Grammatical and conceptual categories and their relationships are examples. Grammatical categories and ways of expressing them in modern Russian language

Literary language is a system in which the sound, lexical and grammatical structure are closely interconnected.

The sound structure of a language is formed by sounds and their generalized types, which serve to distinguish between sound types of word forms (phonemes), as well as accent devices (stress) and intonation.

The lexical structure of a language is formed by words and stable idiomatic expressions (phraseologisms), grouped on the basis of their lexical meanings into multi-stage interconnected sets and subsets.

The grammatical structure of a language is formed by abstract units (forms, constructions), grouped into interconnected classes and subclasses and reflecting the laws and rules of the formation and modification of words, combining words into phrases and constructing sentences.

The sound side of language is its matter; without it there are no words, no phrases, no sentences. However, the sound of a language (either individual, pronounced by the speaker, or presented as a generalization, i.e., as a phoneme) in itself is devoid of meaning: it is a one-sided unit that has material expression, but is devoid of content. All other units of language - words (and their components - morphemes), phrases, sentences - have both material expression and internal meaning - meaning.

The grammatical side of a language is presented in its grammatical categories, grammatical forms, grammatical meanings (see § 3, § 4). All these data are presented in separate grammatical units, which are appropriately designed.

The grammatical structure of the language

The grammatical structure of the language includes:

laws and rules for the formation of words;
laws and rules for changing words;
laws and rules for combining words, forming elementary syntactic units - phrases - on the basis of these connections;
laws and rules for constructing sentences;
laws and rules for combining sentences into more complex grammatical organizations.

Accordingly, separate areas are distinguished in grammar: word formation, morphology and syntax. TO word formation include all phenomena of the internal structure of a word, its division into significant parts - word-forming morphemes, all the rules for the formation of words. TO morphologies include, firstly, all the phenomena of inflection (the paradigm of words) and, secondly, the entire sphere of abstract meanings of words, i.e. meanings that stand above their lexical and word-formation meanings and are derived from their formal organization. TO syntax include all phenomena of combinability of words, construction of sentences and statements, their combination into complex sentences and elementary non-union constructions. At all these levels, the units belonging to them represent certain organizations, characterized in terms of their external and internal (semantic) structure, their changes and the possibilities of their functioning and use in speech.

Thus, the grammar of a language is its formal structure, opposed to the sound (phonetic) and verbal (lexical) structure, which is represented by such basic units of language as the word and sentence, appearing in their abstract formalized meanings.

Word is one of the basic grammatical units. It combines its sound matter, lexical meaning and formal grammatical characteristics. The grammatical properties of a word include its meaning as a part of speech (i.e., as a unit belonging to a certain lexical-grammatical class of words), word-formation structure, the ability for formal changes and all its abstract meanings, subordinate to the general meaning of the class (part of speech); for a name these are, for example, meanings such as gender, number, case, for a verb - aspect, voice, tense, mood, person. In addition to the named properties, the word has its own active potential, manifested, on the one hand, in the possibilities of its syntactic and lexical-semantic compatibility, its participation in the construction of sentences and statements, on the other hand, in its active relationship to different types of contextual environments. Thus, the word is a unit that, in its different aspects, simultaneously belongs to all levels of the grammatical system - word formation, morphology, and syntax.

Offer as a subject of grammar, it is a communicating unit, built according to a certain syntactic pattern, existing in the language in its various forms and modifications, functionally (for one or another communicative purpose) loaded and intonationally designed. A sentence as a grammatical unit belongs to predicativity (the most abstracted grammatical meaning inherent in any sentence), categories of semantic structure and components of actual division - theme and rheme (see). A sentence, like a word, enters into syntactic relationships with other grammatical units - sentences and their analogues; This is how different types of complex sentences and non-union combinations of sentences are formed.

Grammatical unit and grammatical form

grammatical unit- this is any grammatically formed separate linguistic formation: a morpheme, a word, a phrase, a simple or complex sentence, - presented either in the totality of its forms, or in one of its forms. So, for example, the noun table is a grammatical unit that exists as a set of all its case forms, singular and plural; the verb to go is a grammatical unit that exists as a set of all its conjugated forms, as well as the infinitive, participle and gerund. At the same time, a separate form of the noun ( table, table, tables etc.) or verb ( I'm going, going, walking etc.) is also a separate grammatical unit. In both cases, grammatical formation takes place, but in the first case the word appears as a system of forms, and in the second - as a separate word form (see § 10).

Grammatical units are grouped into classes. In accordance with the dual nature of grammatical units, the nature of their classes is also dual: they are either parts of speech, i.e. classes that unite words as collections of forms, or classes of forms that unite certain word forms (for example, the infinitive class, the genitive class, the comparative degree class, etc.). The nature of a sentence as a grammatical unit is also dual: it is either a sentence in the entire system of its changes (in this case it represents a certain class, type of sentences, for example, verbal subject-predicate sentences, one-component sentences), or a separate sentence ( in this case, it is included in a certain class of sentence forms, for example, a sentence in the form of the syntactic present tense, in the form of the imperative mood).

Grammatical form- is a linguistic sign that combines the material side and abstract meaning and is a generalization of materially and semantically similar units. The internal, semantic side of such a sign is its grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning is inseparable from its material expression: these two sides of a linguistic sign do not exist without each other. The relationship between them is complex: behind the external side of a sign there can be several meanings and, on the other hand, the same meaning can have different material expressions. So, for example, in the form of a noun father contains the meanings of objectivity, masculine gender, singular number, nominative case, animation, common noun and concreteness (the last two meanings are lexico-grammatical); in the shape of walked contains the meanings of process (action), imperfect form, active voice, indicative mood, past tense, singular, masculine; in the form of a proposal The train is coming contains the meanings of the relationship: between the subject and its predicative attribute (action), predicativeness (i.e., relation to time and, in this case, to the reality of what is being communicated), present time, non-actualization of what is being communicated (cf. with actualization: The train is coming!). Thus, in all these cases, several grammatical meanings are contained in one form. At the same time, the same grammatical meaning can belong to several different forms. So, for example, the meaning of multiplicity, non-singularity of objects is contained in the forms teachers, leaves, on the one hand, and teaching, foliage, on the other (in the latter case - with the word-formatively expressed meaning of an undivided set); The meaning of diminutive and endearing is contained in words with different morphemes: son, son, son; daughter, daughter, daughter, daughter; the meaning of the syntactic present tense is contained in the sentences: Night And It's worth the night, It's dawning And Dawn is coming.

From the above it is clear that the term “grammatical form” has both broad and narrow content. In a broad sense, form is any linguistic sign that expresses grammatical meaning. In a narrow sense, form is understood as one of the regular modifications of a grammatical unit as a representative of a certain class. These are, for example, the forms of words of a particular part of speech, constituting their paradigms, or the forms of a simple sentence, constituting the paradigm of a sentence.

In relation to forms in the narrow sense of the word, we can talk about their variability. By variants of the same form we mean such materially different types of it, which either differ in shades of meaning - for example, the form genus. p.un. including words like tea: tea And tea(see § 174) or forms of the syntactic optional mood like If there was no war! And If only there was no war! (see § 537) - or semantically duplicate each other, i.e. can be freely interchanged, for example: in the workshop And in the workshop, tractors And tractors, cottage cheese And cottage cheese; If he came I would be glad - If he came, I would be glad - If he came, I would be glad.

Grammatical meaning is heterogeneous in nature: contained in the same material shell, it can be more abstract or less abstract. Yes, in shape walked (sang, read, walked and so on.) the most abstract is the meaning of the process: it is inherent in all verbs and all its forms; it is followed by the meaning of the past tense: it is inherent in all verbs in the past tense form; the meaning of the masculine gender is even narrower and more specific in the verb: it is inherent only in the form combined with He and opposing the forms of feminine and neuter gender. Each grammatical unit has a grammatical form with its own grammatical meaning. The class of grammatical units groups together forms with common grammatical meanings. In our example, the classes are distinguished accordingly: verbs; verbs in the past tense form; verbs in the masculine past tense form.

Classes of grammatical forms with their grammatical meanings form grammatical categories.

Grammatical category

Grammatical category- is a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. Grammatical categories in their complex relationships with each other constitute the core of the grammatical structure of a language.

Morphological grammatical categories appear as categories belonging to the most general grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals, pronouns. Syntactic grammatical categories are, for example, the category of predicativity, the category of sentence members (main and spreading), categories of the semantic structure of the sentence (see § 425 “Basic concepts of syntax”).

Each grammatical category is a complex organization consisting of rows of forms opposed to each other. So, for example, within the category of gender of nouns, masculine, feminine and neuter forms are distinguished; within the category of predicativity - forms of syntactic moods, and within the real syntactic mood - forms of syntactic tenses; within the category of semantic subject - the category of subject of action and subject of state.

The contrast of a series of forms within grammatical categories is carried out on the basis of the presence or absence of one of the formally expressed meanings in the contrasted forms. Thus, the masculine and feminine genders of nouns are together opposed to the neuter gender on the basis of the latter’s inability to designate male or female individuals and the presence of such ability in the first two; the subject is opposed to the predicate-verb on the basis of the absence of a temporal meaning in the first and the presence of this meaning in the second member of the opposition.

Grammatical categories are in close interaction with each other and tend to interpenetrate. For example, the verbal category of aspect is closely related to the category of tense; the category of number of a noun is closely related to the category of number of other parts of speech; the category of person connects verbs and pronouns; the category of case connects names with verbs through the so-called attributive form of the verb - the participle. Thus, the interaction of grammatical categories is observed both in the sphere of one part of speech and between different parts of speech.

Relations of grammatical units

The grammatical units of a language have certain relationships with each other. These relationships are twofold: firstly, these are the relationships of neighboring units, which are arranged in a sequentially unfolding row, in a chain, i.e. linear relationships; secondly, these are the relations of units that are closely related to each other within the boundaries of a given grammatical class and represent systemic modifications (modifications) of a single unit, i.e. nonlinear relationships. Linear relationships are called syntagmatic, nonlinear - paradigmatic. In a word, its significant parts enter into syntagmatic relationships - the root and affixes, the stem and the ending ( come-on, w-my-sya). Syntagmatic are the relationships between words and word forms as part of a phrase ( new book, road home, sing a song), in conjunctions of words ( father and mother reading and writing), between members of a sentence, between simple sentences as part of a complex sentence, in non-union compounds of sentences. With a syntagmatic connection between combining units, various relationships arise, but these are relationships between different units: between different parts of a word, between different words or word forms, between different sentences (the exception is all cases of repetitions, where forms of the same word enter into syntagmatic relationships) . Several units can enter into syntagmatic relationships: two or more. On the basis of these relationships, all motivated (derived) words and all types of syntactic connections are built - from a minimal combination of words to a complex sentence and detailed text sequences.

Paradigmatic relations are relations between different manifestations in the language of the same unit: between morpheme and morph (see § 16), between forms of the same word, between forms of the same sentence. In the paradigmatic relationships of word forms or syntactic constructions, different grammatical meanings of the same unit are revealed. So, for example, in the case paradigm of a noun, different meanings of its forms are revealed (abstract case meanings); in the conjugation of a verb in the present and future tense, its different personal and numerical meanings are revealed, in the past tense - different generic and numerical meanings, and in the paradigm of mood forms - different modal meanings (indicative, subjunctive, incentive); in the paradigm of a sentence its different objective-modal meanings are revealed (see § 434).

Both syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations belong to the language system and organize it.

Types of grammatical units

In the grammatical structure of a language, there are certain types (patterns) according to which certain grammatical units are constructed. This is especially clearly and directly revealed in the sphere of word formation: here word-formation types are distinguished (see § 30), according to which words of different parts of speech are constructed. Types vary according to productivity/unproductivity. This means that according to some types more and more new words are constructed, replenishing the lexical composition of the language, but according to other types such new words are not constructed: they are represented in the language only by already constructed, existing words (for example, the formation of verbal names of persons with suffixes - tel or - Nick productively, and with the suffix - ec- unproductive). In morphology, there is also productivity and unproductivity of grammatical patterns. For example, masculine declension like table, house productive, since it serves as a model for the declension of all newly appearing words of a similar structure; declination type path unproductive: new masculine words with a stem on the final soft consonant are not declined according to this pattern. In syntax, the so-called nominative sentences ( Night. Silence): This pattern is used to build countless sentences of different semantic structures.

The concept of unproductiveness of a grammatical pattern is not equal to the concept of irregular use of the corresponding formations: grammatical units constructed according to unproductive patterns may have regular and fairly frequent use in the language, and, on the contrary, units constructed according to a productive pattern may, for one reason or another, be used rarely, irregularly and belong to some narrow, special linguistic sphere.

Sound design of grammatical units

All grammatical units exist in a certain sound design: it is created by the sounds of the language (belonging to certain phonemes), accent devices (stress) and intonation.

Sound in itself is not a significant unit of language, but it participates in the formation of the material side of such units. In certain positions in a word and in combinations of words, a sound (or a combination of sounds) can react to the proximity of morphemes and words and, in turn, influence their material appearance. All relevant phenomena belong to the field of morphonology.

Accent is an important means in the formation of words and word forms: it belongs to the word and word form as one of its integral characteristics. In the system of word formation and inflection, there are accent patterns that determine the stress in words and word forms. Stress is involved in form formation, in some cases acting as the only means distinguishing different forms of one word: hands And hand, windows And windows; In many cases, different words are distinguished by stress: at home(adv.) and at home(nominal plural of the noun house).

Intonation is an accompanying means that formalizes every sentence and statement. There is a system of types of intonation patterns in the language, and each individual sentence is subject to intonation laws. Intonation is the most important means of expressing a communicative task: it is capable of clearly contrasting non-interrogative and interrogative sentences, expressing the meaning of incentive, desirability, and various types of assessments. Intonation, together with emphatic (intensifying) stress (and in many cases also together with word order) serves to express the actual division of the sentence, to contrast theme and rheme in it (see § 441).

Thus, the grammatical structure of a language is inseparable from its sound structure, interacts with its various means and uses these means in constructing its units and in realizing their meanings.

The relationship between grammatical structure and lexical structure

The grammatical structure of a language is closely related to its lexical structure. Their interaction is carried out in different directions.

The word as a unit of language is both a lexical and a grammatical unit. A word belongs to the lexical system as a unit included in lexical sets and subsets, having its own lexical meaning (or several meanings), connected by various semantic relationships with other lexical units and with the phraseological fund of the language. The word belongs to the grammatical system, firstly, as a unit of morphology, belonging to one or another grammatical class or subclass, possessing a grammatical form and grammatical meanings; secondly, as a unit of syntax that has its own constructive potential in the field of word compatibility and sentence structure.
The connection between grammar and vocabulary is carried out in the sphere of word formation, where grammatical laws for the combination of parts of a word and the distribution of morphemes operate, and as a result of the action of these laws, lexical units - words - are created. This dual nature of word formation makes it possible to attribute it to both the grammatical structure of the language and its lexical structure.
In motivated words, in many cases there are grammatical features of motivating words, for example, strong control is preserved (cf. read a book - reading a book, love ballet - ballet lover), there are traces of species meanings (cf. read - reading And read - reading, consider - consideration And consider - looking at).
All words in morphology are distributed into parts of speech, and these classes are grammatical; however, these are also lexical classes, since the most general, abstract meanings of parts of speech, such as objectivity, processivity, and attribute, are abstracted from the lexical meanings of words.
Within the parts of a word, lexico-grammatical categories of words are distinguished, in which their lexical characteristics are generalized, abstracted and which have certain grammatical features of their own. These are, for example, in the system of nouns, real nouns, lexically united by the meaning of an indivisible substance, and grammatically by their own characteristics in the sphere of meanings of singularity - plurality. In the verbal form system, special lexical and grammatical categories form modes of verbal action, which have their own word-formation, lexical and grammatical characteristics.

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So, we found out that grammar (as a branch of linguistics) includes morphology and syntax. The focus of grammar is on grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning- this is the generalized meaning inherent in words or syntactic constructions, realized in these units in relation to other words in the sentence. Remember the famous experimental phrase of L. V. Shcherba: “The glok kuzdra shteko budlaned the bokr and curled the bokrenka” - This includes words with artificial roots and real affixes, which are the expressers of grammatical meanings. Despite the ambiguity of the lexical meaning of words, their belonging to certain parts of speech is easily revealed, and the grammatical meanings inherent in the words of this sentence indicate that one action has already taken place in the past (budlanula), and another actually continues in the present (kurdyachit). Each grammatical meaning has a formal expression, for example, it can be expressed using:

1) word endings (he sang - she sang or cat - cats);
2) suffixes ( invent - invented - invented - invented);
3) alternation of sounds in the roots of words ( avoid - avoid, dial - dial);
4) reduplication, or repetition ( far, far away(very far));
5) movement of the accent (for example, at home - at home);
6) combinations of some words with linking verbs, particles, prepositions (I will teach, I would learn, let him learn, will they come to you);
7) word order (I saw my brother. I saw my brother. I saw my brother.);
8) intonation (He came? He came!).

A sign of a language in which a grammatical meaning is given a regular expression is called a grammatical form. Grammatical forms are grouped into grammatical categories. Academician Vinogradov believed that “it would be more appropriate instead of using the term form use the term external exponent of a grammatical category." The grammatical categories of each language can be likened to a kind of “questionnaires” necessary to describe objects in a given language: a speaker cannot correctly talk about any subject without answering the questions of such a “grammatical questionnaire”. The number of grammatical categories varies across languages; There are languages with a very developed system of such categories, while in other languages the set of grammatical categories is limited.

THIS IS INTERESTING

One of the books of the Soviet science fiction writer G. Gora describes a not at all fantastic conversation between a Russian mathematics teacher and his student Not, a representative of the northern Nivkh people living on Sakhalin. " The problems were easy, very simple, but Noth could not solve them. It was necessary to add six more to seven trees and subtract five from thirty buttons.

- What trees? - asked Noth, - long or short? And what kind of buttons: round?
- In mathematics, I answered, the quality or form of the object does not matter. <...>

Not understood me. And I didn’t understand it right away either. He explained to me that the Nivkhs have some numerals to designate long objects, others for short ones, and others for round objects.”

Grammatical category- This system grammatical forms with uniform meaning. The main grammatical categories include the categories type, voice, tense, mood(at the verb) person, gender, number and case(at names). The consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire classes of words (parts of speech). In modern Russian there are independent (notional) and auxiliary parts of speech.

Independent parts of speech

Part of speech		Grammatical meaning and categories
Noun	And other case questions	Denotes an animate or inanimate object, has the categories of gender, number, case, animate and inanimate	Man, house, greenery
Adjective	Which? Which? Whose? And etc.		human,
Numeral	How many? Which one? And etc.	Denotes the quantity or order of objects, has the category of number. Digits by meaning: quantitative, collective	Five, seventy-seven, first, second, three
Pronoun	Who? What? Which?	Indicates an object, attribute or number of objects, but does not call them “by name”. It has the categories of gender, number and case. Places by meaning: personal, demonstrative, interrogative, etc.	I, you, he, all, the one whose, mine, which
	What to do? What to do?	The action of an object or its state. Has the categories of aspect, voice, mood, person, tense, gender and number	Have fun, have fun
	Where? When? Where? Where? How?	Sign of action or sign of attribute. Some adverbs have a state category	Fast, fun, from afar, left, right

But auxiliary parts of speech do not have grammatical categories.

Functional parts of speech

In the Russian language there is another class of unchangeable words that serve to express emotions. These words are called interjections. They are neither an independent nor an auxiliary part of speech. They differ from significant words by the absence of a nominative meaning: while expressing feelings and sensations, interjections do not name them, and what distinguishes interjections from auxiliary parts of speech is that they do not have a connecting function.

Many interjections originate from emotional exclamations, for example: “Oh, scary!”, “Brr, it’s cold!” Such interjections often have a specific phonetic appearance, that is, they contain rare and unusual sound combinations for the Russian language (“brr”, “um”, “tpr”). There is another group of interjections in the Russian language, the origin of which is associated with significant words - nouns: “father”, “god” or with verbs: “ish”, “wish”, “pli”. You can also observe the connection of interjections with pronouns, adverbs, particles and conjunctions: “that-and-such”, “eka”, “sh-sh”. This includes various kinds of adjuncts: “on you,” “well, yes,” etc. and stable phrases and phraseological units, such as “fathers of light,” “thank God,” etc. Interjections are an actively expanding class of words. There is no single point of view among linguists: some believe that interjections are part of the system of parts of speech, but stand in isolation in it. Others are sure that interjections are included in the category of “particles of speech” along with prepositions and conjunctions.

Discussing what we read

1. How are the branches of the science of language - morphemics and word formation - related to each other?
2. Why are the main ways of forming words in the Russian language divided into two groups? What are these groups?
3. What do you think is the difference between the terms “morpheme” and “word part”?
4. What is studied in morphology? Is it possible to study morphology without knowing about morphemes?
5. What is the “grammar of a language”? What grammatical rules do you know?
6. In what cases is the term “grammatical form” necessary and in what cases do we use the term “grammatical category”?
7. How do independent parts of speech differ from auxiliary parts? What, in your opinion, is the peculiarity of interjections?

Tasks

1. Define a morpheme. Explain the functions of morphemes.
a) Find formative morphemes in the words:

at home, house, to the river, ran, lie down, strongest, strongest, stronger, lying down, seen.

b) Find word-forming morphemes in the words:

2. Talk about the grammatical categories of nouns.
a) Choose an adjective or pronoun for the nouns:

tulle, alibi, piano, mouse, jabot, taxi, vermicelli, shampoo, hummingbird, chimpanzee, coffee, cocoa, coat, mango, penalty, credo, metro, slob, orphan, colleague.

b) Decline nouns:

sister, banner, tribe, spear, cloud, beans, kiwi, stockings, socks, cakes.

On... the sides of the road, on... the banks of the river, with... girlfriends, with... friends, on... walls, between... countries, between... states,... hands, . .. eyes, at... children, put to... cheeks, familiar with... brothers, with... sisters.

3. Read the phrases aloud, declining the numerals correctly.

In 2009, in 55% of cases, out of 1835 examples, to 769 students, paid 879 rubles, posted on 83 pages, 274 pages are missing, helped 249 people, about 97 cases were registered, satisfied with 12 students, the life of a tree is measured at 350 and even 600 years.

This is the most wonderful person I have ever met.

Literature

1. Arutyunova N. D. On significant units of language // Studies on the general theory of grammar. M., 1968.
2. Arutyunova N. D., Bulygina T. V. Basic unit of morphological analysis // General linguistics. Internal structure of language. M., 1972.
3. Bebchuk E. M. Modern Russian language: Morphemics and word formation: textbook, manual. Voronezh, 2007.
4. Bondarko A. V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976.
5. Bondarko A. V. Theory of meaning in the system of functional grammar. M., 2002.
6. Pekhlivanova K. I., Lebedeva M. N. Russian grammar in illustrations: textbook, manual. M., 2006.

CHAPTER 4

Vocabulary and phraseology; types of phraseological units, their use in speech; use of figurative and expressive means in speech; lexical norms; main types of dictionaries

Gore G. The Magic Road: Novels, stories, stories. L., 1978.
See: Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. M., 1972.

a system of series opposed to each other with homogeneous values. In this system, the defining feature is the categorizing feature (see linguistic), for example, the generalized meaning, etc., which unites the system of meanings of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. and the system of corresponding ones. In widely accepted definitions of geopolitical significance, its meaning is brought to the fore. However, a necessary feature of grammatical language is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-sided (bilateral).

G.K. are divided into and. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, G. k.,; The consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (). The number of contrasting members within such categories can be different: for example, in G. the gender class is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the masculine, feminine and neuter gender, and in the G. class number - a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural. In developed languages, inflectional phrases are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its framework (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person, number, case, gender, ), and non-inflectional (classifying, classification), i.e. those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and ). The belonging of some GKs (for example, in the Russian language - aspect and voice) to an inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of debate.

G. words also differ between syntactically identified (relational), i.e., indicating primarily forms in the composition or (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identified (referential, nominative), i.e., expressing first of all, various semantic abstractions abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extra-linguistic reality (for example, in the Russian language - type, time); G. words, such as number or person, combine the characteristics of both of these types.

They differ: 1) in the number and composition of G. k. (cf., for example, the category of verb aspect specific to some languages - and others; the category " " - a person or thing - in a series; the category inherent primarily in languages with; the category politeness, or respectfulness, characteristic of a number of Asian languages, in particular and, and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker’s attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question); 2) by the number of opposed members within the same category (cf. six cases in the Russian language and up to forty in some); 3) by which parts of speech contain one or another category (for example, nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics can change in the process of historical development of one language (cf., for example, three forms of number in, including the dual, and two in modern Russian).

Some features of the detection of categorical meanings are determined by the morphological type of language - this applies to both the composition of categories and the way of expressing categorical meanings (cf. expressions of inflectional morphological meanings, for example, case and number, which predominate in languages, and the separate expression of these meanings in). In contrast to the strict and consistent obligatory nature of expression characteristic of inflectional-synthetic languages, in isolating and agglutinative languages the use of forms with special indicators is not mandatory for all those cases where this is possible in meaning. Instead, basic forms that are neutral in relation to the given are often used. For example, in , where the signs of G. k. numbers are seen, nouns without the plurality indicator “-men” 們 can denote both one person and many persons; in it is possible to use a name in the form of the absolute case in cases where, according to the meaning, the form of any of the indirect cases could be used. Accordingly, the division of geometrical complexes into morphological and syntactic ones is not traced in such languages as clearly as in languages of the inflectional-synthetic type; the boundaries between one and the other geometrical complexes are erased.

Sometimes the term "G. To." applies to broader or narrower groupings compared to GK in the specified interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“ masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

In morphology, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from grammatical words—subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; verbs are personal and impersonal; so-called methods of verbal action, etc.

The concept of morphology was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories is less developed; the boundaries of the application of the concept of geometrical language to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to distinguish: G. k. the communicative orientation of the utterance, constructed as a contrast between narrative, motivating, and interrogative sentences; G. k. activity/passivity of sentence construction; GK of syntactic tense and syntactic mood that form sentences, etc. The question of whether the so-called categories belong to GK is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

Shcherba L.V., On parts of speech in the Russian language, in his book: Selected works on the Russian language, M., 1957;
Doculil M., On the question of the morphological category, “Questions of Linguistics”, 1967, No. 6;
Gukhman M. M., Grammatical category and structure of paradigms, in the book: Studies on the general theory of grammar, M., 1968;
Katsnelson S. D., Typology of language and speech thinking, Leningrad, 1972;
Lomtev T.P., Sentence and its grammatical categories, M., 1972;
Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninovskie readings, M., 1975;
Bondarko A.V., Theory of morphological categories, Leningrad, 1976;
Panfilov V.Z., Philosophical problems of linguistics, M., 1977;
Lions J., Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics, trans. from English, M., 1978;
Kholodovich A. A., Problems of grammatical theory, Leningrad, 1979;
Russian grammar, vol. 1, M., 1980, p. 453-59.

V.V. Lopatin.

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. 1990 .

See what “Grammar category” is in other dictionaries:

GRAMMAR CATEGORY- a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. For example, the grammatical category of number in the Russian language is represented by a system of two series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of singular and... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Grammatical category- A grammatical category is a closed system of mutually exclusive and opposed grammatical meanings (grammemes), which specifies the division of a vast set of word forms (or a small set of high-frequency word forms with ... ... Wikipedia

grammatical category- a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. For example, the grammatical category of number in the Russian language is represented by a system of two series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of singular and... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

grammatical category- 1) Contrasting homogeneous categorical grammatical forms: units. number (country, table, window) pl. number (countries, tables, windows), etc. 2) A system of grammatical forms united by a common grammatical meaning, but contrasted by... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

grammatical category- (Greek kategoria judgment, definition). 1) A set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. Thus, the meanings of individual cases are combined into the category of case, the meanings of individual tense forms are combined into the category of time, etc. The category of gender... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

Grammatical category- the system is opposed. each other grammatical forms united by a homogeneous meaning. Mandatory the signs of G.K. are: a) the presence of at least two elements, b) the unity of the system of meanings and the forms associated with them, for example, in specific. there are so many languages... Russian humanitarian encyclopedic dictionary

Grammatical category- 1) a class of mutually exclusive grammatical meanings, opposed to each other based on a common feature, for example, the meanings “singular” and “plural” form the grammatical complex “numbers”. Each G. K. corresponds to a Paradigm (or series... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Time (grammatical category)- Time is a grammatical category of a verb, expressing the relationship of the time of the situation described in speech to the moment of utterance of the utterance (i.e., to the moment of speech or a period of time, which in the language is denoted by the word “now”), which is taken as ... ... Wikipedia

TIME (grammatical category of verb)- TIME, a grammatical category of a verb, the forms of which establish a temporal relationship between the called action and either the moment of speech (absolute time) or another named action (relative time) ... encyclopedic Dictionary

GRAMMAR CATEGORIES, specially organized and expressed sets of linguistic meanings (“grammemes”) that have a privileged status in the language system; Each language has its own grammatical categories, but many essential meanings for human experience are included in the grammatical categories of a very large number of languages (such as, for example, the values of the number of objects, the duration of an action, the time of action relative to the moment of speech, the subject and object of an action, desirability, etc. .).

To be considered a grammatical category, a set of meanings must have at least two properties, namely categoricality and commitment. The first property (also known under the names of mutual exclusivity, paradigmaticity, homogeneity, functionality, etc.) allows us to select from the entire set of linguistic meanings those that are combined into categories; the second identifies among linguistic categories those that are grammatical for a given language. A category can only be a set of values whose elements exclude each other, i.e. cannot simultaneously characterize the same object (this property can be formulated in another way: each object at a certain moment can be assigned only one value from this set). Thus, the property of categoricality, or mutual exclusivity in the normal case, is possessed by the values of physical age (a person cannot be both an old man and a child), gender, size, and many others. In contrast, meanings such as color are not categories: the same object may well be colored in different colors at the same time.

Not all linguistic categories, however, can be considered grammatical. To do this, it is necessary that the category satisfies the second property, i.e. the property of obligatory nature (in modern linguistics this statement has received wide recognition, mainly after the works of R. Jacobson, but similar ideas have been expressed before). A category is obligatory (for a certain class of words) if every word from this class expresses any meaning of this category. Thus, in the Russian language, for example, the category of verb tense is obligatory: every personal form of the verb in the text expresses one of the meanings of this category (either past, present, or future tense), and there is no such personal form of the verb about which it was possible would say that she has “no time”, i.e. not characterized by tense grammatically.

The existence of obligatory categories in a language means that the speaker, when planning to use a word in speech, is forced to express with this word one of the meanings of a certain category (i.e., characterize this word according to this category). Thus, when choosing the personal form of a verb, a Russian speaker is obliged to characterize it by aspect, tense, mood, voice, person/number (or, in the past tense, gender) of the subject, since all these are grammatical categories of the Russian verb. The speaker is obliged to indicate the appropriate meanings of grammatical categories, even if this is not part of his own communicative intention - for example, he may not have specifically intended to indicate the time of action. Of course, the speaker can still avoid indicating time - but then he will no longer have to use a verb, but, for example, a noun, which in Russian does not have a mandatory tense category. Wed. a couple of types You came ~ your arrival, where grammatical tense is expressed only in the first case; If desired, this can be done in the second case (cf. your past/future arrival etc.), but it is important that if the speaker wants to evade expressing time with a noun, he can freely do this without violating the grammatical requirements of the language, whereas in the case of the verb form this is impossible.

The grammatical categories of each language can be likened to a kind of questionnaire for the description of objects and situations in a given language: the speaker cannot successfully complete this description without answering (whether he wants to or not) the questions of such a “grammatical questionnaire”. As R. Jacobson aptly notes, “the main difference between languages is not what can or cannot be expressed, but what should or should not be communicated by speakers.” This implies the importance of the role that grammar plays in creating the so-called “naive picture of the world”, i.e. that way of reflecting reality, which constitutes the specificity of each language (and the culture behind it), since it is in the system of grammatical categories that the collective experience of the speakers of a given language is primarily reflected.

The number of grammatical categories varies in different languages; There are languages with a very developed “grammatical profile”; in other languages the set of grammatical categories is very limited (languages completely devoid of grammatical meanings are still not attested, although their existence, generally speaking, does not contradict linguistic theory).

Along with the two main properties indicated above, grammatical categories, as a rule, are characterized by a number of additional properties. The area of applicability of a grammatical category (i.e. the set of those words for which the category is obligatory) must be large enough and have natural boundaries (as a rule, these are large semantic-grammatical classes of words such as nouns or verbs or their subclasses such as transitive verbs, animate nouns and so on.). On the other hand, the number of meanings of a grammatical category (grammes) is usually small, and they are expressed using a small number of regular indicators. These three additional properties make it possible, in particular, to distinguish between grammatical and so-called lexical obligatoriness (the latter is always tied to a small group of words, and the corresponding meanings do not have regular indicators). Thus, in Russian, the choice of the meaning “child of the same parents” is necessarily accompanied by an indication of the child’s gender (accordingly, Brother or sister), however, we cannot talk about the grammatical category “gender of a relative” for the reasons listed above: the obligatory indication of gender in the Russian language is characteristic of only a small group of nouns (terms of kinship), and at the same time there are no special indicators of male or female gender as part of these I have no words. Lexical obligatoryness is a very common phenomenon, but it characterizes individual groups of vocabulary of a given language and is not systemic in nature.

The meaning of grammemes of grammatical categories is a very complex object; entities called grammatical meanings (for example, “plural”, “dative case”, “past tense”, etc.), as a rule, are much more complex than lexical meanings. One should not identify the name of a gramme with its meaning (as authors of grammatical descriptions often do, wittingly or unwittingly): behind a name like “plural” there is in fact a certain set of contextual meanings expressed by a set of formal indicators, and each indicator can have any of given values, and any value can be assigned to any of these indicators. Thus, in Russian, number is expressed differently depending on the type of declension of the noun and other factors (cf. fingers,Houses,apples,stu-ya etc.), and plural forms - regardless of what indicator is present in them - can express not only a simple set of objects, but also a class of objects as a whole ( ostriches are dying out), different varieties or varieties of objects ( precious metals,cheeses), a large number of ( sands), uncertainty ( are there any free places? ""at least one place"), etc. This situation is typical for most grammes, which, therefore, in the general case, are only a kind of labels denoting a rather complex correspondence between the formal and substantive elements of the language.

The contextual meanings of grammes may include an appeal to both the properties of the surrounding world and the syntactic properties of other words. Meanings of the first type are called semantic (or semantically filled, nominative, etc.); meanings of the second type are called syntactic (or relational), which reflects their main property - to serve the expression of syntactic connections between words in the text, and not a direct description of reality (cf., for example, gender grammes in Russian nouns like sofa And ottoman, reflecting only the difference in their matching models: a big sofa And large ottoman). Syntactic meanings are present to one degree or another in almost every grammatical category (for example, in Russian, the syntactic uses of number include the appearance of the singular in constructions with numerals like three Houses , twenty one house or in distributive constructions like advisers put on nose glasses). There are also grammatical categories in which syntactic meanings predominate or are even the only ones. Such categories are called syntactic; The most important of them include the gender and case of nouns, and in some cases also the voice and mood of verbs. Languages that lack syntactic grammatical categories are called insulating(These are primarily the Austroasiatic, Thai and Sino-Tibetan languages of Southeast Asia, the Mande and Kwa languages of West Africa, etc.).

Most often, grammemes are expressed using morphological means - affixes (which include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes and transfixes), as well as alternations and reduplications. The morphological expression of grammes is characteristic of agglutinative and fusional languages (in the latter, non-affixal morphological technique also plays a significant role). The most striking examples of fusion languages are Sanskrit, ancient Greek, Lithuanian, many languages of the Indians of North America, etc.; There are widespread languages that have equal features of agglutinativity and fusion (such as, for example, many Uralic, Mongolian, Semitic languages, Bantu languages, etc.). At the same time, there is also a non-morphological way of expressing grammatical meanings, in which these latter are conveyed by independent word forms (“function words”) or syntactic constructions. Languages with a predominance of non-morphological techniques for expressing grammatical meanings are called analytical (such, in particular, are the Polynesian languages).

If a grammatical category is structured in such a way that all its grammes are capable of being alternately attached to the stem of the same word, then such a category is called inflectional, and combinations of its grammes with the stem of a word are grammatical forms of this word. The totality of all grammatical forms of one word forms its paradigm, and a word, understood as the totality of all its forms, is called a lexeme. Typical examples of inflectional categories are the case of a noun, tense and mood of a verb, etc.: thus, in the normal case, the stem of each noun is combined with indicators of all cases of a given language, the stem of each verb - with indicators of all moods, etc. (non-systematic violations of this principle lead to the emergence of so-called defective paradigms, cf. the absence of a genitive plural form in the word cod or 1st person unit forms. verb numbers win In russian language).

Not all grammatical categories, however, form paradigms of grammatical forms: a situation is also possible when only one gramme can be expressed at the base of a word. Such grammatical categories contrast not different forms of the same word, but different words (i.e., different lexemes) and are called word-classifying. A typical example of a word-classifying category is the gender of nouns: for example, in the Russian language, each noun belongs to one of three genders, but Russian nouns do not have the ability to form “gender paradigms” (i.e., freely change the meaning of gender). On the contrary, in Russian adjectives the category of gender, as is easy to see, is inflectional (cf. paradigms like white ~ white ~ white etc.).

The main syntactic grammatical categories are gender and case (for a name) and voice (for a verb): gender is associated with the morphological expression of agreement, and case is associated with the morphological expression of control. In addition, both case and voice provide a distinction between the semantic and syntactic arguments of the verb, i.e. syntactic entities such as subject and objects, and semantic entities such as agent, patient, instrument, place, reason, and many others. etc. Syntactic (concordant) categories also include person/number and gender of the verb.

Most of the grammatical categories found in the languages of the world belong to semantic categories. The specific semantic categories of nouns are number and determination (or, in the “European” version, definiteness/indeterminacy). The categories of number, determination and case closely interact and are often expressed by a single grammatical indicator (inflection); inflectional case-numeral paradigms are also characteristic of the Russian language. The category of number is usually represented by two grammemes (singular and plural), but in a number of languages there is also a dual number, initially associated, apparently, with the designation of paired objects (such as lips, eyes, shores and so on.); the dual number was in ancient Greek, Sanskrit, ancient Russian, classical Arabic; it is also attested in modern languages: Slovenian, Koryak, Selkup, Khanty, etc. Even more rare is a special grammatical expression for a set of three objects (triple number) or a small number of objects (paucal number): such grammemes are found, for example, in languages New Guinea.

The system of semantic grammatical categories of the verb is very diverse and varies greatly in different languages. With some degree of convention, verbal categories can be divided into three large semantic zones: aspectual, temporal and modal. Aspectual (or aspectual) meanings include all those that describe the features of the unfolding of a situation in time (duration, limitation, repetition) or highlight certain temporal phases of the situation (for example, the initial stage or result); in this sense, the well-known characteristic of aspect as the “internal tense” of the verb is correct. On the contrary, the grammatical category, traditionally called “time” in linguistics, only indicates the relative chronology of a given situation, i.e. whether it takes place before, simultaneously or after some other situation (“reference point”). The starting point can be arbitrary (and in this case we have the category of relative time, or taxis), but it can also be fixed; a fixed point of reference, coinciding with the moment of utterance of the utterance (“the moment of speech”), gives the category of absolute time with three main grammes: past, present and future tense. An additional indication of the degree of remoteness of the situation from the moment of speech (indication of “temporal distance”) can increase the number of grammes in the category of time; developed systems for marking temporal distance are especially characteristic of the Bantu languages (Tropical Africa). Aspect and tense are often expressed jointly in verbal word forms (hence the traditional grammatical nomenclature, in which any aspectual verb form could be called “tense”). The most typical combinations are the continuous aspect and the past tense (commonly called “imperfect”), as well as the limited aspect and past tense (commonly called “aorist”).

The verbal system can be characterized by a large number of aspectual grammes: thus, to the basic opposition of long (durative, imperfect) and limited (perfective, point) aspects, at least habitual (and/or multiple) aspects are often added (as, for example, in many Turkic languages). aspect and effective aspect (cf. window open , Russian dial He having drunk ). A difference similar to the habitual aspect in Russian can be expressed lexically, cf. boy coming to school And boy walks to school. A special type of the resultative aspect is the perfect, which is very widespread in the languages of the world (for example, the perfect is found in English, Spanish, Greek, Finnish, Bulgarian, Persian and many other languages). On the contrary, “poor” aspectual systems (such as East or West Slavic) are characterized by the opposition of only two aspectual grammes (called perfect vs. imperfect, perfect vs. imperfect, complete vs. incomplete, etc.), but each These grammes have a very wide range of contextual meanings. Thus, in the Russian language, an imperfective grammeme can express duration, repetition, habituality, and even the perfect (cf. Maksim read « War and Peace"); the choice of one interpretation or another depends on the context, the lexical semantics of the verb and other factors. In languages with “rich” aspectual systems (such as Turkic, Polynesian or Bantu), all these meanings can differ morphologically.

The zone of verbal modality (giving the grammatical category of mood) has the most complex and branched structure. Modal meanings include, firstly, those that indicate the degree of reality of the situation (unreal situations do not take place in reality, but are possible, probable, desired, conditional, etc.), and secondly, those that express the speaker’s assessment of the situation being described (for example, the degree of reliability of the situation, the degree of desirability of the situation for the speaker, etc.). It is easy to see that evaluative and unreal meanings are often closely related to each other: thus, desired situations always have a positive assessment by the speaker, unreal situations often have a lower degree of reliability, etc. It is therefore no coincidence that the use, for example, of the conditional mood to express doubt or incomplete certainty, which is characteristic of many languages of the world.

A special place among mood grammes is occupied by the imperative, which combines the expression of the speaker’s desire with the expression of an impulse directed at the addressee. The imperative is one of the most common grammes in natural languages (perhaps this meaning is universal). Mood grammes also have a large share of syntactic uses (for example, in many languages, the predicate of a subordinate clause must take the form of one of the unreal moods; the same applies to the expression of questions or negations).

Adjacent to the mood is the grammatical category of evidentiality, which expresses the source of information about the situation being described. In many languages of the world, such an indication is mandatory: this means that the speaker must indicate whether he observed a given event with his own eyes, heard about it from someone, judges it on the basis of indirect signs or logical reasoning, etc.; the most complex evidential systems are characteristic of Tibetan languages and a number of American Indian languages; somewhat simpler evidential systems are found in the languages of the Balkan area (Bulgarian, Albanian, Turkish), as well as in many languages of the Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East.

Subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS GOES TO ARIA, AND NOT TO US)

Morphology translated from Greek literally means “the study of form.” This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of the word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".

The famous linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical study of words.

A word as a grammatical unit is a collection of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text it appears in a specific word form. Yes, word book has 12 word forms: 6 singular case forms and 6 plural case forms. In the examples They gave me an interesting one book And They gave me interesting books The selected word forms differ in their particular grammatical meanings – singular meanings. and many more numbers, with the word book preserves both the lexical and categorical grammatical meaning of the subject. Token is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have identical lexical meaning. The entire set of word forms included in a given lexeme is called paradigm.

When producing a text or constructing a statement, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expressing a certain meaning. To do this, you need to know the rules of inflection of different parts of speech, the peculiarities of the functioning of grammatical forms, and have an idea of the semantic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech.

That is why subject of morphology is teaching about parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, aspect, mood, tense, person, voice),system of inflection.

Morphology tasks.

· determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.

· establish which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.

· establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,

· correlate them with the characteristics of objective reality reflected in the language,

· establish a set of formal means involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (NRY edited by Beloshapkova, 1981)

Aspects of studying morphology:

· The actual grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> a complete description of the grammatical structure of the language.

· Contrastive - studying grammar in comparison with other languages.

· Normative approach - the creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Grammar options in various areas of life.

· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (teach to speak or write abstracts).

· Functional aspect. Describes how language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder Bondarko.

Basic concepts of morphology:

· grammatical (morphological) form,

· grammatical meaning,

· morphological paradigm,

· parts of speech.

Grammatical is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number of words and necessarily expressed formally: either by individual elements, or using other words in a sentence.

Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM

Based on the question, we can determine that this word form generally names an object.

2. Based on the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate

3. The interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, it is an object of a certain type.

4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.

5. The word form informs that only one thing is meant.

6. Allows the phrases white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very little house (belongs to the class of words with the syntactic functions of a noun)

7. The phrase house that I built allows, but does not allow the house that I built

(syntactic inanimateness)

8. Allows collocation white house, and does not allow white house or a house that stands on a mountain

(syntactic masculine)

9. Allows collocation yellow house, and does not allow yellow house

(syntactic singular)

10. Allows collocation admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house

(subordinate instrumental case)

11. Allows collocation

a wonderful house, but does not allow the wonderful house

(subordinate instrumental)

Grammatical meanings are complementary to lexical ones, but due to their enviable regularity they can be interpreted separately.

A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form

The set of all possible word forms of one specific word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, about brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, about brothers.

Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of similar means, where it is contrasted with other forms. (singular and plural numbers, for example)

Grammatical form– unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.

Grammatical meaning– generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of a grammatical category opposed to each other. The word forms of the inflected parts of speech express both the general grammatical meaning and specific morphological meanings. Unchangeable parts of speech are characterized only by a general grammatical (categorical) meaning. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), attribute attribute ( Moscow-style hospitable). They do not have a morphological paradigm.

Morphological paradigm is the totality of all forms of the word being modified. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech consists of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes number and case paradigms.

The concept of grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.

Grammatical forms, according to their grammatical content, are combined into grammatical categories.

Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. This is precisely the definition of a grammatical category adopted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of a grammatical category. It's a closed system.

We need to differentiate inflectional And non-inflectional (classifying) categories.

Inflectional:

non-inflectional:

This is necessary in order to be able to form forms correctly. So, for example, the form I'll protect formed from a perfective verb protect, form I protect - from an imperfective verb protect.

Grammatical category– a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposing rows.G.k. are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories one can name the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; The consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).

For the Russian language, a language with a developed inflectional system, the distinction between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories is fundamental.

Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).

3. Parts of speech: grounds for their differentiation. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. Grammatical category of animate/inanimate.

The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The nuclear nature of this group of words is ensured by unique semantic features: the denotation of a noun can be any reality. For example:

· Material objects: house, pen.

· Signs: blue.

·Qualities: kindness.

· Action: the washing up.

· Movement: walking.

· State: sadness.

Attitude: correspondence.

· Quantity: a hundred.

· Abstractions: impressionism.

A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical subject (subject matter), performs the syntactic function of subject and object, and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.

Noun- this is a significant part of speech, denoting an object and expressing this meaning in the inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and the non-inflectional categories of gender and animate-inanimate. A noun always answers the question who? What? You need to ask a question about the initial form of the word.

Initial noun form – nominative case form, singular. numbers, and for nouns that do not have a singular form. h. – form named after. plural case numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).

A noun in a sentence can be a subject and an object, as well as an inconsistent definition: a performance by figure skaters, Pushkin’s fairy tales.

An important point is the ability of a noun to be defined by an adjective and a participle: cold winter, past holiday.

Dividing nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what object this noun denotes - living beings or objects of inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animate-inanimate with the concept of living-inanimate. Yes, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm– nouns are inanimate, but from a scientific point of view they are living organisms. In grammar, the names of deceased people are dead man, deceased– are considered animate, and only a noun dead body– inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is the category is purely grammatical.

Animation:

Animate nouns usually name living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specific declension and represent a special category in relation to the category of gender, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the named creatures:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.

In animate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) coincides with the genitive case form.
I see who? (vin.pad.) – students, student, horses.
No one? (genus) – students, student, horses. Waiting for who? Student.

Animate nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of objects that seem to be alive for some reason. For example: I dress dolls, fly a kite.

Inanimate:

In inanimate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) coincides with the nominative case form.
I see what? (vin.pad.) – airplanes, plane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (named after pad.) – airplanes, plane.

Inanimate nouns used figuratively receive the meaning of a person and become animate: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.

Nouns in combination with compound numerals ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial version).

Conclusion: To correctly determine the animate/inanimate nature of a noun, the word must be considered in the context of a sentence.

Animate and inanimate nouns
Animated	Inanimate
names of living things	names of inanimate objects
	plant names
names of gods	names of planets based on gods
names of mythical creatures
names of figures in games
names of toys, mechanisms, images of people
dead man, deceased	dead body
names of microorganisms
image, character

5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. Grammatical category of number of nouns.

Nouns are combined into lexical and grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).

There are such lexical-grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common nouns, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, material, collective.

Lexico-grammatical categories– semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.

Gender is specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.

Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.

Morphological category of number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many more number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dissected set of objects. This is an inflectional category that covers all modifiable nouns.

The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a core group. Abstract, real and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and are actually devoid of semantic opposition in the category of number.

Please note: lexically non-identical number forms: choice, elections. Wed:

· snow / snow

· sky / heavens

· pain/pains

Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a singular number.

1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)

2. Material (milk, copper, horsehair wig)

3. Vegetables, grains, I years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)

4. “The singular function of the singular number, devoid of direct relation to number and counting, appears especially clearly in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or natural phenomenon, ideological direction, flow in general in designations abstract concepts" (militarization, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).

5. Proper names.

6. The use of singular forms is observed in the case when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses covered) (People walked with a scarf tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)

Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum

1. Paired items;

2. Composite objects (firewood, sledges, sleds);

3. Mass, substance, material in its entirety (yeast, firewood, grub);

4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);

5. Waste or residues from some process: bran, sawdust, scraps;

6. Places and localities (places, heads, settlements, as well as proper names Bronnitsy);

7. Period of time (days, twilight, holidays);

8. Complex action, a condition consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, pranks);

9. Games (hide and seek, bloopers, catch-up);

10. Rituals and holidays (baptisms, name days, bridesmaids);

11. Single words denoting a state (living in the dark, being able, being in trouble);

12. Single words denoting emotions (they take envy, to celebrate).

All nouns are in singular form. h. have a category of genus, i.e. belong to one of 3 genera: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Nouns ending in -a, -ya in the form im. p.un. numbers usually refer to the feminine gender (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.

If the initial form has the ending –о, -е, then the noun belongs to the neuter gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domische (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of the m. gender).

A small group of words belong to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have a singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sleigh, gate, ink) are not distributed by gender.

Family couple

Family couple is a paired opposition of the nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of biological sex.

There are pairs:

1. suppletive birth pairs (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);

2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);

3. inflectional– having a common basis and differing endings (husband - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexandra).

If the words included in the generic pair are names of animals, then the type of animal can be designated either by the word m of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys) or by the word w. kind (cats, sheep, goats).

Common nouns

In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), there are also nouns general kind, in meaning they correlate with persons of both male and female gender, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). In colloquial speech you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.

In stylized speech for the speech characteristics of characters, when addressing a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.

Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. In professional use a couple arose nurse - nurse.

Generic variants

Many nouns are used in the SRL in both the m and f forms. kind.

· - aviary - aviary (more commonly 1 form);

· - giraffe – giraffe (1st form is more common);

· - clip – clip (literary form is 1);

· - reprise – reprise (the 2nd form is most often used).