The main directions of development of geography in the ancient world. History of physical geography: main stages

History of Geography

How has geographical thought developed over time? Who was the creator geographical ideas? What turning points were there in the development of the theory of geography? Without answers to these questions, understand scientific problems modern geography and its theoretical positions are very difficult.

Science is thought, and the history of science is the movement of thought. Any science as a form of social consciousness passes difficult path development from the descriptive stage (collection, accumulation and classification of data about the objects of research) to the stage of theoretical and methodological understanding. The development of science is also closely related to the demands practical activities people who do not remain constant in different eras.

Mandatory attributes of any science must be the object and subject of research, as well as methodology and theory, fundamental categories and concepts, principles and schemes of explanation. Traditionally, geography has been considered a science that studies the surface of our planet. The discovery and exploration of this surface began at the earliest stage of civilization and is being completed in our time. The main goal Geographical research has always been the study of geographical reality and the geographical picture of the world with which human life and society are connected. Hence the term geography itself was born as “land description”. However, according to V. Bunge, the history of the development of geography, its “ideology” is complex and not very cloudless. It contains few “guiding ideas and a lot of facts.”

Other sciences accumulated data and, on their basis, created a theory of science, and then the “new” science (for example, new physics) absorbed the older one, but did not reject it. In geography, the directional wave nature of development prevailed with frequent changes directions, goals, methodological and theoretical problems. The protracted descriptive stage of accumulation of facts and data, the complexity of the object and subject of study, the influence of political and sociocultural factors of society did not contribute to the formation of an invariant geography as a science, the formation of its theory and methodology. In addition, the formation of geography as a science was associated with the difficulty of reconciling interests between the synthesis of accumulated data and the pursuit of the latest facts, which increased the differentiation of scientific areas and complicated the system of geographical sciences, acquiring the image of the “Tower of Babel.” The desire of the leaders of geography to combine the search for truth, affirming the prestige of geography in scientific society, and the desire to be useful to society.

The difficulties of developing geography as a science, according to V.S. Preobrazhensky, were associated:

With the changing status of geography, its transformation from school and university geography into science ( late XIX century), and then in the 30-60s of the XX century. into the mass sphere professional activity;

With the constant expansion of the boundaries of the object and the boundaries of the subject of research;

With the complication of research methodology (travel ® expeditions ® hospitals ® remote sensing ® science ships and sleigh-tractor trains) and methodological re-equipment in the field of empirical generalizations (cartographic ® mathematical-statistical ® computer-based cartographic-mathematical modeling ® computer systems and networks);

With the change in the information functions of geography: cartographic ® regional geographical descriptions and multi-volume essays ® national and world geographical atlases ® function-oriented maps ® electronic data banks ® geographic information systems.

That is why in geography the concepts of “modern” and “new” geography, “crisis” and “revolution” are often used. If the former record only some changes in the theory and structure of conceptual models, then the latter indicate a decisive revision of established theories, vision of the subject or methods of its study.

Our predecessors and contemporaries have repeatedly tried to identify the most common features development of geography from ancient times (Eratosthenes and Strabo) to the present day (A.A. Grigoriev, A.G. Isachenko, I.M. Zabelin, Yu.G. Saushkin, K. Gregory, N.K. Mukitanov, V. S. Preobrazhensky, V.P. Maksakovsky, etc.). A.A. Grigoriev analyzes the development of physical-geographical ideas in Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. A.G. Isachenko publishes the monograph “The History of the Development of Geographical Ideas.” Written about geography in the past, present and future interesting job SOUTH. Saushkin, as well as “Geography and Geographers” by K. Gregory. The results of the 20th century are summed up in the monograph by V.S. Preobrazhensky, T.D. Alexandrova and L.V. Maksimova “Geography in a changing world.” " Historical geography world" is published by V.P. Maksakovsky. First tutorial in “History of Geography” they offer M.M. Golubchik, E.V. Evdokimov and G.N. Maksimov.

Geographical ideas of the ancient world

Rudiments geographical knowledge appeared at primitive people, whose very existence depended on the ability to navigate in space and find natural shelters, sources of water, places for hunting, stones for tools, etc. Primitive man was distinguished by keen observation and even the ability to make drawings of the area on skins, birch bark, wood - prototypes geographical maps. Primitive map as a method of transmission geographic information apparently arose long before the advent of writing. Already at the most early stages of his economic activity, primitive man entered into complex interactions with the natural environment. Archaeological research in last years showed that already at the end of the Paleolithic (ancient Stone Age) man destroyed the bulk of large mammals within the temperate zone northern hemisphere, thereby causing a kind of “first ecological crisis” in the history of our planet, and was forced to move from gathering and hunting to agriculture.

The first written documents were left to us by agricultural peoples Ancient East: Egypt, Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylon), Northern India and China (IV-II millennium BC). These peoples had the beginnings scientific knowledge in the field of mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, which were then used to solve problems of a geographical nature. So, in Egypt during the era Ancient kingdom(before 2500 BC) land surveying was carried out, land Registry(mainly to determine the amount of taxes). In order to determine the timing of various agricultural works, regular astronomical observations began to be carried out. The Egyptians quite accurately determined the length of the year and introduced solar calendar. The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians knew sundial. Egyptian and Babylonian priests, as well as Chinese astronomers, established patterns of repetition solar eclipses and learned to predict them. From Mesopotamia the ecliptic is divided into 12 zodiac signs, the year into 12 months, the day into 24 hours, the circle into 360 degrees; there the concept “ lunar week" Modern numeric numbering originates from India.

The ideas of the peoples of the Ancient East about nature, although they were based on real practical experience, in theoretical terms retained a mythological character. Back in the 3rd millennium BC. The Sumerians created myths about the creation of the world, the flood and paradise, which turned out to be extremely tenacious and were reflected in many religions. Astronomical observations at that time did not lead to correct views on the structure of the Universe. But the belief in the direct influence of heavenly bodies on the destinies of people led to the emergence of astrology (it was especially popular in Babylonia).

Ideas about the Earth were based on direct perception of the surrounding world. Thus, the ancient Egyptians saw the Earth as a flat, elongated rectangle, surrounded on all sides by mountains. According to Babylonian myth, the god Marduk created the Earth among a primarily continuous ocean. In a similar, although more poetic form, the origin of the Earth is drawn in holy books Indian Brahmins - “Vedah”: The earth arose from water and is like a blooming lotus flower, one of the petals of which is India.

Among the geographical ideas of the ancient world inherited by modern geography, special meaning have the views of ancient scientists. Ancient (Greco-Roman) geography reached its peak in Ancient Greece and Rome in the period from the 12th century. BC. to 146 AD

In Ancient Greece around 500 BC. The idea of the spherical shape of the Earth was first expressed (Parmenides). Aristotle (IV century BC) provided the first reliable evidence in favor of this idea: round shape the earth's shadow during lunar eclipses and changes in the appearance of the starry sky when moving from north to south. Around 165 BC Greek scientist Crates of Malla made the first model globe- globe. Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC) was the first to approximately determine the distance from the Earth to the Sun. He was the first to teach that the Earth moves around the Sun and around its axis (heliocentric model of the cosmos).

The idea of changes in the earth's surface also belongs to the oldest achievements of ancient thought (Heraclitus, 530-470 BC), and yet the struggle for it ended only after two and a half millennia, in early XIX V. AD

The main trends originated in Ancient Greece geographical science. Already by the 6th century. BC. the needs of navigation and trade (the Greeks founded a number of colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas at that time) necessitated descriptions of the land and sea shores. At the turn of the 6th century. BC. Hecataeus from Miletus compiled a description of the Oikumene - all the countries known to the ancient Greeks at that time. “Description of the Earth” by Hecataeus became the beginning of the regional studies direction in geography. In the era of “classical Greece,” the most prominent representative of regional studies was the historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus (485-423 BC). His regional studies were closely connected with history and were of a reference and descriptive nature. Herodotus traveled through Egypt, Babylonia, Syria, Asia Minor, west coast Black Sea; gave a description of cities and countries in the work “History in Nine Books.” Such travels did not lead to the discovery of new lands, but contributed to the accumulation of more complete and reliable facts and the development of descriptive and regional studies in science.

The science of classical Greece found its completion in the works of Aristotle of Stagira (384-322 BC), who founded in 335 BC. philosophical school - Lyceum - in Athens. Almost everything that was known about geographical phenomena at that time was summarized in Aristotle’s Meteorology. This work represents the beginnings of general geoscience, which were isolated by Aristotle from the undivided geographical science.

The Hellenistic era (330-146 BC) dates back to the emergence of a new geographical direction, which later received the name of mathematical geography. One of the first representatives of this trend was Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276-194 BC). He was the first to quite accurately determine the size of the circumference of the globe by measuring the meridian arc (the measurement error was no more than 10%). Eratosthenes owns a large work, which he called “Geographical Notes,” using the term “geography” for the first time. The book gives a description of the Oikumene, and also discusses questions of mathematical and physical geography(general geoscience). Thus, Eratosthenes united all three directions under the single name “geography”, and he is considered the true “father” of geographical science.

The results of ancient geography were summed up already in the era of the Roman Empire by two outstanding Greek scientists - Strabo (c. 64 BC) and Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 AD). The works of these scientists reflect two different views on the content, tasks and significance of geography. Strabo represented the regional studies direction. He limited the tasks of geography only to the description of the Ecumene, leaving the clarification of the figure of the Earth and its measurement to mathematicians, and the explanation of the causes of phenomena observed on Earth to philosophers. His famous “Geography” (in 17 books) is a descriptive work, a valuable source on history and physical geography ancient world, which has reached us completely. C. Ptolemy was the last and most outstanding representative of ancient mathematical geography. He saw the main task of geography in creating maps. The “Manual of Geography” compiled by Ptolemy is a list of several thousand points indicating their latitude and longitude, which is preceded by a statement of methods for constructing map projections. Ptolemy in the 2nd century. AD the most perfect map of the ancient world was compiled, which was published several times in the Middle Ages.

Geography of the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages (V-XV centuries) in Europe are characterized by a general decline in the development of science. The feudal isolation and religious worldview of the Middle Ages did not contribute to the development of interest in the study of nature. The teachings of ancient scientists were eradicated by the Christian Church as “pagan”. However, the spatial geographical horizons of Europeans in the Middle Ages began to rapidly expand, which led to significant territorial discoveries in different parts of the globe.

The Normans (“northern people”) first sailed from southern Scandinavia to the Baltic and Black Seas (“the route from the Varangians to the Greeks”), then to the Mediterranean Sea. Around 867 they colonized Iceland, and in 982, led by Leiv Erikson, they discovered the east coast North America, penetrating south to 45-40°N.

The Arabs, moving to the west, in 711 penetrated the Iberian Peninsula, in the south - into the Indian Ocean, up to Madagascar (9th century), in the east - into China, and from the south they went around Asia.

Only from the middle of the 13th century. The spatial horizons of Europeans began to expand noticeably (the travel of Plano Carpini, Guillaume Rubruk, Marco Polo and others).

Marco Polo (1254-1324), Italian merchant and traveler. In 1271-1295 traveled through Central Asia to China, where he lived for about 17 years. While in the service of the Mongol Khan, he visited different parts of China and the regions bordering it. The first Europeans described China, the countries of Western and Central Asia in “The Book of Marco Polo”. It is characteristic that contemporaries treated its contents with distrust, only in the second half of the 14th and 15th centuries. they began to appreciate it, and until the 16th century. it served as one of the main sources for drawing up a map of Asia.

The journey of the Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin should also be included in a series of similar journeys. For trading purposes, he set out in 1466 from Tver along the Volga to Derbent, crossed the Caspian Sea and reached India through Persia. On his way back, three years later, he returned through Persia and the Black Sea. The notes made by Afanasy Nikitin during the trip are known as “Walking across the Three Seas.” They contain information about the population, economy, religion, customs and nature of India.

Great geographical discoveries

The revival of geography begins in the 15th century, when Italian humanists began to translate works ancient geographers. Feudal relations were replaced by more progressive ones - capitalist ones. IN Western Europe this change occurred earlier, in Russia - later. The changes reflected increased production, which required new sources of raw materials and markets. They imposed new conditions on science and contributed to the general rise of the intellectual life of human society. Geography also acquired new features. Travel enriched science with facts. They were followed by generalizations. This sequence, although not absolutely noted, is characteristic of both Western European and Russian science.

The era of great discoveries of Western sailors. At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, outstanding events took place over three decades. geographical events: voyages of the Genoese H. Columbus to the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, to the mouth of the Orinoco River and on the coast of Central America (1492-1504); the Portuguese Vasco da Gama around South Africa in Hindustan - the city of Callicut (1497-1498), F. Magellan and his companions (Juan Sebastian Elcano, Antonio Pigafetta, etc.) around South America By Pacific Ocean and around South Africa (1519-1521) - the first circumnavigation.

The three main search paths - Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Magellan - ultimately had one goal: to achieve by sea the richest space in the world - South Asia with India and Indonesia and other areas of this vast space. Three in different ways: straight to the west, around South America and around South Africa - the sailors bypassed the state of the Ottoman Turks, which blocked the Europeans' land routes to South Asia. It is characteristic that the variants of the indicated world paths circumnavigation of the world were subsequently used many times by Russian navigators.

The era of great Russian discoveries. The heyday of Russian geographical discoveries occurred in the 16th-17th centuries. However, the Russians collected geographical information themselves and through their Western neighbors much earlier. Geographical data (from 852) is contained in the first Russian chronicle - “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor. Russian city-states, developing, were looking for new natural sources of wealth and markets for goods. Novgorod, in particular, grew richer. In the 12th century. Novgorodians reached White Sea. Voyages began to the west to Scandinavia, to the north - to Grumant (Spitsbergen) and especially to the northeast - to Taz, where the Russians founded the trading city of Mangazeya (1601-1652). Somewhat earlier, movement to the east began overland, through Siberia (Ermak, 1581-1584).

Rapid movement deep into Siberia and towards the Pacific Ocean - heroic feat Russian explorers. It took them a little more than half a century to cross the space from the Ob to the Bering Strait. In 1632 the Yakut fort was founded. In 1639, Ivan Moskvitin reaches the Pacific Ocean near Okhotsk. Vasily Poyarkov in 1643-1646. walked from Lena to Yana and Indigirka, the first of the Russian Cossack explorers to sail along the Amur Estuary and the Sakhalin Bay of the Sea of Okhotsk. In 1647-48. Erofey Khabarov passes the Amur to the Sungari. And finally, in 1648, Semyon Dezhnev skirts the Chukotka Peninsula from the sea, discovers the cape that now bears his name, and proves that Asia is separated from North America by a strait.

Gradually, elements of generalization acquire great importance in Russian geography. In 1675, the Russian ambassador, the educated Greek Spafarius (1675-1678), was sent to China with instructions to “depict all the lands, cities and the route on a drawing.” Drawings, i.e. cards were documents in Russia of national importance.

Russian early cartography is known for the following four works.

1. Large drawing of the Russian state. Compiled in one copy in 1552. The sources for it were “scribal books”. The Great Drawing has not reached us, although it was renewed in 1627. The geographer of Peter’s time V.N. wrote about its reality. Tatishchev.

2. Book Big drawing- text for the drawing. One of the later copies of the book was published by N. Novikov in 1773.

3. The drawing of the Siberian land was drawn up in 1667. It has reached us in copies. The drawing accompanies the “Manuscript against the drawing”.

4. The drawing book of Siberia was compiled in 1701 by order of Peter I in Tobolsk S.U. Remizov and his sons. This is the first Russian geographical atlas of 23 maps with drawings of individual areas and settlements.

Thus, in Russia, too, the method of generalizations first became cartographic.

In the first half of the 18th century. extensive geographical descriptions, but with an increasing importance of geographical generalizations. It is enough to list the main geographical events to understand the role of this period in the development domestic geography. Firstly, an extensive long-term study of the Russian coast Arctic Ocean detachments of the Great Northern Expedition of 1733-1743. and the expeditions of Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov, who, during the First and Second Kamchatka Expeditions, discovered the sea route from Kamchatka to North America (1741) and described part of the northwestern coast of this continent and some of the Aleutian Islands. Secondly, in 1724 the Russian Academy of Sciences was established with the Geographical Department as part of it (since 1739). This institution was headed by the successors of Peter I, the first Russian geographers V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) and M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). They became organizers of detailed geographical studies of the territory of Russia and themselves made a significant contribution to the development of theoretical geography and trained a galaxy of remarkable geographers and researchers. In 1742 M.V. Lomonosov wrote the first Russian work with theoretical geographical content - “On the Layers of the Earth.” In 1755, two Russian classic monographs on regional studies were published: “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” by S.P. Krashennikov and “Orenburg Topography” P.I. Rychkova. The Lomonosov period began in Russian geography - a time of reflection and generalizations.

The flourishing of geographical science continues for more than two and a half centuries, from the beginning of the 18th century (in Western Europe - somewhat earlier) to the present. The rise of scientific geography is especially noticeable starting from the turn of the 18th-19th centuries - the time of the greatest successes of the capitalist production system, marked industrial revolution in the countries of Europe and the Great French bourgeois revolution.

The development of geography in Russia in the 18th century was initially influenced to a certain extent by the ideas of Western European scientists, for example, B. Vareniya. But they were so strongly and critically revised, so many new things were introduced into science by Russian scientists (I.I. Kirillov, V.N. Tatishchev, M.V. Lomonosov), that the Russian geographical school of that time had a new, original character. And this was primarily due to practical problems.

The first department of geography in Russia was opened at Moscow University in 1884, first at the Faculty of History and Philology; D.N. was invited to manage it. Anuchin. In 1887, he achieved the transfer of this department - geography, anthropology and ethnography - to the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, where his work began on training young geographers, who then grew into major world-famous scientists.

Versatility scientific interests D.N. Anuchina was exceptional: physical geography, anthropology, ethnography, archeology, history and methodology of science, hydrology (including limnology), cartography, geomorphology, regional studies. But such versatility was not a random collection of current interests, jumping from one subject of study to another. They, like many prominent scientists, theoretically constituted, as we now say, a “single block.”

D.N. Anuchin believed that geography should study the nature of the earth's surface. He divided geography into geoscience and regional studies. Geography studies the complex of physical and geographical components of the entire surface of the Earth, and regional studies, although a broader complex that includes humans (“Without humans, geography will be incomplete,” D.N. Anuchin wrote in 1912), but within individual regions ( "countries"). Since the nature of the earth's surface is formed in the process of its historical development, historical method necessary in geographical research. And of course, geographical research is not important in itself, but is necessary for practice.

PRACTICAL WORK No. 1

TOPIC: Main stages in the development of geography and geographical science

Target: study the stages of development of geography and geographical science; shape the development of geographical ideas.

Issues for discussion:

1. Definition of geography, its object and subject, tasks and functions.
2. The concept of the geographical envelope and the geographical environment of the Earth.

3. Geography of ancient times.
4. Age of Discovery
5. Geography of the Middle Ages
6. Geography of modern times

Practical task No. 1:

1. Fill out the table.

Development of geography

MAIN STAGES OF GEOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT

AND GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

1. Geographical knowledge primitive peoples

We find the beginnings of geographical knowledge among primitive peoples (rock paintings, transmission of information by word of mouth, etc.).

Necessity forced primitive people to acquire geographical knowledge. First of all, it was knowledge about the location of individual territories. This knowledge was used for economic purposes. For example, hunters needed to know and find places rich in game, fishermen needed places rich in fish, etc.

When people took up productive activities - cattle breeding, agriculture - the importance of geographical knowledge increased. Man began to appreciate the terrain more fully, especially when he began farming. At first, agriculture was slash-and-burn - the forest was burned, and fields appeared in its place. The soil lost fertility (over time). As a result, the person moved to a new place. Thus, significant areas of forest were burned in the tropical zone and in the temperate zone.

The places of old cuttings were remembered, and information about them was passed on to descendants. All farmers knew well the places where they could build a new field. Representatives of primitive peoples were noted for their subtle

observation skills, well oriented in space. The famous Russian traveler and writer V.K. Arsenyev characterizes his companion, the goldfish Dersu Uzal, as follows: “What was incomprehensible to me seemed simple and clear to him. Sometimes he noticed traces where, with all the desire to see something, I saw nothing. And he saw that a herd of mother red deer and a one-year-old calf had passed by. They plucked the leaves of the meadowsweet, then quickly ran away, obviously afraid of something. There were no secrets for this amazing man.”

Miklouho Mak-lai N.N. repeatedly noted the great powers of observation of the primitive peoples.

One has to marvel at how the inhabitants of Oceania swam across open areas ocean only by the stars. Famous scientist Thor Heyerdahl

repeated individual routes of ancient sailors. Thus, the great traveler and writer proved that navigation is possible even in the most unfavorable circumstances.

Geographical Ideas of the Ancient World

The centers of ancient civilization include: in the east Babylonia (in the south the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, in the north - Assyria), Egypt and Ancient China; in the west - Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece.

Science, as a form of human activity, arose in ancient Greece in the 6th - 5th centuries BC. Ancient Greek scientists looked at nature

as a whole. The main method of science at that time was logical analysis, which allowed ancient ancient scientists to make many remarkable conclusions that anticipated scientific discoveries

new time. Sphericality of the Earth

Thales was recognized in the 7th century BC, Pythagoras and his school in the 6th - 5th centuries BC, and in 384 - 322 BC Aristotle scientifically substantiated the idea of sphericity. And this was the greatest achievement of that time. It follows closely from the idea of sphericity linked view O geographical zonation.

The Syrian Posidonshy (II - I centuries BC) identified nine geographical zones or zones (we now distinguish thirteen zones). Strabo (died in the 20s AD), a remarkable geographer, believed that there are five geographical belts or zones on the spherical Earth. Scientists of antiquity believed that the middle zone was uninhabited due to the heat and did not advise sailing from the northern hemisphere to the southern. Of the specific geographical sciences, she achieved success earlier than others cartography. The most perfect ancient world map was compiled by Ptolemy (2nd century BC). It was reprinted several times in the Middle Ages. Pretty accurate circumference of the earth was calculated by Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BC). The term belongs to him

"geography". Geographical information is of great interest

ancient Chinese. They knew how to draw maps, knew the properties of the magnetic needle, reached the Pacific Ocean (1000 BC), sailed marginal seas

, discovered the Japanese islands. Long before our era, the Chinese had the correct ideas for those times about the geographical features of Asia, and compiled unique descriptions and maps. Founder Aristotle is rightly considered in physical geography. His great work “Meteorology”. Here he singles out the atmosphere as a single whole, including both the air and water shells. He is recognized as the founder of hydrology, meteorology, and oceanology. Eratostheus is called the father of geography. Mainly because he compiled a fairly accurate map of the Earth, drawing parallels and meridians on it. They were allocated this way

called “climates” - latitudinal bands with different day lengths. An attempt was made to divide the Earth into physical-geographical stripes - sphagrides.

In addition, it was Eratosthenes who emphasized unity of the World Ocean. Eratosthenes' work "Geographical Notes" has not reached us. However, the views of Eratosthenes were outlined by Strabo, and therefore we have the opportunity to present the work of Eratosthenes in all its harmony.

The merit of ancient scientists was that they sought explain scientific facts. And this led to the development historical-genetic method. Ancient scientists were interested in many things, and most importantly, in relationships. For example, the origin of the Nile Delta, the genesis of earthquakes, the formation of the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian Seas, and many others

questions. In this regard, Strabo especially stood out. Following Aristotle and Eratosthenes, Strabo believed that the surface of the Earth is constantly changing. “It is amazing,” wrote Strabo, “that some parts of the Earth, now inhabited, were formerly covered with seas, and our seas were inhabited Earths. Likewise, some springs, rivers and lakes dried up, others opened up - mountains were replaced by valleys, and vice versa.” And this was written in the 1st century BC! Strabo wrote 17 volumes of “geography” and 43 books of “history”.

One: one of the first regional experts can be considered Herodotus (484 - 428 BC). The scientist traveled a lot ( Asia Minor, Babylon, Egypt, Sicily, the Black Sea coast);; collected and systematized geographical information (India, Sahara, Atlas), and then described nature, population, customs, religion - 9 volumes of “History”.

Features of this stage of development of geography: integrity ancient times. This is a bright period in the development of science in general and geography in particular. If the beginning of this period can be considered a continuation of the era of ancient cultures, then its completion is associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which marked end ancient era, ancient science. It was forgotten in the Middle Ages. And they remembered the science of geography only during the Renaissance.

Geography of the Middle Ages

The slave system was replaced in the Middle Ages by a more progressive feudal system. However, at the beginning of the Middle Ages productive forces were poorly developed. Significant influence for science religion provided. The materialistic views of ancient scientists were forgotten, the idea of the spherical shape of the Earth was rejected.

Cosmas Indicopleus (6th century), author of the Christian Monograph of the Universe, claims that the Earth has the shape of a tabernacle, that is, the Earth is a quadrangle that is surrounded by oceans. On the maps of this time, Jerusalem was in the center, and paradise to the east.

However, religion has also positive influence for the development of science: research was carried out in monasteries chronicles, descriptions, books were collected and printed.

Main feature feudal period- isolation, disunity of people.

In the period from the 5th to the 15th centuries, the main achievements of geography come down to territorial discoveries. The greatest successes in the discovery and description of new lands were achieved by the Normans, Arabs, and Europeans.

"Northern People" Normans, inhabitants of Scandinavia lived near the coast and were skilled sailors. They raided England, France, Holland, and reached Constantinople and North America. The Northern France they captured was named "Normandy", which still exists today.

In 867 a Norman Naddot opened Iceland(ice land - ice country), founded the village of Reykjavik.

In 985 the Norman Eirik the Red opened Greenland(Ggeen land -

green, country). on her south coast a colony arose.

Further voyages of the Normans to the west led to the discovery North America(Boyarni and Leif the Happy) between 987 and 1000. It is not known exactly what places they visited: Labrador, or Newfoundland, or south of New York. Historians of geography cannot say for sure. But it’s absolutely true that the Normans sailed to North America long before Columbus.

At first glance, one is struck by the ease with which the Vikings (man from the bay) achieved very remote places and hard-to-reach territories, covered large areas of North America. We do not belittle the courage and resourcefulness of the Normans, their art of building strong ships. Vessels that rode the waves well. But at the same time, it is very, very doubtful that the Normans would have been able to achieve such tremendous successes themselves if natural conditions had not contributed to them. X - XII centuries - this is the time climatic optimum, that is, the climate then was milder than now, and therefore there were fewer seas. IN otherwise The Vikings would not have been able to swim in the area of the 65th parallel. Let us remember that they called Greenland a “green country” - there were pastures here. Only later did these areas become covered with ice. In the Icelandic sagas, ice is not mentioned as an obstacle to navigation.

Until about 1200, whale and seal hunters sailed to the shores of Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya.

During the Middle Ages, a significant role in geographical science was played by Arab scientists. In 711, moving west, the Arabs penetrated the Iberian Peninsula, in the south - into the Indian Ocean (up to Madagascar - 9th century), in the east - into China. They went around Asia from the south.

The Arab scientist Biruni (973 - 1042) was the first among Central Asian scientists to express the idea of the possibility rotation of the Earth around the Sun, measured the circumference of the Earth.

The great European traveler was Marco Polo (1254 - 1324). The Venetian Polo family - father, son, uncle - spent many years traveling. Their journey to China, Mongolia, by sea around South Asia, and to Western Asia lasted 45 years. Marco Polo discovered

Europeans East.“The Book of Marco Polo” tells about the animal world, vegetation, minerals and other objects (for example, monkeys, elephants, medicinal herbs, etc.). The story itself is fascinating, especially when we're talking about about spices, ivory, etc. The Book of Marco Polo has been translated into many languages, and for a long time remained a valuable guide for all travelers to Central Asia, India, and China. Christopher Columbus also studied it.

4. Age of Discovery

In the 15th - 16th centuries, in the depths of feudal medieval society, the shoots of a new social order- capitalism. Started intensively

industry and trade developed, commodity-money relations emerged. The role of cities has increased. Science and culture developed rapidly. This time was called the Renaissance - Renaissance.

In art, culture, and science, the progressive traditions of ancient times began to be revived, but at a new level.

WITH The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the beginning of the development of natural science are also associated with the Renaissance period.

It was a time of energetic and passionate people. Friedrich Engels called the Renaissance the greatest progressive revolution: “At that time there was almost no big man, who would not have traveled far, would not speak four or five languages, and would not shine in several areas of creativity. The Age of Great Geographical Discoveries is called so loudly because it was marked by grandiose achievements.” At this time they were open to Europeans North, Central and South America, route to India around Africa, first completed trip around the world , the beginning of a systematic geographical discoveries

in Siberia.

Let us dwell very briefly on the results of only a few trips. Those who wish can familiarize themselves in detail with the progress of the expeditions using the recommended literature. The discovery of America is associated with the name of Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506) - the great Italian traveler. Let us recall that the Normans, having been the first to visit America, will not leave written evidence.

Having discovered America, they no matter how they filed a patent for this discovery. It fell into oblivion and was forgotten. Purpose

During Columbus's voyage, India and other eastern countries were fabulously rich. Columbus made four voyages.

Geographical and cartographic calculations were made with an error, and on October 12, 1492 (the day of the discovery of America), Columbus ended up in the Bahamas, and then on the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti). The error was not discovered; Columbus believed that he had visited the eastern tip of Asia, that is, India. Until the end of his days, Columbus was mistaken,- thinking that he had visited Asian territories. The perseverance and courage of a traveler who has overcome great difficulties is worthy of surprise. Discovery of America the most

an important event

in the era of great geographical discoveries.

It forced us to reconsider the previously existing views on the distribution of land and sea on Earth.

The dream of Europeans to find a way to India was realized by the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama (1469 - 1524). He began his journey in 1497 in Lisbon, circumnavigated Africa, and reached the Malabar coast near Calicut.

Along the paths of Columbus, seekers of new profit rushed to America. One of them, Balboa, crossed in search of gold Isthmus of Panama and saw with my own eyes the mysterious “South Sea”. This is how a European first visited the Pacific Ocean in 1513.

And already in 1519 the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan went on his first trip around the world. Final goal his was pragmatic - Western way reach the Moluccas, rich in spices. Magellan had to work hard before he found the passage (Strait of Magellan) between the southern tip of South America and Tierra del Fuego. In 1519, he left the Spanish port (Sanlucarde -

Barrameda), to the south Atlantic Ocean, and only in 1520 he discovered the strait and went out into Pacific Ocean. As you know, the name of the ocean was given by Magellan, because during his voyage there was not a single storm. Having passed the Pacific and Indian oceans and rounded Africa, the expedition returned to Spain in 1522 with heavy losses. Magellan was killed. Of the five ships, only one remained.

With his journey, Magellan established: 1) the unity of the World Ocean;; 2) discovered body of water between America and Asia;; 3) confirmed the idea of the sphericity of the Earth;; 4) gave more full view about the configuration of South America.

5. The Age of Great Russian Discoveries

Related information.

THE ANCIENT STAGE OF GEOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT

1 Geographical ideas of primitive peoples.

2 Development of geographical ideas and concepts in the countries of the Ancient East (IV-I millennium BC).

3 Geographical ideas of the Minoans and Phoenicians.

Geographical representations of primitive peoples. Geography arose in ancient times in connection with urgent life needs people - with hunting, gathering, beekeeping, cattle breeding and agriculture. To run a household - even a primitive one - it was necessary to have enough deep knowledge local conditions - the appearance of wild animals and edible plants, fish movements in rivers and lakes, seasonality and productivity of pastures, soil fertility. Geography began with ancient people’s knowledge of the surrounding world and the features of the area. However surrounding a person the world has always been incomparably larger than himself (110).

First elementary geographical representations appeared together with difficulty, i.e. at the very initial stage of human development (126,279). Among the first and most important questions that primitive man asked himself were those related to the properties of the surrounding nature. “Like many other animals, primitive man identified certain areas of the earth’s surface as the territory necessary for his life. And like many other animals, he was constantly tormented by a vague premonition that, perhaps, in some other places the grass was even greener” (110, p. 15).

The nature of the geographical ideas of the era of the primitive communal system can only be judged indirectly, since written monuments not available for this era. Indirect judgments are based mainly on the study of the culture of backward tribes and nationalities, which, until the collision with the Europeans, remained at the stage of the primitive communal system. A huge contribution to the study of culture primitive people contributed N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888), L. Lévy-Bruhl (1857-1939), D. Cook (1728-1779) and M.Mead (81,211,212,263,301,420,433).

It is known that primitive man derived his knowledge of nature from his direct experience, limited area habitat. However, according to scientists, this knowledge was amazingly thorough. European travelers were amazed by the ability of the “savages” of all continents to carefully observe and subtly feel nature (211,212). The range of factual knowledge of primitive man was always determined by the nature of his production activities and the immediate natural environment (126.279).

For example, in the language of the Eskimos of North America, whose life is closely connected with the sea, there are up to 20 different words, denoting different types and ice conditions. Agricultural tribes have the richest terminology relating to various agricultural crops, phases of their development, etc. Hunters and gatherers are particularly knowledgeable about wild plants and animals. Highly developed powers of observation are closely related to the skills of excellent spatial orientation. However, for some African peoples, the perception of color is limited only to red and blue; their language has only two words to designate these opposite parts of the visible light spectrum. As a result, they do not perceive intermediate colors such as orange, yellow or green (110, p. 19).

Many ancient peoples empirically approached the development of complex geographical concepts reminiscent of modern scientific ideas about landscapes and tracts, which is reflected in their language, in local geographical names (126,322).

It is known from psychology that when perceiving surrounding objects, a person isolates them in space and only then establishes spatial connections and relationships between them (110,126,366,408,423). This leads to a special way of conveying these relationships - a geographical map.

The map in its elementary form, i.e. cartographic drawing appears among primitive man long before the invention of writing. True, not a single cartographic image of those times has reached us. However, some petrographs may contain elements of topographical design. More A. Humboldt (1769-1859) saw the beginnings of a geographical map in the petroglyphs of South America. If this is true, then the beginning of cartography dates back to the Late Paleolithic. Paleolithic - This is the ancient Stone Age (the first period of the Stone Age), the time of the existence of man who used primitive stone, wooden and bone tools, and was engaged in hunting and gathering. The Paleolithic lasted from the emergence of man (over 2 million years ago) until approximately X thousand BC. Thus, the map as a method of recording data chronologically precedes the written description of geographical reality.

The oldest surviving map was created in Sumer (Interfluve) approximately 2,500 BC. It is a drawing of a small area of the area made on a clay tablet (110,126,279).

Elements of geographical knowledge occupied first place in total amount primitive man's ideas about the world around him. However, at this first stage of development Homo Sapiens a person's thinking was concrete. Ancient man was able to give proper names(names) to each local subject, but in his language there were no words denoting general concepts, such as “river”, “mountain”, “plant”, “animal”, etc. Keen observation and relatively extensive knowledge of individual specific facts were combined with underdevelopment of abstract thinking ( 110,126).

2 Development of geographical ideas and concepts in the countries of the Ancient East (IV-I millennium BC) The first large slave states appeared in the 4th millennium BC. among agricultural peoples Egypt, Mesopotamia, Northern India And China. Sedentary farming provided more possibilities for application slave labor and the development of metallurgy than cattle breeding. The formation of developed slave states in these countries was facilitated by their favorable geographical conditions: position along big rivers– sources of irrigation and waterways (« river civilizations ", I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916)), relatively reliable natural boundaries - mountains, deserts, etc. These states arose independently of each other. Only over time, the mutual influence of their cultures to one degree or another began to appear quite clearly.

The most ancient peoples of the East left us the first written documents. It is curious that the earliest that have reached us literary works were devoted to travel descriptions. Stories and tales about travel to distant lands are one of the oldest genres of world literature.

The theme of travel completely prevails in the most ancient epic. For example, in the ancient Sumerian epic poem about Gilgamesh (IV millennium BC) tells about the wanderings of a hero who reached the ocean through deserts and mountains and crossed it (26,61,110,126).

Sources of this kind (fairy tales, songs, epics, etc.), along with archaeological data, allow us to make an assumption about the spatial and geographical horizons of the peoples of the Ancient East and their ideas about the Earth.

Ancient Egyptians , for example, already in the 3rd millennium BC. conducted brisk trade with Syria, Ethiopia, and the countries of the basin Mediterranean Sea. They may also have had trade relations with distant India.

People's horizons Mesopotamia in the III-II millennia BC. spread in the north to Armenia and Transcaucasia, and in the south to modern Oman (85,110,126).

Spatial horizon ancient Chinese until the second half of the 2nd century. BC. was mainly limited eastern part present territory of China. Reliable information about the countries of Central and Central Asia the ancient Chinese received only after traveling Zhang Qian (138-126 BC). This journey marked the beginning of China's trade relations with the countries of Central Asia, and through them with the Eastern Mediterranean, where a little later the “Great Silk Road” was laid, which lasted until 23 BC. In Ancient China, much attention was paid to geographical research, incl. searching for a way to Europe. Chinese travelers did no less in “discovering” Europe than Europeans did in paving the way to “ Far East" But the Chinese body of knowledge remained aloof from the flow of Western thought (110,126,158,279).

The slave era dates back to the emergence of the rudiments of scientific knowledge in the fields of mathematics, astronomy and mechanics. In Egypt during the era Old Kingdom (around the 2nd millennium BC) land surveying was carried out, a land cadastre was created (mainly to determine the amount of taxes). Similar work was carried out in Mesopotamia. The Egyptians quite accurately determined the length of the year and introduced it into everyday use. solar calendar . The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians knew sundial. Egyptian and Babylonian priests, as well as Chinese astronomers, established patterns of recurrence of eclipses and learned to predict them (126).

"Egypt is the cradle of science." Egypt is called the cradle of science, because here in ancient times arose methods of observation, measurement and scientific generalization. Egyptian priests possessed solid practical knowledge in the fields of mathematics (algebra), astronomy and geometry necessary to govern society. They improved ways to measure land plots and determine the boundaries of fields that were constantly destroyed during floods on the Nile. They learned to determine the local meridian line (north-south direction) in order to accurately orient the erected monuments and public buildings. They also invented writing and found a way to obtain papyrus, a writing material, from a plant that grew abundantly in the marshy Nile Delta (110).

Mesopotamia. The peoples of Mesopotamia also contributed to the accumulation of geographical knowledge. The world's first mathematicians, who lived in the Sumerian state, knew all the basic rules of algebra already 3,000 years ago, although the algebraic symbols that we use now were not known until XVI century. But even without them, the Sumerians understood and used many algebraic dependencies. They could also take the square root of any number.

From Mesopotamia the ecliptic is divided into 12 zodiac signs, the year into 12 months, the day into 24 hours, and the circle into 360 degrees. It was accepted in this country lunar week .

Firstly slave states In the ancient East, primitive maps were also created that served a variety of purposes. One of the oldest maps dates back to approximately 2500 BC. It is a very schematic representation on a clay tablet of the northern part of Mesopotamia with the Euphrates River and two mountain ranges. A later Babylonian map (circa 5th century BC) shows the entire Earth as a disk surrounded by an ocean, centered on Babylon (85,110,112,215).

It was in the countries of the ancient East that they appeared first ideas about divine providence . According to the religious beliefs of the ancient Sumerians, the world is ruled by gods similar to people, but endowed, unlike them, with superhuman capabilities and immortality. Each of the gods was subordinate to certain forces and phenomena of the natural world surrounding man - the flow of rivers, sea ebbs and flows, wind currents, crop yields, and abundance of game. The gods competed with each other, and their attitude towards people was characterized by despotism and often vindictiveness.

In ancient cultures around the world, many natural phenomena were explained by reference to the existence of a single deity, whose actions were always beyond the jurisdiction. This deity had to be pleased more often with sacrifices so that it would treat human beings more favorably.

The ideas of ancient peoples about nature, although they were based on real practical experience, retained their mythological character. So, back in the 3rd millennium BC. the ancient Sumerians created creation myths , about the flood and paradise, which turned out to be very tenacious and are reflected in the main book of all Christians - the Bible.

The belief in the direct influence of the luminaries on the destinies of people led to the emergence astrology . This “science” was especially popular in Babylon. All ancient peoples' ideas about the Earth were based on direct perception of the surrounding world.

Observations over the visible horizon led to the view of the Earth as a stationary, flat disk located at the center of the world. In a similar, although more poetic form, the origin of the Earth is depicted in the sacred book of the Brahmins - "Vedah": “The earth arose from water and is like a blossoming lotus flower, one of the petals of which is India” (126).

3 Geographical ideas of the Minoans and Phoenicians. Among the most developed peoples of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. included the Minoans and Phoenicians. By the 2nd millennium BC. intermediary trade between the Western and Eastern Mediterranean was in the hands of Minoans, who on the island of Crete founded a powerful sea power. There is evidence that the Minoan trade links extended from the British Isles to the Canary Islands, Senegal and India. However, from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. dominance on the sea routes of the Mediterranean Sea passes to the Phoenicians.

Phoenicians, whose homeland was located on the territory of modern Lebanon, they were among the first navigators and discoverers of new lands. In their voyages they penetrated far beyond the boundaries of known lands. However, engaged only in trade, they reported almost nothing about the countries and peoples they visited.

In those distant times, in one of the mountain valleys of modern Beirut, an ore body was discovered that successfully combined copper and tin. The Phoenicians developed it, made bronze and traded it. In general, in the ore deposits of the Mediterranean basin, with an abundance of copper, tin was clearly lacking. Therefore, the Phoenicians made regular sea voyages to the Isles of Scilly off the coast of Great Britain, where they mined tin. They also traded cedar wood, which grew abundantly in mountain forests Lebanon. One of the oldest written documents, compiled 3,000 BC, is an inventory of cedar logs loaded at the Phoenician port of Byblos onto forty ships that were supposed to deliver this cargo to Egypt.

The Phoenicians established many trading ports along the entire Mediterranean coast, including Carthage . They are also responsible for the creation of the first phonetic alphabet. It consisted entirely of consonants, like the modern Semitic alphabet. Somewhat later, the Greeks supplemented this alphabet with short vowel sounds. The Phoenician language formed the basis of the absolute majority of all European alphabets known today. In the VI century. BC. Phenicia was conquered by the Persians, and in 322 BC. conquered Alexander the Great . In 146 BC. Carthage was destroyed (11,110,126).

The beginnings of geographical knowledge appeared among primitive people, whose very existence depended on the ability to navigate in space and find natural shelters, sources of water, places for hunting, stones for tools, etc. Primitive man was distinguished by keen observation and even the ability to make drawings of the area on skins, birch bark, and wood - prototypes of geographical maps. The primitive map as a way of transmitting geographic information apparently arose long before the emergence of writing. Already at the earliest stages of his economic activity, primitive man entered into complex interactions with the natural environment.

Research by archaeologists in recent years has shown that already at the end of the Paleolithic (ancient Stone Age), man destroyed the bulk of large mammals within the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, thereby causing a kind of “first ecological crisis” in the history of our planet, and was forced from gathering and hunting to switch to farming.

The first written documents were left to us by the agricultural peoples of the Ancient East: Egypt, Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylon), Northern India and China (IV-II millennium BC). These peoples developed the rudiments of scientific knowledge in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics, which were then used to solve problems of a geographical nature. Thus, in Egypt, during the era of the Old Kingdom (before 2500 BC), land surveys were carried out, and a land cadastre was created (mainly to determine the amount of taxes). In order to determine the timing of various agricultural works, regular astronomical observations began to be carried out. The Egyptians quite accurately determined the length of the year and introduced the solar calendar. Egyptian and Babylonian priests, as well as Chinese astronomers, established patterns of recurrence of solar eclipses and learned to predict them. From Mesopotamia the ecliptic is divided into 12 zodiac signs, the year into 12 months, the day into 24 hours, the circle into 360 degrees; The concept of “lunar week” was also introduced there. Modern numeric numbering originates from India.

Ideas about the Earth were based on direct perception of the surrounding world. Thus, the ancient Egyptians saw the Earth as a flat, elongated rectangle, surrounded on all sides by mountains. According to Babylonian myth, the god Marduk created the Earth among a primarily continuous ocean. In a similar, albeit more poetic form, the origin of the Earth is depicted in the sacred books of the Indian Brahmins - the Vedas: The Earth arose from water and is like a blooming lotus flower, one of the petals of which is India.

Among the geographical ideas of the ancient world, inherited by modern geography, the views of ancient scientists are of particular importance. Ancient (Greco-Roman) geography reached its peak in Ancient Greece and Rome in the period from the 12th century. BC. to 146 AD

In Ancient Greece around 500 BC. The idea of the spherical shape of the Earth was first expressed (Parmenides). Aristotle (IV century BC) provided the first reliable evidence in favor of this idea: the round shape of the earth's shadow during lunar eclipses and the change in the appearance of the starry sky when moving from north to south. Around 165 BC The Greek scientist Crates from Malla made the first model of the globe - a globe. Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC) was the first to approximately determine the distance from the Earth to the Sun. He was the first to teach that the Earth moves around the Sun and around its axis (heliocentric model of the cosmos).

The idea of geographical (climatic) zonality, based directly on the idea of the spherical shape of the Earth, also originates in ancient geography (Eudoxus of Cnidus, 400-347 BC). Posidonius (on the border of the 2nd-1st centuries BC) identified 9 geographical zones (we currently distinguish 13 zones). The idea of changes in the earth's surface also belongs to the oldest achievements of ancient thought (Heraclitus, 530-470 BC), and yet the struggle for it ended only two and a half millennia later, at the beginning of the 19th century. AD

The main directions of geographical science originated in Ancient Greece. Already by the 6th century. BC. the needs of navigation and trade (the Greeks founded a number of colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas at that time) necessitated descriptions of the land and sea coasts. At the turn of the 6th century. BC. Hecataeus from Miletus compiled a description of the Oikumene - all the countries known to the ancient Greeks at that time. “Description of the Earth” by Hecataeus became the beginning of the regional studies direction in geography. In the era of “classical Greece,” the most prominent representative of regional studies was the historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus (485-423 BC). His regional studies were closely connected with history and were of a reference and descriptive nature. Herodotus traveled through Egypt, Babylonia, Syria, Asia Minor, and the western coast of the Black Sea; gave a description of cities and countries in the work “History in Nine Books.” Such travels did not lead to the discovery of new lands, but contributed to the accumulation of more complete and reliable facts and the development of descriptive and regional studies in science.

The Hellenistic era (330-146 BC) dates back to the emergence of a new geographical direction, which later received the name of mathematical geography. One of the first representatives of this trend was Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276-194 BC). He was the first to quite accurately determine the size of the circumference of the globe by measuring the meridian arc (the measurement error was no more than 10%). Eratosthenes owns a large work, which he called “Geographical Notes,” using the term “geography” for the first time. The book gives a description of the Oikumene, and also discusses issues of mathematical and physical geography (general geoscience). Thus, Eratosthenes united all three directions under the single name “geography”, and he is considered the true “father” of geographical science.

The results of ancient geography were summed up already in the era of the Roman Empire by two outstanding Greek scientists - Strabo (about 64 BC) and Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 AD). The works of these scientists reflect two different views on the content, tasks and significance of geography. Strabo represented the regional studies direction. He limited the tasks of geography only to the description of the Ecumene, leaving the clarification of the figure of the Earth and its measurement to mathematicians, and the explanation of the causes of phenomena observed on Earth to philosophers. His famous “Geography” (in 17 books) is a descriptive work, a valuable source on the history and physical geography of the ancient world, which has come down to us in full - website. C. Ptolemy was the last and most outstanding representative of ancient mathematical geography. He saw the main task of geography in creating maps. The “Manual of Geography” compiled by Ptolemy is a list of several thousand points indicating their latitude and longitude, which is preceded by a statement of methods for constructing map projections. Ptolemy in the 2nd century. AD the most perfect map of the ancient world was compiled, which was published several times in the Middle Ages.

Humanity began to acquire geographical knowledge from ancient times, apparently even before the emergence of slave system, since without them it is impossible to conduct even the most primitive economy.

Moreover, although different tribes and peoples did not have the same geographical ideas, it is still possible to see some important common features in them. Tribes and peoples of deep antiquity in the center of the world thought of their habitat, their country (more precisely, their habitat). Their specific geographical knowledge was territorially limited. Knowing quite well the territory of their settlement and the conditions in which the struggle for existence took place, primitive peoples knew very little about the areas located beyond these boundaries.

Observations of nature among primitive peoples were reduced to establishing individual facts, without identifying general localities. Therefore, in our modern understanding, they are not very geographical. The processes occurring in nature were perceived as the actions of gods and demons. At the same time, ancient people, even before the emergence of slavery, already had a stock of knowledge about stones, plants, animals, winds, sea currents, etc. Needs economic life, exchange of goods between individual tribes, conquest and collection of tribute - all this, like many other things, led to the need to accumulate specific knowledge of a geographical nature.

It is known that even wandering hunters drew rough, but quite accurate maps. The ancient Vikings and Polynesians, who had thoroughly studied sea currents, trade winds and coastal contours, knew how to draw maps and make long voyages, guided by the stars. There are known maps drawn on skin, common among the Indians of Labrador, coastal maps Eskimos, etc. Thus, geography, like any other science, arose as a result of practical needs, and arose from particulars.

When studying the history of geography, one cannot ignore the period of its development within ancient society, since already at that time the principles that formed the basis of modern geography were put forward.

A noticeable leap in the development of geography occurred during the slave-owning era because it was under the slave-owning system that a sharp demarcation between physical and mental labor occurred, professionalism arose and was clearly defined. territorial division labor.

In the most ancient slave states one can see a significant development of geography. In Egypt, for example, maps were used no less than 1300 BC. The ancient inhabitants of slaveholding Mexico also knew how to draw maps long before the first Europeans appeared on the American continent. In ancient China, geography, along with history, can be called one of the earliest branches of knowledge. It developed there due to practical needs related primarily to the development of irrigation. The earliest agriculture in the valleys of some Chinese rivers, where feudal states were later formed, would have been impossible if the population of these valleys had not possessed a certain amount of geographical knowledge. Finally, what is especially important for us to note in this work is that in the slave era, the first cosmogonic teachings arose, although they developed in the system of natural philosophical ideas, but nevertheless contained the germs of geographical science as a special field human knowledge. From this time on, the theoretical understanding of geographical phenomena begins.

In a number of countries of the slave-holding world (Egypt, Babylon, India, China, etc.), attempts are increasingly being made to scientifically understand the environment human society peace. Attempts are being made to create scientific ideas about the Earth and its surface, and many philosophers proceeded from hypotheses about the existence of a material fundamental principle, although understood very naively (if these hypotheses are treated from the point of view of modern science).

The first theoretical ideas of a geographical nature developed within cosmogonic, often materialistic hypotheses contained in the teachings of philosophers of a slave society. The struggle between materialism and idealism, which began in ancient times, was reflected in the state of knowledge about the Earth, in the state of geographical ideas.