Which Balkan countries experienced a period of feudal fragmentation. Feudal fragmentation in Rus' - causes and consequences

Prerequisites and reasons for the transition to feudal fragmentation. At the turn of the XI-XII centuries. in Rus' came the characteristic European Middle Ages period of feudal fragmentation . On the positive side This process was the development of the feudal mode of production. The strengthening of feudal land ownership and the increase in quitrents - all this created the conditions for the further development of the country's economy. At the same time, fragmentation has caused negative phenomena in the field of political life. Princely strife began, endless internal strife among feudal lords began, which worsened the foreign policy situation of Rus' and weakened its strength in the fight against foreign invaders.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality came out from under the control of Kyiv in the 30s. XII century, when the son of Monomakh, Yuri Vladimirovich, reigned, nicknamed Dolgoruky for his attempts to occupy and hold cities as distant from Suzdal as Kyiv and Novgorod. As a feudal lord, he did not hesitate to expand his land holdings.

In the 12th century. The Vladimir-Suzdal land experienced significant economic growth. New cities were built here: Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Pereyaslavl, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov, etc. Yuri’s successors, princes Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, then his brother Vsevolod Big Nest managed to strengthen personal power, subjugate Novgorod and Ryazan, and create a strong squad. All of them waged a long struggle with the Galician-Volyn princes for Kyiv land. This struggle weakened Rus'.

The Galicia-Volyn land with its center in Przemysl occupied a territory stretching along the Black Sea coast to the Danube. It had rich salt mines and salt was exported to neighboring Russian principalities. Crafts reached a high level, which led to the growth of cities, of which there were over 80. Located at the intersection of numerous water and land routes, the Galicia-Volyn land played a prominent role in European trade. For a long time, there were feuds between local boyars and princes. The boyars sought help from Hungary and Poland, which for a long time prevented political consolidation.

Novgorod, one of the largest Russian cities, was located on the main trade route connecting the Baltic, Black and Caspian seas. The power of Novgorod extended to vast territories that were previously part of the Old Russian state, to the Eastern Baltic to the Dvina, to the lands of the Karelians, Finns and Sami up to Norway, far to the north along the coast White Sea, to the Ural ridge. Agriculture was developed in the Novgorod land, but the main role in the economy was played by trades: hunting for fur and sea animals, mining of salt and iron. Novgorod itself was not only a trading center, but also a highly developed craft center. In the Novgorod lands, a political system different from other Russian regions developed - a boyar republic. Formally, the supreme power was held by the veche, a meeting of all townspeople. However, in fact, it was in the hands of the boyars, from among whom were elected: mayor - the head of the entire administration; Tysyatsky - assistant mayor, head of military forces, tax collection; archbishop - head of the Novgorod church. The Novgorod boyars had to reckon with the opinion of the veche, especially when speeches by city “black” people took place at veche meetings. Gradually with the development of internal and foreign trade in Novgorod the role of the merchants increased.

Culture of Russian lands. Despite the dismemberment of Rus', close relations developed between the principalities economic ties, especially in the field of trade, this had a positive effect on all Russian lands. Developed economy became material basis flourishing culture. Russian culture of the era of feudal fragmentation amazes with its diversity. During this period, literacy spread to new areas of the country and various classes, construction technology was improved (the production of bricks, durable lime mixture, etc. was mastered). Many monuments of wall painting, stone carving, fine silver coinage and monumental architecture which have gained worldwide fame. The Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir are decorated with stone carved reliefs; Church of the Intercession on the Nerl - decorative sculpture. In all major cities historical chronicles were kept, which became not only historical sources, but also literary monuments. Church preaching literature developed. Individual components also belong to the literary monuments chronicle vaults, which are stories of secular content. All authors made extensive use of folklore treasures. The greatest monument of Russian and world culture is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The bearers of progressive ideas of that time strongly condemned the feudal strife of the princes and called on them to unite, which was so necessary to fight the external enemy.

The period of feudal fragmentation, traditionally called the “appanage period,” lasted from the 12th to the end of the 15th centuries.

Feudal fragmentation weakened the defensive capabilities of Russian lands. This became noticeable in the second half of the 11th century, when a new strong enemy appeared in the south - the Polovtsians (Turkic nomadic tribes). According to the chronicles, it is estimated that from 1061 to the beginning of the 13th century. There were more than 46 major Cuman invasions.

The internecine wars of the princes, the associated destruction of cities and villages, and the removal of the population into slavery became a disaster for peasants and townspeople. From 1228 to 1462, according to S. M. Solovyov, there were 90 wars between Russian principalities, in which there were 35 cases of taking cities, and 106 external wars, of which: 45 - with the Tatars, 41 - with the Lithuanians, 30 - with Livonian Order, the rest - with the Swedes and Bulgars. The population begins to leave Kyiv and neighboring lands to the northeast to the Rostov-Suzdal land and partially to the southwest to Galicia. Occupying the southern Russian steppes, the Polovtsians cut off Rus' from foreign markets, which led to a decline in trade. During the same period, European trade routes changed to Balkan-Asian directions as a result of the Crusades. In this regard, the Russian principalities experienced difficulties in international trade.

In addition to external ones, internal reasons for the decline of Kievan Rus also emerged. Klyuchevsky believed that this process was influenced by degraded legal and economic situation working population and the significant development of slavery. The courtyards and villages of the princes were full of “servants”; the position of the “purchasers” and “hiremen” (semi-free) was on the verge of a slave state. The Smerds, who retained their communities, were crushed by princely exactions and the growing appetites of the boyars. Feudal fragmentation, the growth of political contradictions between independent principalities expanding their territories led to changes in their social order. The power of the princes became strictly hereditary, the boyars, who received the right to freely choose their overlord, grew stronger, and the category of free servants (former ordinary warriors) multiplied. In the princely economy, the number of unfree servants grew, engaged in production and material support for the prince himself, his family, and members of the princely court.

Features of the divided Russian principalities

As a result of crushing ancient Russian state by the middle of the 12th century. separated into independent ten states-principalities. Subsequently, to mid-XIII c., their number reached eighteen. They were named according to capital cities: Kievskoye, Chernigovskoye, Pereyaslavskoye, Murom-Ryazanskoye. Suzdal (Vladimir). Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Novgorod Boyar Republic. In each of the principalities, one of the branches of the Rurikovichs ruled, and the sons of princes and governor-boyars ruled individual appanages and volosts. However, all lands retained the same written language, a single religion and church organization, the legal norms of the “Russian Truth”, and most importantly, an awareness of common roots, a common historical destiny. At the same time, each of the established independent states had its own development characteristics. The largest of them, who played significant role in the subsequent history of Rus', became: Suzdal (later - Vladimir) principality - North-Eastern Rus'; Galician (later - Galician-Volyn) principality - South-Western Rus'; Novgorod boyar republic - Novgorod land (North-Western Rus').

Principality of Suzdal was located between the Oka and Volga rivers. Its territory was well protected from external invasions by forests and rivers, had profitable trade routes along the Volga with the countries of the East, and through the upper reaches of the Volga - to Novgorod and to the countries Western Europe. The economic recovery was also facilitated by a constant influx of population. Prince of Suzdal Yuri Dolgoruky (1125 - 1157), in the struggle with his nephew Izyaslav Mstislavich for the Kiev throne, repeatedly captured Kyiv. For the first time in the chronicle under 1147, Moscow is mentioned, where negotiations between Yuri and Prince of Chernigov Svyatoslav. Yuri's son, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) moved the capital of the principality from Suzdal to Vladimir, which he rebuilt with great pomp. The northeastern princes ceased to lay claim to rule in Kyiv, but sought to maintain their influence here, first by organizing military campaigns, then through diplomacy and dynastic marriages. In the fight against the boyars, Andrei was killed by the conspirators. His policy was continued by his half-brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212). He had many sons, for which he received such a nickname.

The settlers, who made up a significant proportion of the population, did not preserve state traditions Kievan Rus, - the role of “veche” and “worlds”. Under these conditions, the despotism of the power of the princes is growing, and they are intensifying the fight against the boyars. Under Vsevolod it ended in favor of the princely power. Vsevolod managed to establish close ties with Novgorod, where his sons and relatives reigned; defeated the Ryazan principality, organizing the resettlement of some of its inhabitants to his own possessions; successfully fought with Volga Bulgaria, putting a number of its lands under his control, and became related to the Kyiv and Chernigov princes. He became one of the strongest princes in Rus'. His son Yuri (1218 - 1238) founded Nizhny Novgorod and strengthened himself in Mordovian lands. The further development of the principality was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.

Galicia-Volyn Principality occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the Dniester and Prut rivers. Favorable geographical location (neighborhood with European countries) and climatic conditions contributed to economic development, and the second migration flow from the southern Russian principalities was also sent here (to safer areas). Poles and Germans also settled here.

The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav I Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), and under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich in 1199 the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place. In 1203 Roman captured Kyiv. The Galician-Volyn principality became one of the largest states in feudal-fragmented Europe, its close ties were established with European states, and Catholicism began to penetrate Russian soil. His son Daniel (1221 - 1264) led a long struggle for the Galician throne with its western neighbors (Hungarian and Polish princes) and expansion of the state. In 1240 he united the South- Western Rus' and the Kyiv land, established his power in the fight against the boyars. But in 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was subjected to Mongol devastation. In the subsequent struggle, Daniel strengthened the principality, and in 1254 he accepted the royal title from the Pope. However, the Catholic West did not help Daniel in his fight against the Tatars. Daniel was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Horde khan. Having existed for about another hundred years, the Galician-Volyn state became part of Poland and Lithuania, which had a great influence on the formation of the Ukrainian people. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania included Western Russian principalities - Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Novgorod-Seversk, etc. The Belarusian nation was formed within this state.

Novgorod Boyar Republic. Novgorod land is the most important component of the ancient Russian state. During the period of feudal fragmentation, it retained its political significance, economic and trade relations with West and East, covered the territory from Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga from north to south, from the Baltic states and almost to the Urals from west to east. A huge land fund belonged to the local boyars. The latter, using the uprising of the Novgorodians in 1136, managed to defeat the princely power and establish a boyar republic. Supreme body it became a meeting where they decided critical issues life and the Novgorod administration was elected. In fact, the owners of it were the largest boyars of Novgorod. The mayor became the main official in the department. He was elected from the noblest families of Novgorodians. The veche also elected the head of the Novgorod church, who managed the treasury, controlled foreign relations and even had his own army. From the end of the 12th century. The position of the head of the trade and economic sphere of life in Novgorod society was called “tysyatsky”. It was usually occupied by large merchants. The princely power also retained certain positions in Novgorod. The veche invited the prince to wage war, but even the prince’s residence was located outside the Novgorod Kremlin. The wealth and military power of Novgorod made the Novgorod Republic an influential force in Rus'. Novgorodians became a military support in the fight against the German and Swedish aggression against Russian lands. The Mongol invasion did not reach Novgorod. Wide trade ties with Europe determined the significant influence of the West in the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod became one of the largest trade, craft and cultural centers not only in Rus', but also in Europe. High level The culture of the Novgorodians shows the degree of literacy of the population, as can be seen from the “birch bark letters” discovered by archaeologists, the number of which exceeds a thousand.

Appearance in the second half of the 11th century. - first third of the 13th century. new political centers contributed to the growth and development of culture. During the period of feudal fragmentation, one of the greatest creations arose ancient Russian culture"The Tale of Igor's Campaign." Its author, touching upon the circumstances of the defeat of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in an everyday clash with the Polovtsians (1185), was able to turn it into a tragedy on a national scale. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” became a prophetic warning against the danger of princely strife, sounded four decades before the crushing Tatar-Mongol invasion.

Decay early feudal state into several large independent formations - a natural stage in the development of feudal relations, characteristic of both Western and Western countries of Eastern Europe. This period lasted in Rus' from the 30s of the 12th century to the end of the 15th century.

During this time, the fragmentation of the once intensified single state: by the middle of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, at the beginning of the 13th century - 50, in the 14th century - about 250.

Reasons for feudal fragmentation:

The increase in the number of cities (by the beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion there were about 300 of them) in the conditions of a subsistence economy led to the natural isolation of individual territories, which became economically independent from each other, since they provided for themselves with everything. Not only Kyiv, but also other cities could lay claim to the role of cultural, trade and craft centers.
Local ruling groups (princes, boyars) were strong enough to independently maintain order in their territories and protect their interests
The established system of vassalage gave rise to special hierarchical relationships within the ruling elite of society: each feudal lord had certain obligations to the allied (higher feudal lord); most feudal lords had subordinate vassals (lower feudal lords), which ensured independence and independence of existence, and therefore, direct dependence on centralized power disappeared.

Stages of political fragmentation of the ancient Russian state:

1054 After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the separation of individual principalities began
1097 The Lyubech Congress of Princes approved an agreement on securing the princely thrones locally to individual branches of the house of Rurikovich
1132 After the death of Mstislav the Great, the state was finally fragmented into separate lands and principalities
Since 1132, the process of fragmentation continued within the lands and principalities

Features of feudal fragmentation:

Unlike Medieval Europe, in Rus' there was no generally accepted political center (capital). The Kyiv throne quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the 13th century, the princes of Vladimir began to be called Great.
The rulers in all the lands of Rus' belonged to the same dynasty.

Main political centers:

Galicia-Volyn land (in the southwest)

The Galician-Volyn principality occupied lands in the basins of the Dnieper, Prut, Southern and Western Bug, stretching from the Carpathians to Polesie. In the 12th century, there were 2 independent principalities in this territory: Volyn and Galician. In 1199 they united into the powerful Galicia-Volyn principality.

Vladimir-Suzdal land (in the northeast)

(originally Rostov-Suzdal) Occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. Rich in fertile soils, forested lands, and flooded meadows, this land was a most fertile land, moreover, it was also well protected by natural barriers (rivers, forests) from external enemies.

Novgorod land (in the northwest)

The largest center of Russian lands in the north-west. It occupied the largest area in terms of territory - from the Baltic to the Ural Range and from the White Sea to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. Novgorodians had huge land reserves and rich industries.

State fragmentation in Rus'

In the 30-40s. XII century princes cease to recognize power Prince of Kyiv. Rus' breaks up into separate principalities (“lands”). The struggle of different princely branches began for Kyiv. The strongest lands were Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn. Subordinate to their princes were the princes, whose possessions ( appanages ) were part of the large lands. The growth of local centers, already burdened by the tutelage of Kyiv, and the development of princely and boyar land ownership are considered to be the prerequisites for fragmentation. The Principality of Vladimir rose under Yuri Dolgoruky and his sons Andrei Bogolyubsky (d. 1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (d. 1212). Yuri and Andrei captured Kyiv more than once, but Andrei, unlike his father, put his brother there, and did not reign himself. Andrei tried to rule by despotic methods and was killed by conspirators. After the death of Andrei and Vsevolod, strife broke out between their heirs. The Principality of Galicia strengthened under Yaroslav Osmomysl (d. 1187). In 1199, when Yaroslav’s son Vladimir died childless, Galich was captured by Roman of Volyn, and in 1238, after a long struggle, Roman’s son Daniel. The development of this land was influenced by Poland and Hungary, which actively intervened in local feuds, as well as the boyars, who were much more influential and powerful than in other principalities. Novgorodians in 1136 They expelled Prince Vsevolod and from then on began to invite princes according to the decision of the veche. The real power lay with the boyars, whose factions fought among themselves for influence. The same situation was in Pskov, which depended on Novgorod. In the 1170s The Polovtsian danger is intensifying. The southern princes, led by Svyatoslav of Kyiv, inflicted several defeats on them, but in 1185 Igor Novgorod-Seversky was defeated and captured by the Polovtsians, the nomads ravaged part of southern Rus'. But by the end of the century, the Polovtsy, having broken up into many separate hordes, stopped raiding.

Reasons for feudal discord:

Increasing importance of patrimonial land ownership
disadvantages of the patrimonial principle of succession to the throne
weakening of the political and economic role of Kyiv
The reason for the feud of discord was the Lyubech Congress. He changed the principle of succession to the throne and introduced the principle from father to sons.

15 large independent princes received the name of lands. Only 2 princes were not transferred to anyone for succession: Kivevks and Novgor.

Why didn’t the Kiev princedom split up?:

formally the Prince of Kiev was considered the Grand Duke
All the most powerful princes could lay claim to the throne of Kiev

Feudal disunity is a natural stage in the development of the society, which all countries have gone through. Therefore, it is impossible to unambiguously evaluate fr:

Positive:

Intensive development of regions, power closer to the people
feud strife became less frequent
intensive perfection, namely agricultural production, transition to a 2-3 field system,
intensive metal production, urban development.

By the end of the 13th century there were about 300 cities in the KKN. Cities are being transformed into centers of craft and trade, merchant corporations are being created, and the local self-government system is developing.

feud relatives are entering their mature stage

Negative:

Many Russian lands fall under the control of other peoples.

Lecture

Reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Rus'

Pavlyukovich Natalya Ivanovna

1. Causes of feudal fragmentation.

2. Feudal strife between the sons of Yaroslav the Wise.

3.Vladimir Monomakh.

4. Specific Russia:

A) Vladimir-Suzdal land;

B) Principality of Kiev;

B) Galich and Volyn;

D) Novgorod land.

1. REASONS OF FEPUDAL FRONTATION.

The period of feudal fragmentation covers the XII-XV centuries. Kievan Rus was a vast but unstable state. The tribes that were part of it maintained their isolation for a long time; Under the dominance of subsistence farming, individual lands could not merge into an economic whole.

Disunity and strife between the princes and principalities were restrained only by the presence of military force among the great Kyiv princes. Big negative meaning The principle of inheritance established by Yaroslav the Wise played a role in the disintegration processes. After the death of Yaroslav, power over the Russian land was no longer concentrated in one person. This happens because Yaroslav’s family multiplies more and more with each generation and the Russian land is divided and redistributed among the growing princes. The older the prince was, the better and richer the volost he received.

Contrary to Yaroslav's will, which divided all his sons into two groups - the eldest and the rest, the real order established by the Yaroslavichs is as follows: the princes - relatives are not the permanent owners of the regions that they inherited. With every change in the current composition of the princely family, there is a movement; the younger relatives who followed the deceased move from volost to volost, from the junior table to the senior. This movement followed a certain order, just as the first section was carried out. This line expressed the idea of the indivisibility of the princely ownership of the Russian land: the Yaroslavichs owned it, not dividing, but redistributing, alternating in seniority.

This unique order of princely ownership was established in Rus' after the death of Yaroslav. The title of Grand Duke of Kyiv already had a purely dynastic meaning: this title was acquired only by the descendants of St. Vladimir. There was neither individual supreme power nor personal succession by will. At the top of the hierarchical ladder stood the eldest in the family Grand Duke Kiev This seniority gave him, in addition to possession the best lands, rights and advantages over younger relatives. He distributed possessions between them, allocated lands, settled disputes, and judged. But while leading Russia and his relatives, the Grand Duke did not act alone in more important cases, but gathered the princes for a general council. Later, each of the direct heirs of Yaroslav the Wise would declare himself a Grand Duke in his lands and the power of Kyiv would remain nominal.

However, to the question of who should inherit the principality, uncles and nephews answered in their own way. Having become the eldest in the family after the death of his elder brother, the Grand Duke, he did not want (by virtue of Yaroslav's decree) to yield to the son of the former Grand Duke. Both considered themselves entitled to take the grand-ducal throne.

The number of independent principalities was not stable due to family discord and the unification or disintegration of some of them. In the middle of the 12th century, there were 15 large and small appanage principalities, on the eve Horde invasion in Rus' - about 50, and in the 14th century, when the reverse process of consolidation began - 250.

It should be noted that during the period of feudal fragmentation in political and economic sphere There are two opposing trends: centrifugal (the very fact of specificity) and centripetal (the emergence of regional associations around a large urban center).

IT IS NECESSARY TO NOTE THAT THE DATE OF THE BEGINNING OF THE FEUDAL FRAGRANCE IS CONDITIONAL AND IS CONNECTED WITH EITHER THE CONGRESS OF LUBECH OF 1097, OR WITH THE DEATH OF THE GRAND DUKE MSTISLAV THE GREAT.

Other reasons for feudal fragmentation include:

ECONOMIC: a) the dominance of subsistence farming, which led to the possibility of the existence of various regions of the country without constant trade and exchange contacts. Patrimonial feudal economy provided itself and its owner with everything necessary, thus strengthening his immunity, and on the other hand, weakened the economic dependence of the appanage prince or his boyar on the Grand Duke;

b) intensive development and increase in the level of agricultural production as a result of wider land development, growth in agricultural culture and productivity (three-field farming system, widespread spread of arable farming, increase in the types of metal tools).

c) growth in the number of cities. Before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, there were about 300 of them. The same group of reasons includes the movement of the main trade routes, which was due to the decline in the importance of Kyiv.

SOCIO-POLITICAL:

A) further development social relations, the formation of more defined and stable groups of the population, the formation of large boyars, clergy, merchants, a homogeneous layer of dependent and free peasantry - all this occurs within the framework individual regions, principalities.

b) Hierarchical structure ruling class included FOUR STEPS: the Grand Duke - appanage princes and local boyars - local boyars - boyar children and courtiers (future nobles). The strengthening of the local aristocracy - feudal lords - boyars was based on their economic independence. The active opposition of this nobility to the prince gives rise to new types of struggle. At the same time, the princes make their support the urban strata of the nobility, as well as the emerging new group feudal lords - nobility.

c) Dualism political power in the state, the reason for which is the uniqueness of the feudal hierarchy (the great princes distributed lands to the smaller princes dependent on them, the boyars, first in the form of feeding tables, and then in the form of land salaries). In turn, the appanage princes distributed the land received from the Grand Duke to their servants. It is necessary to pay attention to the strengthening of ties between the princes of the “house of Rurik” and the local nobility, who were interested in political stability, which led to the emergence of their own princely dynasties there;

d) the mechanism of inheritance of supreme power (transfer of power of princes not from father to son, but from older brother to younger) first led to strife, then the princes began to fight not so much for the throne as for expanding their borders by seizing the lands of smaller feudal lords and Smerdov.

EXTERNAL REASONS: absence in the 12th century of serious external threat. Later, this threat appeared from the Mongols, but the process of separating the principalities had gone too far by that time.

CONCLUSION: political fragmentation was natural and most favorable in at this stage development form of organization of society, it did not mean degradation, stoppage in development. Advantages of individual small compact state entities quite clearly affected Rus'. Please note that the struggle between the central government and large landowners ends in the victory of the latter. The process of feudal fragmentation was due to the strengthening of the power of the largest feudal lords locally and the emergence of local administrative centers. In addition, the power of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, although nominally, was preserved. He remained the eldest among equals, the organizer of joint campaigns against the Polovtsians. In addition, there was no final break between the principalities in cultural and ecclesiastical terms.

2. FEUDAL STRIKE OF THE SONS OF YAROSLAV THE WISE.

At first, Yaroslav's children managed to live peacefully. However, since 1068, when the united squad of the Yaroslavichs was defeated by the Polovtsians in the battle on the Alta River, strife began between the princes, which included the grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise. The death of almost every prince led to bloody strife. If own strength not enough, the princes turned to the Hungarians, Poles, and Cumans for help. As the strife weakened Rus', these neighbors increasingly raided it without any invitation.

TABLE “Events of the Time of Troubles in Old Russian History.”

DATE	EVENT	CONSEQUENCES
1073	Svyatoslav and Vsevolod opposed the elder brother of the Grand Duke Izyaslav, declaring his intention to rule autocratically, in violation of his father’s covenants.	Izyaslav's flight to Poland for help.
1076	Campaign of Russian troops against the Czechs	Victory over German-Czech troops. A friendship arises between cousins Vladimir Vsevolodovich and Oleg Svyatoslavich
1076	The death of Svyatoslav, the beginning of Vsevolod’s reign in Kyiv, Izyaslav, who came with the Poles, expels Vsevolod from Kyiv.	Vsevolod's refusal of the throne in favor of Izyaslav
1076	Vsevolod returns to Chernigov, displacing his nephew Oleg Svyatoslavich in seniority.	The resentment of Oleg, who was imprisoned in Chernigov.
1078	Oleg's flight to Tmutarakan to his brother Roman, gathering of troops.	Start new strip civil strife.
1078	The battle on Nezhatina Niva of the troops of Oleg and Roman against the combined forces of Izyaslav and Vsevolod. Death of Grand Duke Izyaslav and Roman of Tmutarakansky. Oleg flees to Crimea, where he is temporarily enslaved by the Khazars. He dreams of revenge.	Accession of Vsevolod, the last son of Yaroslav the Wise, in Kyiv. His son Vladimir Monomakh settled in Chernigov.
1093	Death of Vsevolod	The throne of Kiev is transferred to the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, the son of Izyaslav - Svyatopolk, Monomakh rules in Chernigov.
1093	The emergence of three political groups in the struggle for power: 1. led by Svyatopolk in Kyiv, 2. led by Monomakh in Chernigov, 3- Oleg in Tmutarakan	Preparation for a new confrontation on the part of Oleg “Gorislavich”.
1093	Polovtsian raid on Rus'	Temporary unification of the forces of Svyatopolk and Monomakh against the Polovtsians. Their defeat at Trepol.
1094	Oleg unites with the Polovtsians and captures Chernigov.	Vladimir Monomakh accepts the Pereyaslav throne. Wars with the Cumans.
1096-97	Oleg's attack on the possessions of the sons of Monomakh. The campaign of Svyatopolk and Monomakh against Oleg. Battle of Murom.	Capture of Kyiv by the Polovtsians. Oleg's siege of Novgorod. The joint campaign of the Monomashich and Izyaslavich princes against Oleg. Oleg's defeat.
1097	Lyubech Congress. “Let everyone keep his own patrimony.”	Treaty of Peace and Unity. The beginning of the unification of the forces of the princes against the Polovtsians.

3. VLADIMIR MONOMACH.

In 1111, Pereyaslavl Prince Vladimir Monomakh secured the consent of the Grand Duke Svyatopolk, other princes and even French king for the organization Crusade into the steppe against the Polovtsians. The brother of the French king, the grandson of Anna Yaroslavna and cousin Monomakh Hugo Vermandois with his army. In the battles of Sharukan, Sugrov and decisive battle on the Solnitsa River (near the Don) on March 27, 1111, the Polovtsians were defeated (10,000 Polovtsians were killed - the main military force of the main enemy of the Russian principalities). Before the campaign in the steppe, dynastic marriages were concluded with a number of Polovtsian khans. So the son of Oleg of Chernigov, Svyatoslav Olgovich, and the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri (future Dolgoruky), took the daughters of the khans as wives.

At this time, in Kyiv, Grand Duke Svyatopolk Izyaslavich became known as an ardent moneylender. Everything is with him more people they fell into bondage to the nobility, sold themselves as slaves, and interest rates on debts increased sharply. After the death of Svyatopolk in 1113, his sons Davyd and Igor were practically ruled by the corrupt merchant-boyar elite, which led to an uprising. The Metropolitan of Kiev, in order to prevent bloodshed, with the consent of the veche assembled by the people of Kiev, invited, in violation of the laws of Yaroslav, 60-year-old Vladimir Monomakh, who arrived in the city on April 20, 1113, to the Kiev grand-ducal throne.

The reign of Monomakh 1113-1125 was a favorable time for all of Rus'. Under him, a new edition of “Russian Truth” was compiled. This set of laws legislated new stage social and monetary relations in the state (debt, loan relations) and limited the arbitrariness of moneylenders, and also eased the situation of the dependent population. In addition, he legislatively contributed to the strengthening of the property of the lower strata of the population, primarily victims of princely strife and enemy raids, and eliminated such an institution as debt servitude (slavery).

Taking care of the further prosperity of the state and preventing princely strife, Monomakh left “Instructions for Children” - his biography and recommendations to the future ruler.

After the death of Monomakh, the throne was inherited by his eldest son Mstislav the Great, who continued his father’s policies (1125-1132). His activities were aimed at strengthening the internal balance in intra-princely relations, protecting the western borders and attacking the Polovtsian steppe.

The death of Mstislav the Great led to a 10-year internecine war for the Kiev throne, in which the descendants of Oleg Chernigovsky and Monomashichi clashed.

4. RUSSIA IS SPECIFIC.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, against the backdrop of numerous constantly smaller estates, several lands acquired completely special meaning. First of all, this ancient land Krivichi and Vyatichi, located in the North-East of Rus'. For a long time it was a remote outskirts. The situation changed dramatically at the end of the 11th - 12th centuries. Firstly, at this time weakened Russian state could no longer adequately resist the raids of nomads: hordes of Polovtsians constantly ravaged the southern fertile lands. Secondly, it was on these lands that patrimonial land ownership developed - the boyars here constantly oppressed the bulk of farmers. In search of peace and freedom, the population begins to move from the forest-steppe south to the forests of North-Eastern Rus'. Here forests begin to be cut down, arable lands are plowed up, new cities emerge, of which Suzdal and Vladimir especially stand out.

In addition, extremely energetic, ambitious and successful princes ruled here one after another - the son of Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky (1132 - 1157) and his children, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212). )

Taking advantage of the weakness of the local boyars, they managed to concentrate significant power in their hands. In the middle of the 12th century under Yuri Dolgoruky Rostov-Suzdal land turns into an independent principality. Dolgoruky fought with the Volga Bulgaria, was in friendly relations with the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Olgovich, with whom he made peace in the town of Moscow (April 4, 1147), Yuri managed to temporarily take possession of the Kyiv throne.

The character of Andrei Bogolyubsky was more cruel: he began by expelling his brothers from the throne, removing his father’s boyars from affairs, executing his wife’s relatives, the Kuchkovich boyars, and taking away their possessions in the Moscow region. He made the city of Vladimir his residence, after which the principality began to be called Vladimir-Suzdal). He took care of the development of the city (the Golden Gate was also built here in imitation of Kyiv). He fought with Bulgaria, in 1169 he stormed and plundered Kyiv, but preferred to reign from Vladimir, where he was killed as a result of a conspiracy by the surviving Kuchkovichs.

Vsevolod Yurievich the Big Nest - the son of Yuri Dolgoruky and the Greek princess, half-brother of Andrei Bogolyubsky, Grand Duke of Vladimir since 1176. In his childhood he was expelled from the Suzdal land by his brother Andrei Bogolyubsky and from 1161 to 1168. lived in Byzantium. Upon returning to Rus', he made peace with his brother and contributed to his policies. Subsequently, the reign of Vsevolod became a continuation of the course of Andrei Bogolyubsky, aimed at strengthening the personal power of the prince. Vsevolod had great diplomatic abilities, knew how to find a compromise with the aristocracy, and take into account its ambitions. Vsevolod quarreled the appanage princes among themselves and then ruled over them. However, shortly before his death, he suffered a setback in Novgorod. Under Vsevolod, the grand-ducal power extended to Kyiv, Ryazan, Chernigov, and Murom. The chronicles call him the Great, and in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” it is said that he could “splash the Volga with oars and scoop up the Don with helmets.” The strong Galician princes sought an alliance with him, and foreign powers treated the prince with great respect.

Vsevolod received his nickname as the father of 12 children: 8 sons and 4 daughters.

Comparison of the policies of Yuri Dolgoruky and Andrei Bogolyubsky.

	Yury Dolgoruky	Andrey Bogolyubsky
1. Home political goal	The throne of Kiev, the independence of its own principality.	Strengthening the Vladimir-Suzdal statehood; capture of Kyiv, autocratic rule.
2. Type of land development	Capture of neighboring principalities. Creation of new cities and settlements.	Strengthening the cities of the principality; grandiose construction in Vladimir.
3. Social support	Suzdal boyars, their own squad; urban classes of new cities, the elite of merchants and artisans.	Reliance on the city, urban classes; dissolution of the father's old squad, removal of the brothers.
	Wars with Volga Bulgaria, confrontation with Novgorod.	Campaigns against Kyiv, wars with Volga Bulgaria.

PRINCIPALITY OF KIEV.

From the middle of the 12th century, signs of the desolation of Kyiv, the outflow of the population to southern lands to Galich and Volyn, to the North-West. Kyiv, Chernigov, Lyubech are being desolated. Along with the outflow of population, signs of an economic crisis are becoming noticeable.

Kyiv still remains the ecclesiastical center of Rus'; the see of the Metropolitan of All Rus' is located here. But the city is gradually losing its political and shopping center, weakened by raids by nomads and neighboring princes. As a result of the struggle between the Monomashichs and the Olgovichs, the principality lost control over the Rostov-Suzdal land, Novgorod, Smolensk, and Pereyaslavl. During the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, there was a fierce struggle for the Kiev throne, which ended with the establishment of the dynasty of Chernigov princes.

GALICY-VOLYNSKY PRINCIPALITY.

The southwestern Galician-Volyn Rus was in completely different conditions than the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The mild climate and fertile lands have always attracted a large agricultural population here. At the same time this blooming land was constantly subject to raids by its neighbors - Poles, Hungarians, and steppe dwellers. In addition, an extremely strong boyars formed here early on, which not only oppressed the farmers, but also fiercely fought for power with the local princes. The boyars managed to achieve the disintegration of the principality into Galician and Volyn.

The Galician principality achieved great power under the prince of the local dynasty Yaroslav Osmomysl (Witty), who had to fight against his son Vladimir, supported by the local boyars.

The Volyn principality was ruled by the descendants of Monomakh. By the end of the 12th century, a desire for centralization of power was manifested here. Monomakh's grandson Roman Mstislavich, relying on the urban and rural population, pacified the boyars and appanage princes and began to lay claim to all of Western Rus'. He takes advantage of the discord in Galich after the death of Osmomysl and tries to unite Galich with Volyn. He succeeds in this after a fierce war with the Hungarians, allies of Osmomysl’s son Vladimir. In 1199, Roman became the ruler of both principalities and the Grand Duke of Kyiv. He brutally suppressed boyar separatism, under him powerful fortresses of Kamenets, Kremenets and others were built, and cities developed. After his death while hunting (killed by the Poles, supporters of his co-ruler in Kyiv, Prince Rurik) in 1205, Daniil Romanovich Galitsky continued his father’s policy. From 1205 to 1221 he hid from the persecution of the boyars, then went on the offensive. First, he regained Volyn, and in 1234, on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, he united both principalities. This prince is a true hero of Ancient Russia. For 17 years he stood alone Mongol khans, refused to accept the royal crown and help from the Pope in exchange for accepting Catholicism, and only in old age, seeing civil strife between his sons, did he go to the Horde for the khan's label.

MR. VELIKY NOVGOROD(Novgorod and Pskov feudal-aristocratic republics).

The peculiarities of the geographical location and socio-political structure of Novgorod the Great are due to the scarcity of land, the harsh climate and active trade intermediation between the lands of Rus' and Europe. From the very beginning of its history, Novgorod laid claim to political superiority over Kiev. Even geographically, Novgorod was remote from major centers, strife, and naturally (naturally) protected from raids by nomads from the south. Thanks to intensive and profitable trade, wealth increased not only among local merchants and townspeople, but also among the church. The Novgorod land had large estates and a strong boyars, closely associated with the merchants and living in the city. The cities of Izborsk, Ladoga, Torzhok and others served as important trading posts on trade routes and were military strongholds.

Pskov occupied a special place. He was " younger brother» Novgorod, was distinguished by a developed craft and conducted its own trade with the Baltic states and German cities.

Veliky Novgorod was a fairly large state and had an administrative division into five regions (pyatina).

FEATURES OF LIFE AND BUILDING IN NOVGOROD:

1. Consciousness of the unity of interests and goals of all wealthy residents of the city;

2. High level of social inequality, which caused riots;

3. “Nursing” one’s own (Novgorod) supporter in the person of the prince;

4. Non-recognition of princely power; veche form of government;

5. High level of literacy of the population (numerous birch bark letters have been preserved).

VECHE - from the Old Slavonic “vet” - council, body of state self-government. At the meeting, issues of war and peace were discussed; candidacy for posadnik (head of the judiciary and administrative authorities). The Novgorod veche was also distinguished by the fact that it elected the entire “administration” of the republic: the thousand (the leader of the Novgorod militia, as well as responsible for collecting taxes), the archbishop (“lord”) - the head of the Novgorod church organization, the official representative of the republic in its external relations, archimandrites .

The veche also decided on the conclusion or termination of an agreement with one or another prince invited to lead the squad. The prince in Novgorod was only a hired military leader and judge. The main government officials were the thousand and the mayor. The mayor was elected from among the most influential boyars in the indefinite term- “as long as it pleases the people.” Being a mediator between the prince and the people, he, together with the prince, had the right to judge and govern, lead the meeting of the veche, and negotiate with other principalities. Tysyatsky was elected from the non-boyar population. As a judge, he dealt primarily with “black people.”

In the Pskov and Novgorod Republics, the veche belonged to the highest legislative and judicial branch. The Novgorod veche had finances and a land fund at its disposal. They gathered in specially designated places. Each district of the city had its own small meeting. The decision was made by the majority of those present. The decision was made by eye based on the strength of the screams (“children’s vote”). When the veche was divided into parties, the verdict was reached through a fight; the winning side was recognized by the majority.

Novgorod in shape politic system looks very democratic. However, the degree of permissible personal freedom, the property qualification and the residence qualification spoke of the feudal aristocratic character of the republic.

Feudal fragmentation in Rus' is a large period in historical terms. It is officially accepted that it began after the death of Mstislav the Great in 1132 year. However, fragmentation began long before this.

Already in 1054 year, after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the first signs of fragmentation appeared: civil strife broke out between the 5 sons of the Wise, between whom he divided power. Gradually took shape specific system power when everyone appanage prince possessed great strength, sought independence from the authorities of Kyiv.

Rus' is weakening and losing political unity. IN 1061 Another misfortune arose this year - the Polovtsians began to attack. The fight against them went on with with varying success. Then in 1097 in Lyubech, on the initiative of V. Monomakh, a congress of princes was convened to put an end to civil strife and give a joint rebuff to the Polovtsians. However, the decision of the congress "Every keeps his fatherland" did not stop, but intensified the process of separation.

Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav the Great were able to temporarily stop fragmentation. However, after their death, this process became irreversible.

Definition of feudal fragmentation

Feudal fragmentation - This historical period in the history of Rus', which was characterized by the decentralization of power, the strengthening of power in the district principalities, and the desire of princes for independent politics.

Historical framework of feudal fragmentation in Rus'

Initial stage, formation of fragmentation: 1054-1113 . This is a period of feudal wars between princes. V. Monomakh and Mstislav the Great suspended this process for a while.

1132-40s of the 13th century(from the death of Mstislav the Great to the capture of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars). It was characterized by the strongest tendencies of the princes towards isolation, although attempts were made to unite in the face of the enemy. Borders were established between the appanage principalities.

1238 - early 16th century. Mongol period Tatar yoke, collecting lands around Moscow, forming a single state.

Prerequisites for feudal fragmentation

Growth of patrimonial property belonged to the top of the nobility. This property was passed on by inheritance and assigned the territory of Rus' to representatives of various branches of the Rurikovichs.

Simultaneously the number of military personnel increased people - nobles who fed at the expense of the masters.

Causes of feudal fragmentation

Natural economy. With him separate principality produced everything necessary for consumption; economic ties with other principalities were not needed. Economic independence and isolation appeared at the same time.

The presence of large patrimonial land ownership(boyar estate),

Gain political influence boyars, the boyars' desire for independence. Strengthening the local government apparatus.

The source of enrichment for district princes has changed. If it was before war booty, then since the time of Vladimir the Saint it has been an insignificant source of enrichment. Another source appeared - the exploitation of estates, the development of agriculture and crafts in them. And this reduced dependence on the Kyiv prince.

The weakening of Kyiv's power, that is, the central government.

Urban development as centers of political and economic life of appanage principalities.

It must be remembered that even during the period of fragmentation, the ties between the principalities were not completely lost: the princes recognized themselves as part of the Rurik family, there was a single culture, religion, language, traditions. Kiev remained the capital of Rus'.

If in the initial period of fragmentation 15 principalities emerged, then in the 13th century there were 50 of them, and by the 14th century there were already 250.

How power was exercised in the district principalities during the period of feudal fragmentation

Three types of exercise of power can be distinguished, which are characteristic of the three most influential centers of Rus' of that period .(A detailed article about the authorities in these principalities is being prepared. Follow the publications)

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality is characterized by strong princely power , the destruction of veche traditions, the fight against the rebellious boyars. It was here that the type of government was formed that would become the main one in Russia for many centuries - authoritarian rule. In the future, this is where the process of unifying the state will begin. Bright personalities: Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157), Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212).

Galicia-Volyn Principality

The Galician-Volyn principality was distinguished by the fact that power in it was alternately in the hands of That princes, then boyars . The fight between them did not subside. Perhaps this led to the weakening and complete disappearance of the principality during the invasion of Batu (part of the lands generally passed to Lithuania and Poland, and Kiev ceased to have the status of the capital). Prominent personalities of the principality: Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187), Roman Mstislavovich (1199- 1205), Daniil Romanovich (1221-1264)

Novgorod Republic

The Novgorod Republic remained independent from the power of the prince for a long time. The prince here was elected at the assembly, and could be re-elected at any time. His powers were mainly limited to the military defense of the principality. The Novgorod Republic existed for quite a long time: from 1136 to 1478, when Ivan 3 finally annexed Novgorod to the Principality of Moscow and the Novgorod freemen were stopped.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation

Negative

The political weakening of Rus' and its military power due to the lack of unity, which led to the country's vulnerability in the face of the enemy.

Civil strife weakened the economic and military power countries.

Ruin and impoverishment of the population due to endless strife.

Kyiv lost its importance, although it continued to remain the capital. Constant shift the power in him, the desire to occupy the grand-ducal throne completely weakened him.

Positive

The emergence of new cities - centers of craft and trade, the further development of old cities.

The formation of large and strong principalities in which new dynasties were formed. Power in them passed to the eldest son.

Further development of agriculture, development of new arable land.

The emergence of new trade routes.