation a journalist records events according to a clearly defined plan, or, more precisely, a procedure, and in unstructured – conducts observation in a free search, focusing only on general ideas about the situation. But still, the journalist should adhere to an indicative plan for conducting observation. Such a plan helps to correctly determine the aspect of observation, its order and conditions.

Field observation involves working in natural conditions, and laboratory– in certain situations constructed by the journalist.

Systematic observation presupposes the journalist’s attention to a particular situation at certain periods of time, and unsystematic– spontaneity in the choice of the observed phenomenon. 1

The features of journalistic observation can be predetermined by such factors as the degree of participation of the journalist in the event that he is observing. On this basis, observations can be divided into included And not included. How did A.A. characterize this division? Tertychny, “in the first case, the journalist becomes, for example, a member of the crew of a fishing trawler and works on board together with other fishermen. Non-participant observation is the study of some activity from the outside, when preparing, for example, a report on a volcanic eruption, sports competition, etc.” 1 Indeed, in the second case, the correspondent tries not to interfere with what is happening, quite consciously taking a neutral position. He, as a rule, is outside the situation and has no contact with the participants in the event. This type of observation is most often used to better describe the social atmosphere, for example, around elections, public events, reforms. Included observation presupposes the participation of the journalist in the situation itself. He does this consciously, changing, for example, his profession or introducing himself into a certain social group in order to recognize the object from the inside. A “change of profession” is possible in cases where the reporter is confident that his unprofessional or unskilled actions will not cause physical or moral harm to people. For example, media employees are prohibited from introducing themselves as doctors, lawyers, judges, or government employees. Prohibitions of this kind are provided for both by the relevant norms of journalistic ethics and by certain articles of legislation. The famous journalist N. Nikitin gives specific practical advice to novice journalists: “... the basic principle is to be who you say you are” 2 . Thus, the journalist seeks to identify and show the reader some situations that are characteristic of the implementation environment. He sets himself a reporter's task - to participate in the action along with his heroes or experience some difficulties. A report made using the participant observation method can be a winning form of presenting material. However, this should not be a simple act of pretending, a game of “dressing up”. It is important that a journalist has a professional goal - to positively influence a situation or find ways to solve a problem.

Speaking about participant observation, it is important to pay attention to some difficulties associated both with this type and with the entire observation method in general. Firstly, it is important to understand that most often we are dealing with some private and unique situations that cannot always be “played out” again. The main problem is the irreversibility of certain phenomena of social life. A journalist has to deal with human emotions, sometimes complex and even conflictual interpersonal relationships. Secondly, the quality of primary information can also be affected by people’s subjective assessments, their value orientations, established ideas, stereotypes and interests. “People’s reaction to the presence of an observer is not always clear. But in most cases, people react negatively to the presence of strangers (especially journalists) who are closely watching them. People may change their behavior if they feel they are being watched." 1

That is why the information and impressions received by a journalist are in dire need of mandatory double-checking in order to once again be convinced not so much of their reliability as of their objectivity. Sociologist V. A. Yadov suggests the following rules that should be followed to increase the degree of validity and stability of data:

Classify as detailed as possible the elements of events to be monitored, using clear indicators;

If the main observation is carried out by several persons, they compare their impressions and agree on assessments and interpretation of events, using a single recording technique, thereby increasing the stability of observation data;

The same object should be observed in different situations (normal and stressful, standard and conflict), which allows you to see it from different sides;

It is necessary to clearly distinguish and record the content, forms of manifestation of observed events and their quantitative characteristics (intensity, regularity, periodicity, frequency);

It is important to ensure that the description of events is not confused with their interpretation, therefore the protocol should have special columns for recording factual data and for their interpretation;

When participant or non-participant observation is carried out by one of the researchers, it is especially important to monitor the validity of the interpretation of the data, seeking to cross-check one's impressions with the help of various possible interpretations 1 .

So, based on these features of observation, we can say that as an independent method, observation is best used in studies that do not require representative data, as well as in cases where information cannot be obtained by any other methods.

1.2 Experiment

In its general meaning, an experiment is a set of actions performed to test the truth or falsity of a hypothesis or the scientific study of cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena. The researcher tries to change external conditions so as to influence the object being studied. In this case, an external influence on an object is considered a cause, and a change in the state or behavior of an object is considered a consequence.

Translated from Latin, the word “experiment” means “test” or “experience”. In general, an experiment is a complex method that combines various methods of collecting material. 1 With its help, the reaction of the object being studied to the experimental factor is established, under the influence of which this or that activity of the object being studied is manifested. The experiment is divided into the following stages:

Collection of information.

Observation of a phenomenon.

1. Developing a hypothesis to explain a phenomenon.

   Developing a theory that explains a phenomenon based on assumptions more broadly. 2

The experimental factor can be introduced from the outside, or it can be contained in objects and become such under the control and control of the experimenter. The experiment itself can take place both in a natural environment and in an artificial one. The latter is called a “laboratory experiment”, and helps to achieve greater accuracy, controllability and preservation of its conditions. The regularity of the manifestation of certain events can be identified by comparing facts and systematizing them.

A journalistic experiment, the object of which is various human relationships, is characterized, as in other social sciences, by the abundance and complexity of factors that influence the state of the object. A journalistic experiment does not deal with an action that has already been committed and can be carried out for any reason. It often carries a certain intrigue. It arises because not all participants in the experiment know that they are participating in it.

The experimental method in journalism is often identified with the participant observation method, and there are reasons for this:

As in participant observation, the experimental journalist maintains a direct relationship with the object of study.

An experiment, like an observation, can be carried out secretly.

The experiment refers to visual means of studying social reality.

However, despite the fact that the main features are common, the experiment has its own special features and characteristics. “An experiment is understood as a research method based on controlling the behavior of an object with the help of a number of factors influencing it, control over the action of which is in the hands of the researcher” 1. I would also like to point out that experiment is an “active” method of studying reality. That is, if observation allows you to answer the questions “How?”, “When?” and “How?”, the experiment answers one question “Why?”.

In an experiment, an object is a means to create an artificial situation. This is done so that the journalist can test his hypotheses in practice, “play out” certain everyday circumstances that would allow him to better understand the object being studied. In addition, any experiment involves not only the cognitive interest of the journalist-researcher, but also the managerial one. If in participant observation the correspondent is more of a recorder of events, then by participating in the experiment he has the right to intervene in the situation, influencing its participants, managing them and making some decisions.

According to V.P. Talovov, “The influence on the observed objects during his /experiment/ is not only permissible, but is precisely what is assumed. Correspondents who resort to experimentation do not wait for people, certain officials, or entire services to reveal themselves spontaneously, i.e. arbitrary, natural way. This disclosure is deliberately caused, purposefully “organized” by themselves... An experiment is an observation accompanied by the intervention of an observer in the processes and phenomena being studied; under certain conditions, an artificial challenge, a conscious “provocation” of these latter” 1 .

Thus, the experiment is associated with the creation of an artificial impulse designed to reveal certain aspects of the object being studied. A journalist has the opportunity to conduct an experiment on himself, infiltrating the social group he needs, that is, becoming something like a “figurehead.” At the same time, he not only influences the situation, but also strives to attract all those interested in him to the experiment.

Experiments can vary in degree of complexity. Often the journalist limits himself to the simplest task and accordingly applies a rudimentary form of experiment. However, when a journalist sets himself a much more complex task, then it is quite problematic to carry out an appropriate experimental verification of the initial assumption at the required level, therefore, when planning and conducting an experiment, it is necessary to take into account the following points:

Determine its goals and objectives even before the start of the experiment (study the situation well, collect preliminary information about potential participants, study available documents and other sources, and also outline the subject of study, what will be of particular interest in the object of research).

Determine the location of action (whether the experiment will be carried out in natural or laboratory conditions).

Prepare both yourself (the journalist) and other participants in the operation.

After the journalist has determined the conditions under which the action will take place, he should form working hypotheses and select an indicator of the impact on the experimental situation. And only after this it is decided what methods to record and control the research process. In the structure of the experimental situation, L. V. Kashinskaya identifies the following elements:

initial state of the object influencing factor final state of the object

“The journalist’s initial state of the object is usually recorded, that is, there is certain starting information. But this same information also contains those motivating motives that necessitate the creation of an experimental situation:

Insufficient information necessary for the journalist to verify or clarify his hypothesis.

It is impossible to obtain such information using conventional methods.

The need to obtain psychologically reliable arguments" 1.

I would also like to draw attention to the fact that conducting an experiment requires special qualifications and mastery of special tools, and this is often only possible with the participation of an experienced consultant.

When the description of the course of the experiment becomes the main content of the publication, the experimental method can act as the dominant genre-forming feature. Therefore, classifying the publication as an experiment, it should be emphasized that it is about an artificial, subject-practical situation specially organized by the journalist himself 2 .

Recently, experimentation has been increasingly used in journalism, especially electronic journalism. The method of recreating an artificial situation into which unsuspecting people find themselves can be found in various television programs (for example, “Town” and “Prank”). These experiments are carried out in order to identify any behavioral reactions of people to unusual situations. Publications in the experimental genre are advantageous for a journalist in that they usually allow the creation of texts that have dynamic features and a “living” visual presentation of the material. They allow you to combine the principles of analytics and reporting. In other words, the author of the experiment not only analyzes some phenomenon, but also uses the detailed description of the created situation inherent in the report. But still, it is advisable to carry out an experiment in journalistic practice only in individual cases, when the task is to gain a deeper insight into life. In this case, it is necessary to control all stages of preparation for it as carefully as possible.

Chapter 2. Analysis of publications

So, to more clearly identify the differences between the observational method and the experiment, we will compare two publications: “How much does politeness cost? Or wrap me a kilogram of peaches in separate bags” (see Appendix 1), published on the website http://www.myjulia.ru and “Komi Voyagers”, published under the heading “Trends” in No. 43 (073) of the Russian magazine reporter" (see Appendix 2).

Speaking about the first publication, we can confidently note that it falls within the definition of an experiment. Firstly, the author deliberately inserts himself into a social group, acts as a “dummy figure,” namely, he appears in the image of an ordinary consumer. Secondly, the journalist himself determines the factor of influence on the object of research (sellers), deliberately provoking them, for example, offering to hang exactly 143 grams of kvass or one candy of each type. And the characters of trade workers are revealed in the most natural way: “Is that right for you? Maybe I can cut it smaller?” or “Girl, what are you doing? No! Nooo!!! My work will be like this. I won't weigh it. This all needs to be calculated on a calculator. No. Don't want".

The author clearly defined the purpose of his research - to show the attitude of sellers towards an ordinary buyer and understand the reasons for such an attitude. His task is to penetrate deeply into a seemingly ordinary situation (holiday shopping). Naturally, at the end of the study, the conclusion follows: “They were ready to cut, hang, wrap and do whatever they wanted with the products I bought, which was within the power of the sellers. Only those in whom laziness prevailed over other human qualities were refused. And I also realized that you shouldn’t be afraid to ask the seller to help you.”

The genre of this publication can be defined as a journalistic experiment, because the subject-practical situation here was created artificially and specially organized by the journalist himself, who most likely could not use any other methods and needed reliable psychological arguments. Thus, the creation of an experimental situation is fully motivated.

Now let’s look at the second publication called “Komi Voyagers”. Here the author shows us one of the most pressing problems of Russia and, especially of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug - the problem of transport communications. The journalist did not have enough indirect information to fully cover this problem, so he goes on a journey with truck drivers-“stalkers” along “the worst road in Russia.”

So we see the observation method in action. In our opinion, it serves as the main method here. The publication itself is written in the reporting genre (as mentioned earlier, observation is one of the key methods in the work of a reporter). A journalist pays a lot of attention to describing the characters of the people he encounters. He accurately notes the peculiarities of everyone’s speech, gives examples of “stalker jargon”: “nyasha”, “serpentine”, “washboard”, etc.

The author's speech as a whole is of a narrative and descriptive nature. Details of the road, such as an overturned truck and its drunken driver, pulling out a truck stuck in the mud, as well as an abundance of dialogues make the reader involved in this trip; the dynamics of the event are very well traced.

The journalist conveys to us only a subjective vision of the situation, and not even his own, but the heroes of the story. Whether they can be trusted or not, the reader does not know.

The nature of the observation is open (truck drivers most likely know that there is a journalist among them), structured (the journalist records events according to a clearly defined plan), carried out in the field and participatory (the author does not observe the situation from the outside, but he himself, together with the truck drivers, commits A 70-kilometer off-road raid, that is, his task is to experience all the difficulties for himself, and also shows the reader situations characteristic of the environment in which he is embedded: mutual assistance between drivers, the struggle for a place on the ferry).

Summarizing the analysis of publications, we can immediately identify the main difference between observation and experiment. In the first case, the journalist himself creates the situation in which he works, and his task is to confirm the hypothesis and the corresponding conclusion. In the case of observation, the situation is different - the author is involved in a natural event, which he cannot control in any way. The main goal here is to cover an event or issue, as well as accurately and accessiblely convey informative details to the reader.

Conclusion

So, having analyzed the scientific works of many authors and thoroughly compared two recent publications in the media, we can say with confidence that the observation method and the experiment, despite their external similarity, have a number of quite significant differences, namely:

during observation, the journalist deals with events that often cannot be repeated or replayed; in an experiment, the journalist himself creates the situation that he needs to investigate;

the purpose of the experiment is to test the hypothesis posed by the journalist at the beginning of the study, and the purpose of observation is to describe and accurately convey the details of the situation under study;

during observation, a journalist cannot interfere with the course of research, being only a recorder of an event or phenomenon, but during an experiment, on the contrary, he uses a set of tools that provoke the object of study to certain actions, thus managing it and making decisions;

the result of an observation may be based on the journalist’s subjective view of the event and require additional verification, while the result of the experiment is actually objective and is a confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis proposed by the journalist;

works written using the observation method are informative and descriptive in nature, in contrast to works written using an experiment, which are representatives of analytical genres.

Summing up the research, it is still worth noting that both methods are important tools in the arsenal of a professional journalist, as well as the main ways of researching and understanding the reality around us. Their use in publications brings a sense of involvement, empathy for the situations described in them, and from some of them the reader can derive specific practical benefits for himself. But we must not forget that they require special training and the presence of a fixed, if not strict, plan of action. It is also necessary to be careful when working in the field of human relations, because one of the fundamental principles of a journalist’s work is “do no harm.”

Bibliography

Kashinskaya L.V. Experiment as a method of journalistic activity // Vestn. Moscow un-ta. Ser. 10. Journalism, 1986. No. 6.

Kim M.N . Technology for creating a journalistic work. St. Petersburg, 2001.

Lazutina G.V. Technology and methodology of journalistic creativity. M., 1988.

Melnik G.S., Kim M.N. Journalism methods. St. Petersburg: Publishing house of Mikhailov V.A., 2006.

Nikitin N. Option of work - unspoken // Journalist. 1997. No. 2.

Smirnov V.A. Levels and stages of the process of cognition//Problems of the logic of scientific knowledge. M., 1964.

Talovov V.P. The work of a journalist: Methods and techniques of journalistic communication. L., 1983.

Tertychny A.A. Genres of periodicals. M.: Aspect Press, 2000.

Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. Samara, 1995.

Applications

1 Melnik G.S., Kim M.N. Journalism methods. St. Petersburg: Publishing house of Mikhailov V.A., 2006.

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Scientific knowledge as a way of reflecting reality invariably involves the perception of the characteristics of natural phenomena and spheres of human activity. Broadly speaking, any method of empirical research contains elements of observation of objects in order to study their specificity and changes. Moreover, experiment, testing, oral or written survey, expert assessment, content analysis, etc. can well be considered as types of observations, differing in their conditions and the nature of the procedures performed. However, the scientific tradition has long been entrenched in the identification of a special observational method, relatively independent from all others, combining observation and introspection (introspection).

Of course, within the framework of a particular science, this method acquires its specific content.

However, it is certainly based on two principles:

Passivity of the subject of cognition, expressed in refusal to interfere in the processes being studied in order to preserve the naturalness of their flow;

Immediacy of perception, which implies limiting the possibility of obtaining data within the limits of a clearly presented situation of the present time (what is usually observed is what is happening “here and now”).

In psychology, observation is understood as a method of studying the mental characteristics of individuals based on recording manifestations of their behavior.

It is impossible to observe the internal, subjective essences of thinking, imagination, will, temperament, character, abilities, etc., taken by themselves, outside of specific external manifestations. The subject of observation is verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior that take place in a certain situation or environment. It is they, identified and registered properly, that become characteristics of intellectual and personal development, the dynamics of achievements, the severity of states and much more.

Thus, when studying people, a researcher can observe:

1) speech activity (content, sequence, duration, frequency, direction, intensity...);

2) expressive reactions (expressive movements of the face, body);

3) position of bodies in space (movement, immobility, distance, speed, direction of movement...);

4) physical contacts (touching, pushing, hitting, passing, joint efforts...).

In this case, a lot depends, naturally, on observation skills- the ability to notice significant, characteristic, including subtle, properties of objects and phenomena. Without developing this quality in oneself, it is impossible to effectively carry out research activities. However, the matter does not stop there.

If, for example, a very observant person looks around, without having specific goals for observation and without recording its results in any way, then he will only see many faces and witness various events. The information he collects cannot be considered as evidence or refutation of facts, patterns, or theories. Such a person saw and heard a lot, but did not conduct observations in the strict sense of the word.

Scientific observation is different from everyday life with the following properties:

Purposefulness; the observer must clearly understand what he is going to perceive and why, otherwise his activity will turn into the registration of individual bright and distinct secondary stimuli, and essential material will remain unaccounted for;

Systematicity, which will reliably distinguish the random from the typical, natural;

Planned, since following a plan or program helps to increase the efficiency of the study, determining how the observation will be carried out; when, where, under what conditions;

Analyticity, because it involves not only a statement of observed facts, but also their explanation, the identification of their psychological nature;

Registration of results, which eliminates memory errors, thereby reducing the subjectivity of conclusions and generalizations;

Operating with a system of unambiguous concepts, special terms that contribute to a clear and unambiguous designation of the observed material, as well as the uniformity of possible interpretations.

Because of this, scientific observation acquires fundamental repeatability of results. The data obtained by a researcher under certain conditions will most likely be confirmed by another researcher if he works under the same conditions and the object of observation has not changed. For the results of scientific observation, while maintaining a certain subjectivity, depend less on the personality of the perceiver than the results of everyday observation.

As a method of psychological research, observation has its strengths and weaknesses. Let's look at their approximate list:

Psychological research is not complete without using the observation method at any stage, but it is extremely rare that the matter is limited to using only this method, without including others. The study of complex mental phenomena requires the researcher, as a rule, to consistently apply a whole complex of empirical methods of cognition.

So far we have been talking about the general characteristics of psychological observation. However, this method has many varieties, distinguished for one reason or another. Let's move on to the question of classification of observations.

Depending on the degree of involvement of the researcher in the environment being studied, two types of observations are distinguished:

Included when there is personal participation of the observer in the activity perceived and recorded by him. At the same time, other people usually consider him a participant in the event, and not an observer;

Third-party, when an event occurs without the direct participation of an observer acting as if “from the outside.”

It should be noted that in most cases, people's behavior changes dramatically if they notice that they have become the object of research. This violates the requirement to preserve the naturalness of the conditions of the activity being studied. But in practice, for ethical or other reasons, it is not always possible to study their mental characteristics unnoticed by the subjects.

Therefore, according to the nature of interactions with an object, there are the following types of observations:

Hidden, in which people do not know that they are being observed. (In this case, the psychologist is either “disguised” as an ordinary participant in events, that is, his behavior for others is quite consistent with what is expected in a given situation, does not arouse suspicion, or he observes them indirectly, “from the outside,” using, say, Gesell’s mirror or a hidden video camera);

Open, in which people are aware of the observation being made. Usually, after some time, they get used to the presence of a psychologist and begin to behave more naturally, unless, of course, the observer provokes close attention to themselves.

External, behind the behavior of other people;

Introspection (from the Latin “I look inside”, “I peer”), that is, introspection. The results of the latter in modern psychology are not taken for granted, but are taken into account as facts that require objective scientific interpretation.

Regarding the research time observation is distinguished:

One-time, single, produced only once;

Periodic, carried out over certain periods of time;

Longitudinal (from the English “longitude”), characterized by a special extent, constancy of contact between the researcher and the object for a long time.

By the nature of perception observation could be:

Continuous, when the researcher turns his attention equally to all objects available to him;

Selective, when he is interested only in certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral reactions (say, such as the frequency of manifestations of aggression, the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, the characteristics of speech contacts between children and teachers, etc.).

By the nature of data recording observation is divided into:

Ascertaining, where the researcher’s task is to clearly record the presence and characteristics of significant forms of behavior and collect facts;

Evaluative, where the researcher compares facts according to the degree of their expression in a certain range. In doing so, he uses a rating scale, which will be discussed later.

And finally, according to the degree of standardization of procedures, they are distinguished:

Free or exploratory observation, which, although associated with a specific goal, is devoid of clear restrictions in the choice of what to pay attention to, what points to record, etc. It is permissible to change the subject of research and rules if the need arises . Observation of this kind is usually used in the early stages of scientific work;

Structured or standardized, when events occurring are recorded without the slightest deviation from a pre-developed program. At the same time, the rules of observation are clearly defined, the entire content of research activities is prescribed, and uniform methods of recording and analyzing data are introduced. Such observation is usually used where the researcher is required to highlight already known and expected characteristics of reality, and not to look for new ones. This, of course, narrows the field of observation to some extent, but increases the comparability of the results obtained.

These are the main types of observation. As a training exercise, we will try, as far as possible, to characterize the examples of research given below according to all the classification bases we have considered.

So, what kind of observation are we talking about exactly?

EXAMPLE 1. In the 60s, Jane Goodall studied the life of wild chimpanzees. During the research, the observer usually sat quietly in the thickets until the objects, having become accustomed to him, ceased to pay attention to the strange viewer and returned to their normal course of action. At the same time, in several cases, episodes were captured on film indicating that chimpanzees use and even make tools. In particular, having cleared the twig of leaves, they slowly lowered the “fishing rod” inside the termite mound. Insects that clung to a foreign object were pulled up and eaten by cunning catchers... (According to Jan Lindblad).

EXAMPLE 2. If an outside observer simply characterizes a teenager from the “Skillful Hands” circle as “inclined to cooperate,” then the psychologist “working” on a nearby machine records that this teenager, during one lesson, lent his tool to other members of the circle five times, eight times provided assistance and asked for help himself twice. In addition, the behavior of the observed is compared with quantitatively expressed similar characteristics of the behavior of the people around him. (According to K. Ingenkamp).

EXAMPLE 3. In a famous study by Kurt Lewin, subjects spent 10-15 minutes in an empty room, expecting that they were about to be approached, and were unaware of the observation being carried out. Each of them, finding himself in such a situation, began to examine the surrounding things; his actions were determined by what he saw. Things seemed to attract to themselves, causing behavior that K. Levin called field behavior. (According to I. Yu. Kulagina).

Let us now move on to a description of the stages of scientific observation. Traditionally, the following stages are distinguished:

1. Determining the purpose of observation (why, why is it being carried out?);

2. Selection of the object of research (what individual or what kind of group is to be studied?);

3. Clarification of the subject of research (which aspects of behavior reveal the content of the mental phenomena being studied?);

4. Planning observation situations (in what cases or under what conditions does the subject of research reveal itself most clearly?);

5. Selection of an observation method that has the least impact on the object and ensures the collection of the necessary information to the greatest extent (how to observe?);

6. Establishing the duration of the total research time and the number of observations (how many to observe?);

7. Selecting methods for recording the research material (how to keep records?);

8. Forecasting possible observation errors and searching for ways to prevent them;

9. Carrying out a preliminary, trial observation session necessary to clarify the actions of the previous stages and identify organizational shortcomings;

10. Correction of the monitoring program;

11. Observation stage;

12. Processing and interpretation of received information.

We should dwell in more detail on the question of methods for recording the observed material.

Let's start with the fact that the process of effective observation is impossible without artificially isolating certain units of object activity from the general course of events. This refers to the designation of what he is doing at the moment, how he is doing it. Such units of activity are expressed using ordinary words or scientific terminology. They are recorded in the observation protocol.

Typically, there are three types of procedures for recording results. Namely:

1) use of attribute (sign) systems. At the same time, in advance, during the preparation of observation forms, specific types of behavior characteristic of this area are described. In the future, they record which of them appeared and how often during the observation period. Each sign must be formulated unambiguously for understanding by different people and not require additional explanation.

For example, what signs of student interest in the content of the lesson can you name? What are the signs that they are not interested in the material they are learning?

Of course, among the designations you named there should not be words like “attentive”, “interested”, “understanding”, etc., which need to be specified in meaning. And such signs as “animated gestures”, “chewing a pencil”, etc. indicate both the intensity of interest and the complete absence of the latter.

It is obvious that the proposed system of features is not exhaustive. During the observation, some significant characteristic may well emerge that we had previously missed. With this method of recording results, the set of characteristics is considered open. If necessary, it is allowed to make certain additions to it after the start of observation.

2) application category systems. Such a system contains a complete description of all types of possible behavior. You cannot add anything new to it during the observation process.

The fact is that the set of categories is compiled on a certain scientific basis. It is assumed that it covers all theoretically possible manifestations of the process being studied.

Bales, through free observation of the work of groups, identified more than eighty signs of interpersonal communication, which, when systematized, were combined into 12 categories, and the latter into four classes. This is what they look like (according to T.V. Kornilova):

Class A. Positive emotions:

1. Expresses solidarity, increases the status of another, rewards;

2. Expresses relaxation of tension, jokes, laughs, expresses satisfaction;

3. Agrees, expresses passive acceptance, gives in;

Class B. Problem solving:

4. Gives advice, direction, implying the autonomy of the other;

5. Expresses an opinion, evaluates, analyzes, expresses feelings, desires;

6. Gives orientation, information, clarifies, confirms;

Class C. Statement of problems:

9. Asks for advice, direction, possible course of action;

Class D. Negative emotions:

10. Objects, gives passive rejection, is formal, refuses help;

11. Expresses tension, asks for help, gives in to a problem;

12. Expresses antagonism, undermines the status of another, defends or asserts oneself.

Lowercase Latin letters here indicate connections between categories. More precisely, a - problems of orientation, b - problems of assessment, c - problems of control, d - problems of finding a solution, e - problems of overcoming tension, f - problems of integration. The identification of these connections is based on the corresponding concept of the stages of group work when solving problems.

Working with R. Bales' system of categories, the observer has the opportunity to record the formal (but not substantive) side of the group discussion. To do this, he, having learned a list of categories, correlates them with the remarks of the participants in the communication.

What is observed can be recorded as follows:

Who's speaking? (message source);

Who is he addressing? (destination);

When analyzing a recording, the category number indicates both the type of statement, its emotional coloring, and the stage of problem solving. The frequency of speech acts also reflects the peculiarities of the discussion, in particular, in the form of percentages of different types of acts at different stages of the discussion.

It is believed that the described system of categories is mainly adapted for observing discussions on a given topic in student groups. It is actively used to this day despite a number of significant criticisms (the formality of the analysis, the arbitrariness of identifying the number and content of categories, etc.).

3) Rating scale, (from the English “assessment”, “order”, “classification”). With this method of recording results, the researcher’s attention is drawn not to the presence of this or that characteristic, but to the quantitative or qualitative degree of its presence and representation. In this case, the work is carried out according to a pre-prepared ordinal scale.

For example: What interest does the student show during class?

Weak average strong

The specificity of the rating scale is that it is usually filled out either at the last stage of observation or at its end. Of all the data recording methods, this is the most subjective. The researcher acts here not so much as an observer, but as an expert, comparing behavioral signs with “standard” samples known only to him. Therefore, the rating scale is often used not independently of other registration methods, but along with them. Then filling it out on the basis of a system of signs or a system of categories becomes the beginning of procedures for interpreting the observation results.

Let's study the typical mistakes of researchers using observation. Here are the most common ones:

In an effort to confirm his hypothesis, the researcher sometimes unconsciously ignores everything that may contradict it;

Mixing the main and the secondary, the random and the natural in the process of observation;

Premature generalizations and conclusions;

The assessment of one mental phenomenon is made on the basis of a sign of behavior related to another phenomenon (for example, many are inclined to draw conclusions about intelligence based on fluency of speech);

Focusing the observer's attention on the opposite character traits or forms of behavior of the observed;

The determining influence on the results of observation is the first impression about a person or group:

Failure to take into account possible motives for actions, observed well-being, and significant changes in the conditions of the situation.

These are the “traps” of psychological observation. To increase its reliability, it is necessary to strictly follow the facts, record specific actions and resist the temptation to superficially interpret complex processes.

IN for objectification purposes Observation procedures in psychology involve collective study of an object by researchers working independently of each other, technical means of recording and processing data are used, observation programs are developed in detail, and repeated repeated observations of the same objects are practiced.

BASIC CONCEPTS: observation; observation; types of observations: included, third-party, hidden, external, introspection, longitudinal, continuous, selective, ascertaining, evaluating, free, structured; feature (sign) system; category system; rating scale.

Issues for discussion:

1. What are the main features of the observation method?

2. What types of observations are there?

3. How is observation carried out? What stages can be identified in this?

4. How are its results recorded?

Exercise 1:

By observing a school class or student group, compare engagement rates during any two instructional sessions. To record the results, use a feature system.

Exercise 2:

Create the most complete program of standardized observation based on the hypothesis you formulated yourself. Explain how such observation can be carried out in practice.

Exercise 3:

Using R. Bales' category system, observe the progress of a discussion in a school class or student group. To do this, organize a research situation in collaboration with one of the teachers. Compare the content of the observation programs and the results you obtained with similar characteristics of the work of other observers from among your colleagues.

From the very beginning of civilization, people learned reality. Many methods have been developed over time for this purpose, among which observation and experiment occupy a prominent place.

How are they different, how to use them and what are they used for?

Observation

Only observation provided primary data about the object or subject being studied. These were facts that were collected by observers at different times. The observation could be spontaneous, or it could be purposeful.

There were no hypotheses, no scientific assumptions that needed to be confirmed. Observation is used only to collect information, which is sometimes collected bit by bit. Facts are always distinguished by their reliability and simplicity of presentation.

This creates initial characteristics of the item, describes its reactions to interaction with the environment in natural conditions.

Experiment

This method is used when it is necessary to prove or disprove any hypothesis. It is divided into theoretical and practical parts. During the experiment, the subject, object, subject under study is removed from its usual habitat and is subjected to various influences.

Conditions may change, but they are always manageable. The object's reactions are seriously studied and recorded.

• relevance of your topic;
• research problem;
• object of study;
• target;
• tasks;
• implementation of results;
• hypothesis;
• significance.

An experiment is always divided into several stages. Conducted in the form of a scientific project.

Preparing for the experiment

Since this is a large and lengthy scientific event, it is advisable to conduct preparatory stage, which includes:

1. Organization and implementation of the project.
2. Identifying the algorithm for organizing and implementing the project, following it (drawing out a “passport”, which includes the name of the experiment, information about the leader, researchers, research topic, methods, hypothesis, deadlines).
3. Description of conclusions.

Start

Work begins from research of scientific works on the chosen topic. Diagnostics and scientific reconnaissance are being carried out, which will help determine how covered this topic is at the current time.

Works that mention the selected object of study are identified. The scope of disclosure of the chosen topic is examined, to what extent it is covered in science and literature.

Theory

Before the experiment the topic, hypothesis, confirmation and refutation are recorded hypotheses by other scientific researchers. Concepts are described, definitions are given, assumptions are made.

The theoretical part is very important, as it is a necessary basis. When the topic is covered in theory, the hypothesis is made, experiments begin.

Experience

This practical component experiment. A series of experiments is carried out, representing a purposeful action. When the experiment is implemented, the hypothesis is confirmed or refuted. Sometimes special equipment is required.

Experiments represent the creation of certain, controlled conditions for the test object, the study of its reactions.

Experience is designed to confirm the hypothesis in practice, and experiment consolidates it.

Differences between observation and experiment

Observation is a method of cognition when an object is examined in natural conditions, without affecting it. An experiment is a method of cognition when the subject being tested is immersed in a specially created environment where its reactions are controlled. This makes it possible to confirm or refute a scientific hypothesis.

Observation may be a component experiment, part of it, especially at the initial stage. But the experiment will never be part of the observation, since its area of ​​influence is much wider.

In addition, observation does not require conclusions, it just states facts. Upon completion of the experiment, conclusions are necessarily formulated, which are based on the results of the experiments.

Differences between observation and experiment are quite significant:

• When interacting with the environment, the observer avoids interference, the experimenter actively interacts with it and modifies it.
• The conditions for conducting observations are always natural, but during experiments they are artificially created.
• Special equipment is necessary for experiments, but is not necessary for the observer.
• Differences in purpose. Observation produces new information, experiments confirm or refute a hypothesis put forward speculatively.
• The environment during observations is always open, natural, and when conducting experiments it is closed, artificial.

Experiment came much later than observation.