Collapse of the Livonian Order 1561
ABOUT In the autumn of 1560, in the lands of Harju County and Lääne County, peasants rebelled against their masters. Here and there they burned the estates of German nobles, still untouched by the war. However, the rebels did not achieve much success; their leaders soon fell into the hands of the Germans and were executed. Peasant unrest that continued until 1561 weakened the already depleted military forces of Livonia.
During this difficult period for Livonia, the Master of the Order Ketler once again asked for help from the Polish king Sigismund-August. As compensation for military expenses, the Polish king received from the master five Livonian castles: Karkus (Karksi), Helmet (Helme), Tricaten, Ermes and Burtnek (the listed castles were subsequently given as a dowry to the king’s sister Catherine when she married the Finnish Duke John). During 1561, under the guise of military assistance, Polish-Lithuanian troops gradually occupied that part of Livonia that had not yet been conquered by the Russians.
Unlike other Livonian cities, the residents of Revel did not want to see a Polish garrison. They believed that it was more profitable for them to use the protection of the King of Sweden, who had a strong navy, which Revel needed so much. After the Russians captured Narva in 1558, Revel trade gradually began to decline. Now overseas ships were heading to Narva, ignoring the Revel harbor. Revel merchants urgently needed to stop the flow of ships heading to the Narva port. The Swedish fleet was supposed to help them with this. Negotiations between the Swedes and the Revel burghers went faster after the old Swedish king Gustav Vasa, who was a supporter of a cautious policy towards Livonia and Russia, died in God, and his son Eric ascended to the Swedish throne.
In the summer of 1561, when all the formalities were settled, Swedish warships with money, cannons and other military equipment approached Revel. However, a small obstacle arose on the path of Revel-Swedish cooperation in the form of the commandant of the Revel castle, who did not agree to transfer the citadel to the Swedes. The commander of the Swedish squadron Horn ordered the bombardment of the castle. Horn understood perfectly well that he did not have enough forces to storm the fortifications and therefore, he promised the garrison monetary compensation for the surrender of the castle. Finally, by the end of June, the castle opened its gates to new owners.
Having acquired Revel, the Swedish king Eric forbade overseas merchants to sail to Narva. Thus, he hoped to redirect the entire flow of merchant ships to Swedish Vyborg, turning it into a center of Russian trade. For this purpose, a Swedish squadron was created, whose task was to intercept merchant ships heading to Russian Narva and confiscate their cargo. As for Revel, its residents did not gain any benefit for themselves from the deal with the Swedish king; all profits from the captured goods flowed into the Swedish treasury.
Meanwhile, the exhausted Order and the Livonian noble classes realized that they could not hold on to the few lands that still remained in their hands. In order to save Livonia from the final conquest of the Muscovites, it was decided to liquidate the Livonian Confederation and dissolve the Livonian Order.
In the fall of 1561, the Livonian Order ceased to exist. All his possessions now passed under the authority of the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus, who was also the Grand Duke of Lithuania, allied with Poland ( Since the Union of Krevo in 1385, Poland and Lithuania were ruled by one king. Also, according to the agreement, both states were supposed to provide each other with military assistance in the fight against external enemies). Former order master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king. He received the Duchy of Courland for fief use. The Archbishopric of Riga also ceased to exist. The city of Riga agreed to citizenship of the Polish crown with the condition that the city be freed from the oath taken to the Roman Empire. Until the end of the Livonian War, Riga retained the status of a free city.
The agreement establishing these conditions was signed in Riga on November 26, 1561. All acquired Livonian lands were annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Jan Chodkiewicz was appointed hetman of Livonia, whose task was to protect the new lands that came under the rule of the crown.
Fig.6 Lithuanian horseman 16th century.
Now a new stage of the Livonian War began, in which Polish-Lithuanian and Russian troops would have to clash for the Livonian inheritance. These events were observed from the side by Sweden, which was also not averse to getting its piece of the Livonian pie. It is worth mentioning that in the summer of 1561 a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Sweden, thereby the Russians could concentrate on the fight against the Poles, without fear, for the time being, of Sweden entering the war.†
IX. SMOLENSK AND POLOTSK. LITHUANIA AND THE LIVONIAN ORDER
(continuation)
Nature and population of the Baltic region. – German traders and missionaries. - Maingard and Bertholdt. – Albert Buxhoeveden and the founding of the Livonian Order. – Enslavement of Livs and Latvians. - Prince Vladimir of Polotsk. - Enslavement of the Estonians. – Danes in Estonia. - Clash with the Novgorodians. - Capture of Yuryev. – Conquest of Zimgola and Kuron.
Livonia
Map of Livonia (16th century)
The region, known as the Baltic, or Livonian, has natural boundaries on three sides: the Baltic Sea in the west, the Gulf of Finland in the north and Lake Pskov-Chudskoe with the Narova River in the east. Only in the south and southeast were its borders delineated by the sword of the German conquerors, on the one hand, and the Russian and Lithuanian defenders of the homeland, on the other. This region, with the islands belonging to it, is a lowland strip in its northern half and hilly in the southern. Hilly, rugged terrain is especially found in the southeastern part, between lakes Virtsjerve, Peipus and Western Dvina; here, in the midst of picturesque valleys and hills, the upper reaches of the Livonian Aa meander and beautiful lakes lie. Quite poor sandy-clayey soil, in places dotted with boulders and whole rocks brought from the north, many rivers and small lakes, pine and spruce forests, a humid and rather harsh climate, seashores covered mostly with quicksand and shallows, and therefore not suitable for harbors are the distinctive features of the Livonian region. It is not surprising, therefore, that for a long time it remained outside of historical life, serving as a residence for semi-savage tribes and representing little attraction for the more developed peoples of neighboring Europe. Among the rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea, there are quite significant in size, such as: Pernava, Salis, two Aa (Livonian and Kuronian) and especially Vindava; but they are characterized by either shallow water or rapid currents and are therefore unnavigable. The only navigable vein is the Dvina; but it is often dotted with rapids, so navigation along it was always fraught with difficulties, and merchant ships could sail only during the short spring season, i.e. in the flood. This makes it partly clear why Ancient Rus' did not show much desire to spread colonization in this direction. Its communication with the sea along the Dvina dates back to very distant times; but she preferred another, albeit longer, but more convenient route to the Baltic Sea: along the Volkhov and the Neva. However, in general it is impossible not to notice that the Russian tribe, gradually spreading from south to north along the main rivers of Eastern Europe, over the course of centuries adopted all the habits of river (and not sea) navigation and developed significant dexterity to cope with river shoals and rapids . But, approaching the Baltic Sea, it stopped on the one hand on Lake Ladoga, and on the other on the lower reaches of the Dvina, and did not show any desire or desire to secure the ends of these two routes and establish itself on the very shores of the Baltic Sea. Which, of course, was what the peoples of German origin took advantage of. The Baltic region was inhabited by two different tribes, Finnish and Lithuanian. Its entire northern and central zone was occupied by the peoples of the Finnish family, known in Ancient Rus' generally under the name Chudi, and among foreign writers under the name Estii (eastern), or Estov. Russian chronicles distinguish some of the foreigners with special names; So, they mention: Chud Neroma or Narova, near the river of the same name, then behind it Chud Ochelu, then Ereva on the upper Pernava and Tormu on the western side of Lake Peipsi. The Chud and Estonian peoples who lived in the northern zone of the Baltic region did not declare their existence in anything special in history, and our chronicles mention them only in connection with the campaigns that Russian princes sometimes took in this direction in order to punish some tribe for border robberies and impose tribute on him. Even under Vladimir the Great, Rus' was already collecting tribute in that direction; but the first known attempt to establish itself here belonged to his son Yaroslav-Yuri. In Ungania (Chudi Torma region), on the heights of the left bank of the Embach, he built a Russian town, to which he gave the name Yuryeva in honor of his Christian name. Up to this point the Embach from its mouth is completely navigable; Probably, there was a Finnish settlement here before, which bore the native name Dorpat. The Chud tribe, however, valued its independence, and Rus' more than once had to re-conquer the lost Yuryev. When the importance of the Grand Duke of Kyiv began to decline and his attention was diverted to the south by the fight against the Polovtsians, the conquest of the Estonian Chud stopped. Her neighbors, the Novgorodians and Pskovians, sometimes made successful campaigns into her land, captured servants and livestock as booty, and took some of the fortified places of the natives. Among the latter, the city of Odenpe, in Russian Bear's Head, became more famous than others, lying south of Yuryev in one of the most elevated, hilly corners of the Livonian region. But, on the one hand, the stubborn defense of the natives, on the other, the obvious lack of persistent movement of Novgorod Rus' in this direction, delayed the spread of Russian rule.
The southern strip of the Baltic region was occupied by the people of the Lithuanian family, namely: Latygola and Zimgola.
The Chud people, in a collision with the Lithuanian people, obviously retreated before them as a more gifted Aryan tribe, for in ancient times Chud, without a doubt, extended south of the Dvina; but the Latvians gradually pushed it further to the north and occupied its lands. With this collision, over the centuries, new breeding species were formed, mixed from both families. The Liv people belonged to this mixture, who occupied the lower reaches of the Dvina and the sea coast almost from Pernava to Musa, or Kuron Aa and beyond. And even further to the west in the coastal region lived the Kurons, also mixed from Lithuanian and Finnish peoples, apparently with a predominance of the first, while among the Livonians the second predominated. On the banks of the Vindava there lived another Venda people, it is unknown whether they were Slavic or some other family, since they were lost without a trace. Neighboring the Dvina Livs was the Livonian region of Toreida, located along the river of the same name, better known as Aa. To the north of Toreida lay other Livonian regions, Idumea and Metepole, the latter along the Salis River. Having a significant Latvian admixture, the Livonians are slightly larger in stature and stronger built than the Estonians, but closer to them than to the Latvians in language, character and customs. Their clothing is also predominantly dark in color, they are also hot-tempered and stubborn, like the Aestians, and were distinguished by the same disposition to sea predation. Ezelian, Livonian and Kuronian pirates did not miss an opportunity to rob merchant ships or take advantage of their shipwrecks, and in general caused considerable damage to merchant shipping in the Baltic. Around the middle of the 12th century, these pirates even took possession of part of the island of Olanda, and here, off the very coast of Scandinavia, they built their robber nest. The Danish king Voldemar I was forced to send a strong fleet against them, which only after a desperate battle managed to destroy this nest (1171). However, the insolence of the Chud pirates was so great even after that that seventeen years later they raided the shores of Lake Melara and plundered the trading city of Sigtuna.
Russian influence extended to the Livonian country more than to Estonia, thanks to the waterway along the Western Dvina. But here, too, the Polotsk princes did not show greater persistence than the Novgorodians, and did not seek to secure for themselves the mouth of this river or access to the sea. Polotsk fortifications stopped at the Kokenguzen heights of its right bank, and the princes limited themselves to collecting a small tribute from settlements located further down the river. Although Russian domination and Eastern Orthodoxy spread very slowly in this region, but without great upheavals and upheavals, without the extermination and impoverishment of the native tribes. The Livs and Latvians maintained their patriarchal life under the control of clan elders and freely made sacrifices to their gods. The population enjoyed some prosperity, and its peaceful state was disturbed only by small border fights and robberies; Moreover, the Lithuanian people mostly offended the Estonian Chud.
Beginning of German penetration into Livonia
This vegetation of the Baltic region continued until the German conquerors arrived, for whom German traders paved the way in this direction.
Almost in the very middle of the Baltic Sea, between Sweden and Curonia, stretches the rather significant mountainous island of Gotland; its elevated shores are indented with bays convenient for sailors. Near one of these bays on the northwestern side of the island, the trading town of Visby flourished, which served as the main intermediary in the trade of Northern Rus' with the Varangians, or Scandinavians. Varangian merchants gathered here with Novgorod, Smolensk and Polotsk merchants and exchanged Russian products with them, especially expensive furs, wax and leather. This profitable exchange was not slow in attracting German traders from Northern Germany. In the 12th century, an important revolution took place in the southern Baltic Sea. The Slavic peoples who lived there, the Bodrichi, the Lutichi and partly the Pomeranians, lost their identity, being pressed by the Germans and Danes. The Slavic coastline underwent gradual Germanization, which began with the most significant trading cities, such as Shchetin, Volyn, Rostock and Lubeck. Their maritime trade fell while they were fighting the German conquerors, missionaries and colonists. It was then that traders from Saxon and Low German cities beyond the Elbe appeared on the Baltic Sea. The cities of Bremen and Hamburg led the way, followed by Minster, Dortmund, Seet and others. Their merchants also established their warehouses and offices in Visby and began bartering with Russian guests. The enterprising Germans, however, did not limit themselves to the mediation of Gotland, but at the same time tried to enter into direct trade relations with the people living on the eastern shore of the Baltic.
Around the half of the 12th century, Bremen merchants began to visit the lower reaches of the Western Dvina and trade with the coastal Livonians. In the spring, their ships sailed with German goods, and in the fall they left, loaded with local products. It was an era of strong religious animation in Western Europe. The crusades against the infidels were in full swing. The forced baptism of the Slavs in the Baltic Sea region especially strengthened the missionary movement among the Germans. The merchants' stories about the Livonian pagans were not slow to direct part of this movement in that direction. Among German preachers, the first place here, if not in time, then in success, belongs to Meinhard, a monk of the Augustinian order from the Bremen diocese. In the spring of 1186, he sailed on a merchant ship to the Dvina and landed 35 versts from its mouth on the right bank in the Livonian village of Ikeskola (Ikskul), where German merchants had already built their own yard for storing goods. Residents of that area paid tribute to the Polotsk prince named Vladimir. The clever monk, in order to ensure his business from this side, first asked the prince for permission to baptize pagans and even managed to please him so much that he received gifts from him. Then he managed to convert several respectable people from the natives, and with their help, others, so that in the same winter he built a Christian church in Ikskul. The following winter there was a Latvian raid on this area. Maingard took advantage of his knowledge of military affairs, armed the inhabitants of Ikskul and placed them in ambush in the forest, through which the enemies were passing, laden with prisoners and booty. The Latvians could not withstand the unexpected attack and, abandoning their prey, fled. This victory greatly helped the work of preaching, and the baptism of the Iskul natives went even more successfully. Under the pretext of protecting the inhabitants from future attacks, Meingard, with their consent, the following spring called craftsmen and masons from Gotland and erected a strong castle near the native village. In the same way, with the consent of the inhabitants, he later built a castle a little lower than Ikskul on one Dvina island, Golm, where he had previously built a church (from which the name Kirchholm came). These were the first German fortresses in the Livonian land. In view of such successes, Archbishop Hartwig of Bremen elevated Meingard to the dignity of Bishop of Livonia, however, with his subordination to his department, for which he received a papal bull dated September 25, 1188. One of Meingard's companions, the monk Dietrich, labored in the neighboring region of Toreide on the banks of the Aa. One day the pagans, prompted by the priests, seized him and wanted to sacrifice him to their gods. But first it was necessary to find out their will through fortune telling. They put a spear and forced the horse to cross it. The latter stepped first with the “foot of life.” They carried it out a second time, and the same thing happened again. This not only saved the monk’s life, but also gave him special respect; and when he managed to cure several sick people with herbs, not only men, but also women began to be baptized.
Meinhard began to instill obedience in the Livonians to the Archbishop of Bremen and demand tithes for the church; then the converts began to be suspicious and even hostile towards their apostle. A reverse movement occurred, i.e. return to paganism; those who were baptized were immersed in the streams of the Dvina in order to wash it away and send it back to Germany. Meingard wanted to sail to his fatherland and there collect help with people and other means; but the natives, with feigned humility, begged him to stay. Convinced of their pretense, he sent his comrade Dietrich to the pope, and the pope ordered absolution to be declared to all those who would accept the cross in order to support the emerging Livonian Church by force of arms. The elderly Meingard, however, did not receive this help and died in 1196. Before his death, he gathered around him the baptized elders and exhorted them to remain faithful to the new religion and accept a new bishop in his place.
Hartwig sent the Cistercian monk Berthold from Bremen as his successor. Met with hostility by the Livs, he returned to Germany, with the help of a papal bull, gathered a detachment of armed men and with them again landed at the episcopal castle of Golm in 1198. Then an open war between the Germans and the natives began. Berthold retreated to the mouth of the Dvina and settled on Rige Hill. Here there was a fight with the Livs. Although the latter were already defeated, Berthold was carried with his horse into the middle of the fleeing enemies and struck in the back with a spear. The victors avenged his death by brutally devastating the surrounding country, so that the vanquished humbled themselves, accepted priests and agreed to pay the established taxes. But as soon as the German warriors sailed back, a new washing away of baptism in the waves of the Dvina and the beating of priests began.
Founding of the Livonian Order
In place of the murdered Berthold, the Archbishop of Bremen appointed one of his canons, Albert, who came from a rather noble family of Apeldern or Buxhoeveden. This choice turned out to be very successful. Albert was a resourceful, energetic and enterprising man. He least of all dreamed of the glory of the apostle-martyr, and blamed the further spread of Christianity in the Livonian region mainly on the power of the sword. Therefore, before going there, he prepared all the means for future success. He visited Gotland, where he managed to recruit five hundred crusaders, then Denmark, where he received large financial assistance. Then Albert traveled around part of Northern Germany and in Magdeburg obtained a decree from King Philip so that the property of the crusaders going to Livonia would enjoy the same privileges as the crusaders going to Palestine.
In the spring of 1200, Albert, with military and trading people on twenty-three ships, sailed to the mouth of the Dvina. Leaving the main fleet here, the bishop sailed on small ships to Golm and Ikskul. The Livs armed themselves, started a new war with the Germans and forced them to endure a stubborn siege in Golm. But the bishop did not find it difficult to resort to treachery: he managed, under the guise of negotiations, to lure the Livonian elders to himself; then, under the threat of sending them captives to Germany, he forced them to hand over up to thirty of their sons as hostages. These boys were sent to Bremen and there brought up in the Christian religion. Albert decided to found the episcopal capital closer to the sea and chose for this purpose on the right low-lying bank of the Dvina the same somewhat elevated place where his predecessor Berthold fell and which was called Rige after the small river that flows here, fourteen miles from the sea. In 1201, the construction of walls began and the cathedral was founded in the name of St. Maria. The Pope, the famous Innocent III, not only gave his consent to the founding of an episcopal city, but also granted it certain privileges; for example, he imposed a ban on German traders visiting the adjacent Dvinsk mouth of the Musa River, or Kuronskaya Aa, where trade was carried out with the native Zimgols. As a result of this prohibition, all German merchants visiting this region were forced to land at the mouth of the Dvina. The latter is fortified with a special castle, which received the name Dynaminde (i.e., Dvina mouth) from its very location. Albert tried to attract many merchants and artisans from Bremen, Gotland and other places to the episcopal capital, generously endowing them with various privileges, and the city, thanks to its advantageous position, soon became one of the most significant intermediaries in trade between Germany and Scandinavia, on the one hand, and Eastern Europe - with another. Every autumn Albert went to Germany and every spring, i.e. with the opening of navigation, he returned to Riga, bringing with him new detachments of armed pilgrims. But these crusaders remained in Livonia only one summer and then sailed back, confident that they had sufficiently earned papal absolution for their sins. Such a pilgrimage, of course, could not satisfy Albert, who wanted to have real military force at his disposal. To this end, he began to distribute castles and fiefs to German knights. The first of these feudal barons appeared in Iskul and Lennewarden; the last castle was also built on the right bank of the Dvina, above Ikskul. The intensifying wars with the natives forced the bishop to think about a more effective measure. Together with his main associate Dietrich (the one whose life was saved by fortune-telling by a horse), Albert drew up a plan to found a monastic knightly order in Livonia, following the example of the orders that existed at that time in Palestine. In 1202, Innocent III approved this plan with a special bull and gave the Livonian Order the status of Templars, and assigned the image of a red cross and a sword on a white cloak as its distinctive sign. Hence this order became known under the name of the Sword Bearers (its name approved by the pope was Fratres militiae Christi). Along with vows of celibacy and obedience to the pope and their bishop, the knights of the order made a vow to fight the native pagans throughout their lives.
Captures of the Livonian knights
Albert appointed Winno von Rohrbach as the first master of the Livonian Order. Now the conquest of Livonia and forced conversion to Christianity went even more successfully. It was not by the force of the sword alone that Albert spread his dominion, but by even more cunning policy and the ability to take advantage of circumstances. In particular, he tried to attract Livonian elders. One of them, named Kaupo, having been baptized, even went to Rome, where he received an honorable reception and gifts from the pope himself; Of course, upon his return, he became the most zealous servant of the Roman Church and helped the bishop a lot with his influence on his fellow tribesmen and his zealous participation in wars with the pagans. Albert skillfully supported the enmity of the native tribes, with his help appearing one against the other, exterminating the pagans with their own hands. The chronicler of his exploits, Heinrich Latvian, reports, among other things, the following example of such extermination. Lithuania, as usual, robbed and offended the neighboring Chud people. One winter, the Lithuanians, through the lands of the Livs, launched a raid on the Estonians under the command of their prince Svelgat and returned from there with a large number of captives, livestock and other booty. Having learned about this, the Germans, together with their allied Semigallians, settled down somewhere along the road and waited for Lithuania. The latter, due to the deep snow, moved in a long line, walking one after another, but, noticing the enemies, hurried to gather into a crowd. Seeing a large number in front of them, the Semigallians did not dare to attack. But a group of German knights considered the retreat shameful and moved forward. Here it became clear what an advantage their weapons and combat experience gave them over the natives. The iron helmets, armor and naked swords of the German horsemen shining in the sun instilled such fear in the discordant crowd of Litvins, armed with primitive weapons and arrows, that they, without waiting for the blow, rushed to flee. Then the Semigallians joined the Germans, a brutal massacre occurred, as deep snow prevented the escape of the Litvins. According to the Latvian chronicler, they scattered and were beaten like sheep. The heads of Svelgat and other killed enemies were collected and taken away by the Semigallians as trophies. Then the Germans also beat the Estonians captured by Lithuania without mercy, seeing them only as pagans. Many wives of the fallen Litvins, upon learning of the defeat, took their own lives in order to immediately unite with their husbands beyond the grave. So, in one village alone, up to fifty women hanged themselves.
Forcibly converted Livonians often fell away from Christianity and rebelled against their enslavers, and the Germans they captured were sometimes sacrificed to their gods. The Germans enslaved them again; In revenge, they beat the prisoners in droves and burned their villages. Thus, in a few hundred years the land of the Livs was completely conquered; but due to the brutal nature of the struggle, this rather prosperous region was subjected to terrible devastation and impoverishment. Hunger and pestilence completed the devastation begun by the Germans. In subsequent centuries, the impoverished, sparse population of Livs merged with the Latvian tribe, so that in our time one can find only scattered, insignificant remnants of this once significant people, who gave their name to almost the entire Baltic region.
When the conquest of the Livs took place, the Order of the Swordbearers demanded a third of the conquered land and the same part of all future conquests. Hence arose a quarrel between him and the bishop. The Order turned to the Pope, and he resolved the dispute in his favor. This was the first step towards his future dominance in the country. The bishop could soon be convinced that he was mistaken in his calculation of creating for himself an independent position as a spiritual imperial prince and having the knightly order as an obedient instrument in his hands. The latter received lands along the Aa, or Goyva, river. Here, on the hills of its left bank, a large, strong Wenden castle was built, which became the seat of the masters and the center of the order's lands. Other castles sprang up in the neighborhood; Of these, the order brethren ruled over the surrounding population, which it reduced to a state of serfdom. Knights, bound by celibacy and other monastic vows, paid very little attention to these vows. With the hasty establishment of the order, the bishop could not be selective in the choice of his brethren, and it was filled with all sorts of people, seekers of prey and adventure, rude and cruel people, who, at the right opportunity, gave full rein to their animal passions and carried out all kinds of violence against the subjects of the order; and also started quarrels and fights among themselves. In vain those offended complained to the bishop; he had no means to curb the violent knights. One of these desperate brothers attacked Master Vinno von Rohrbach himself and killed him, for which, however, he was publicly executed in Riga (1209). In the place of the murdered Vinno, Albert appointed the knight Volkvin.
After the Livs it was the turn of the Latvians. The conquest and conversion to Christianity of the latter was accomplished with less effort. Some Latvians, who paid tribute to the Polotsk princes and submitted to Russian influence, were inclined to accept Orthodoxy, and some villages were already baptized according to the Eastern rite. Thus, in this region, German preaching met Russian, and the Livonian chronicle conveys the curious way in which a dispute between two rites was resolved in one district. The Latvians resorted to fortune telling to find out the will of their gods, and the lot fell in favor of the Latin rite. Then German missionaries freely baptized several villages. Latin churches were immediately built in them, and among the priests appointed here was the author of the Livonian chronicle, Henry Latvian, baptized in childhood and raised by Bishop Albert, to whom he forever retained deep devotion.
The first wars of Rus' with the Livonian Order
The spread of German conquests into the country could not help but finally cause hostile clashes with Russia. The first clashes took place on the banks of the Dvina and ended in favor of the Germans, thanks, on the one hand, to the weakness of the reign of Polotsk in general, as well as the personal inability and carelessness of the Polotsk prince Vladimir, and on the other hand, to the beginning of the pressure of Lithuania, which diverted the attention of Polotsk Rus' in another direction. One day, Bishop Albert sailed as usual to Germany to collect crusaders and all kinds of benefits. Some of the Livs thought to take advantage of his absence and the small number of Germans remaining on the Dvina to overthrow their yoke; they sent to call Vladimir of Polotsk for help; he actually sailed on ships along the Dvina with a significant militia. First he tried to take Ikskul; but, repelled by ballistas, or stone-throwing guns, he went down the river and approached Golm, in which there were several dozen Germans and a crowd of Livs called to help, on whose loyalty, however, it was difficult to rely. However, the siege was unsuccessful; an attempt to surround the castle with wood and burn it failed, because the besieged with their ballistas accurately hit those who came too close to the walls. According to Heinrich Latysh, the Polochans were allegedly not familiar with the use of these weapons, but fought from afar with arrows. They tried to construct small stone-throwing guns after the German model; but they acted so unskillfully that their stones flew back and wounded their own warriors. Meanwhile, Riga itself was in fear of the Russian invasion, since it had a weak garrison and its very fortifications were not yet completed. To make the roads to the city more difficult, the residents of Riga scattered iron nails with three curved ends across the neighboring fields; these ends stuck into the hooves of the cavalry and the legs of the infantry. Meanwhile, some Livonians informed the prince that some ships had appeared at sea. Then Vladimir, after an eleven-day siege of Golm, which was already barely holding on, retreated from it, boarded ships and sailed back, again proving his short-sightedness and spinelessness (1206). And the next year, in vain, Prince Vyachko, the ruler of the town of Kukeinos, who was pressed by the Germans, whose possessions were already enveloping him from all sides, called upon Vladimir of Polotsk to help him. Finally, despairing of the success of the defense, Vyachko burned Kukeinos and retired with his family to Rus'. The bishop ordered a strong stone castle to be built on the site of the burnt town and gave it to one knight as a fief. The same fate soon befell another appanage prince, Vsevolod, who owned the next Podvinsk town of Gersike.
In 1210, the existence of the emerging German state was almost in great danger. The neighboring Kurons, who had suffered interference from the Germans and Frisians in their pirate business, decided to take advantage of the usual departure of Bishop Albert to Germany and the weakness of the Riga garrison: they sent to ask the Livs, Lithuania and Russians to unite and drive out the hated aliens with common forces. They promised. Numerous Kuron ships appeared at the agreed time at the mouth of the Dvina and hurried to Riga with such speed that barely some fishing boats had time to notify of their approach. The authorities immediately rang the alarm bell and called on the entire population to defend the city; even church ministers and women took up arms. Immediately messengers galloped in all directions demanding help, the Kurons bravely launched an attack, covering themselves with their shields made of two boards. Whichever of them fell wounded, his closest comrade cut off his head. The people of Riga defended themselves with difficulty all day; however, they held out until nightfall. And the next day help began to approach them from nearby castles; Part of the baptized Livs also came under the command of the faithful Kaupo. Meanwhile, none of the Kuron allies showed up. After standing for a few more days on the left bank of the Dvina, the Kurons burned the bodies of their fallen soldiers and sailed back. The young German state this time, as in general, was saved by the lack of unity in the actions of its enemies. The remarkable inability of Prince Vladimir of Polotsk especially helped him. In the same year, Bishop Albert managed to persuade this prince to a trade agreement beneficial for Riga, which opened up free navigation for German merchants along the Dvina to Polotsk and Smolensk. At the same time, the resourceful bishop not only recognized Vladimir’s rights to the tribute previously paid by the residents, but also undertook to annually pay this tribute to the prince for them. Thus, becoming, as it were, a tributary of the Polotsk prince, he cleverly removed him from direct relations with the natives. The Prince of Polotsk looked so short-sighted at the growing strength of the Germans that, following this agreement, he sent military assistance to the bishop in his war with the Estonians.
An even worse Russian patriot turned out to be the prince of neighboring Pskov, also named Vladimir, the brother of Mstislav the Udaly. He entered into great friendship with the Germans and married his daughter to Riga to the bishop's brother Dietrich. The Pskovites were outraged by this friendship and kicked him out. The exile retired to Riga; the bishop received him with honor and made him governor of the Livonian region of Idumea.
Meanwhile, Vladimir Polotsky invited Albert to a personal meeting near Gersike, which had not yet been captured by the Germans. He invited the bishop to come to an agreement regarding the Livs, the renewal of the trade agreement and general actions against the Lithuanians. On the appointed day, the bishop sailed along the Dvina, accompanied by a number of order knights, Livonian and Latvian elders and, in addition, German merchants, who were also sitting in boats, also fully armed. Vladimir demanded from the bishop that he stop baptizing the Livs, since they are tributaries of him, the Prince of Polotsk, and it is in his power to baptize them or leave them unbaptized. Describing this meeting, Heinrich Latvian notes that Russian princes usually conquer some people not in order to convert them to Christianity, but in order to collect tribute from them. The bishop very cleverly replied that he was obliged to honor the divine command more than human and referred to the Gospel commandment: “Go and teach all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.”
He said that he could not stop preaching entrusted to him by the Roman high priest, but that he did not prevent him from paying tribute to the prince, following the covenant of the same Gospel of Matthew: “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.” He recalled that he himself paid the prince a tax for the Livs, but that these latter did not want to serve two masters and asked to free them forever from the Russian yoke. From affectionate, friendly admonitions, Vladimir finally moved on to threats: he threatened to burn Livonian cities, including Riga itself. He ordered his squad to leave the city and stood in battle formation, showing his intention to attack the Germans. Albert also prepared his retinue for battle. Then John, provost of the Riga Cathedral of St., acted as mediators. Mary, and the former Pskov prince Vladimir, who in this case appeared as a zealous servant of the Germans. They managed to persuade the Prince of Polotsk not only to reconcile with the bishop, but also to renounce the Livonian tribute and to confirm free navigation along the Dvina for merchant ships. Both leaders pledged to act together against Lithuania and other pagans and then each went their separate ways.
Conquest of the Estonian Chud by the Germans and Danes
After the enslavement of the Livs and Latvians, it was the turn of the Estonian Chud. The first German attacks hit the nearby Estonian regions, Sokkala and Ungania, one of which lay on the western side of Lake Wirtz-Herve, and the other on the eastern side. The Estonians generally offered more stubborn resistance to the Germans than other tribes; and therefore the fight against them took on the most fierce character. The Germans burned out villages without mercy and slaughtered the male population, taking women and children captive; and the Estonians, in turn, subjected to painful death the enemies who fell into their hands; sometimes they burned German prisoners alive or strangled them, after cutting a cross into their backs. Taking advantage of the superiority of their weapons and military art, the separation of the tribes and the help of the loyal part of the Livs and Latvians, the Germans gradually pushed forward the enslavement of the Estonians and their forced baptism. One third of the conquered lands, according to established custom, came into the possession of the order, and the other two into the possession of the bishop and the Riga Church. During this struggle with the Estonians, the unsuccessful Prince of Polotsk Vladimir once again appears on the scene of action. The Ests, like the Kurons, tried to conclude an alliance with Vladimir and with their fellow tribesmen, the inhabitants of the island of Ezel; It was decided to attack the Germans from three sides. While the Ezelians on their boats promised to block Dynaminde from the sea, the Prince of Polotsk agreed to personally sail the Dvina straight to Riga. He really gathered a large militia from Rus' and Latvians. The army was already ready to march; but, getting into the boat, the prince suddenly fell and died a sudden death (1216). And the whole enterprise, of course, was upset.
The first Chud region conquered by the Germans was Sokkala, the center of which is the strong castle of Fellin. Ungania followed Sokkala. But then the Germans met another Russia, Novgorod, which, although it did not fully appreciate the importance of the German conquest and did not show persistence in this matter, however, showed more energy and firmness than Polotsk Rus'. Owning Yuryev and the lower reaches of the Embach, the Novgorodians collected tribute from the nearby Estonians and Latvians. Their movement in this direction became especially lively with the appearance of Mstislav the Udal on the Novgorod table. In 1212, he undertook a successful campaign against Chud Tormu (Ungania) and reached its city of Odenpe, or Bear's Head. Two years later, he made the same campaign to Chud Ereva (Ervia), reached the sea (Gulf of Finland) and stood near its city Vorobin. Here Chud bowed to him and paid tribute.
The same Heinrich Latvian, who said above that the Russians cared only about tribute, and did not convert pagans to the Christian faith, admits, however, that the Latvians and Ungan Estonians already had the beginnings of Orthodoxy and that it was precisely his meeting here with Latinism that led to the military clash between Novgorodians and Germans. The main battle between them took place near the aforementioned Odenpe, which both tried to capture. In this war, Vladimir Mstislavich, the former prince of Pskov, again appears, but no longer as an ally, but as an enemy of the Germans and the leader of the Russian army, together with the Novgorod mayor Tverdislav. In alliance with them were also many Estonians from the regions of Sokkala, Ezel and Garria, who were fierce against the Germans by forced baptism and the devastation of their land. During the siege of Odenpe, occupied by the Germans and partly by the Estonians, Rus' uses not only arrows, but also projectiles. In vain did the master of the order Volkvin himself come to the aid of the besieged with his knights, as well as with crowds of Livs and Latvians. The city was forced to surrender to the Russians. After that, under the pretext of peace negotiations, Vladimir Mstislavich called his son-in-law Dietrich to the Russian camp; here the Novgorodians captured him and took him captive to their land (1217).
The defeat of the Germans at Bear's Head emboldened the Estonians, and the first had to strain all their strength to suppress their uprising. The following year, the Novgorodians inflicted several defeats on the Germans, moved deep into Livonia and besieged the very capital of the order, Wenden. But, on the one hand, the lack of food supplies, on the other, the news of the Lithuanian attack on their own borders forced them to lift the siege and go back. The cramped situation in which the Germans found themselves during this struggle with the Chud and the Novgorodians forced Albert to seek help not only in Germany, but also in Denmark. He went to King Waldemar II, who was then at the highest level of his power, and begged him to protect the Livonian possession of the Virgin Mary. The following year, 1219, Valdemar actually landed on the shores of Livonia with a strong fleet and army. After a brave defense, he took the seaside town of Chudi Revel and founded a strong stone castle in its place, and then returned home, leaving part of the army, which continued the conquest of northern Estonia. However, the Germans made a mistake in counting on Danish help. Valdemar soon declared that the part of Estonia he had conquered belonged to the Danish kingdom, and appointed a Dane as its bishop in place of the Estonian bishop Dietrich, who was killed during the siege of Revel. The Livonian Order protested; but did not have the strength to support his claims with weapons. A curious competition then took place between the German and Danish missionaries; each of them hastened to baptize the northern, still pagan part of the Estonians, in order to thereby secure them as their nationality. At the same time, German missionaries, for the sake of speed, usually performed the baptism ceremony on the inhabitants of an entire village at once and hurried to another village. And the Danes, having a shortage of priests, simply sent ministers to many villages with sacred water, with which they sprinkled the inhabitants. It sometimes happened that these and other baptists encountered each other in some locality, and a dispute arose between them. Or German priests would appear, for example, in a village, gather the inhabitants and prepare to perform a shadow ritual over them, when an elder would come out of the crowd and announce to them that the day before the Danes had already sprinkled them. Albert Buxhoeveden went to Rome and brought a complaint against King Waldemar to Pope Honorius III. But he met the Danish embassy there: the king recognized his pope as the supreme fief ruler. Having failed here, Albert remembered that he had once declared Livonia a fief of the German Empire, and therefore turned to Emperor Frederick II. But the latter, busy with other matters, did not want to quarrel with his strong neighbor. Then Albert submitted to the circumstances: he went again to Voldemar and, in turn, recognized him as the supreme ruler of Estonia and Livonia.
Unexpected events came to the aid of the Livonian Germans. In 1223, King Waldemar was treasonably captured while hunting by his vassal Henry, Count of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, which some conquered lands took advantage of to overthrow the Danish yoke. Livonia was also liberated; Only in northern Estonia did the Danes still hold out. At the same time, the first Tatar invasion of Eastern Europe took place; it somewhat distracted Rus''s attention from the Baltic Sea. The Novgorodians, called by the Estonians against their enslavers, although they continued the war and reached Revel or Kolyvan, acted without consistency, in temporary impulses, and often left the Germans alone, preoccupied with internal turmoil and the frequent changes of their princes, as well as relations with Suzdal.
Capture of Yuryev (Dorpat) by Livonian knights
The Germans took advantage of favorable circumstances to take away from Rus' its possessions on Embach, i.e. the city of Yuryev, or Dorpat. In August 1224, Bishop Albert and Master of the Order Volkvin, with German knights and pilgrims, also with Livs and Latvians, surrounded Yuryev. Not long before this city and the surrounding region were given over to Prince Vyachk, the same one from whom the Germans took Kokenhusen. The garrison consisted of a small two hundred Russians and several hundred Estonians. But it was the best fortified city in the Baltic region, and the Germans were forced to use great efforts to capture it. Situated in tents around the city, they built a large wooden tower, moved it to the walls and began to dig under its cover. At the same time, throwing weapons were in action, throwing arrows, stones, and hot iron at the castle and trying to set it on fire. The besieged defended themselves courageously, responding for their part with arrows and throwing weapons. In vain did the bishop offer Prince Vyachka to surrender the city and retire with people, weapons and all property. The prince rejected all offers, hoping that the Novgorodians would not leave him without help. The siege work continued not only during the day, but also at night with the glow of fires, songs, and the sound of trumpets and kettledrums. A handful of Russians had to spend sleepless nights on the walls, also encouraging themselves by clicking and playing their instruments (including, as Heinrich Latvish noted, some kind of “tarants,” probably pipes). Exhausted by the courageous defense and the slowness of the siege, the Germans finally decided to take the city by storm, precisely at that moment when the besieged managed to light the aforementioned siege tower with flaming wheels and bundles of firewood. They put up ladders; John Appeldern, brother of Bishop Albert, was the first to climb the wall; The knights rushed after him, and the Latvians followed the knights. A brutal massacre took place. After a desperate defense, all the Russians and almost all the Estonians were beaten. Among the fallen was the valiant Vyachko. The Germans spared only one Suzdal boyar, who was sent to Novgorod with news of what had happened. Having taken horses and all booty, along with the surviving women and children, the Germans set fire to the castle from all sides and left; for the news came that a large Novgorod army was approaching. But this belated help, having reached Pskov, learned about the fall of Dorpat and returned back. Then Novgorod and Pskov made peace with Riga. The cunning Albert used the same policy here as against the Prince of Polotsk: from his own treasury he paid the Novgorodians part of the tribute that they received from some native tribes, and thereby, as it were, recognized their supreme rights. But at the same time, all the lands west of Lake Peipsi came into the direct possession of the Livonian Germans. However, in addition to internal troubles, Novgorod was forced to compliance by the same external circumstances as Polotsk, i.e. growing danger from Lithuania: it was in the same 1224 that Lithuania raided the Novgorod possessions, penetrated to the city of Rusa and defeated the Novgorodians near this city.
Conquest of Ezel, Semigallians and Kurons by the Livonian Order
After reconciliation with the neighboring Russian regions, the conquest of the Baltic region went even more successfully and soon reached its natural limits. In 1227, taking advantage of the cold winter that imposed icy shackles on the coastal strip of the sea, the German army marched across the ice to the island of Ezel, the last refuge of Estonian independence. The Germans, led by Bishop Albert himself and the Master of the Order Volkvin, reinforced by auxiliary detachments of Livs and Latvians, brutally devastated the island and took the main fortification of the natives, Monet, and destroyed the sanctuary of their deity Tarapilla, which represented the image of a fantastic bird or dragon. The conquered island, according to custom, was divided into three parts between the bishop, the city of Riga and the Livonian Order. Volkvin then again gathered a strong militia and embarked on a campaign in Northern Estonia against the Danes. The Estonians themselves helped him during the siege of Revel, which was taken by the Germans; after which the weak Danish garrisons were expelled from the entire country. The Order took for itself the provinces of Garria, Ervia and Verria; and Bishop Albert was provided only by Vic, i.e. the westernmost outskirts of Estonia.
Around the same time, the conquest of the left bank of the Dvina and the country of the Zemgales was completed. It was accomplished with greater ease than the conquest of other native tribes. Following a simple policy of disengagement, the Germans were allies of this tribe against their neighbors, especially against their Lithuanian fellow tribesmen, and meanwhile managed to capture several important points and strengthen themselves in them. German missionaries also did not encounter such stubborn resistance from local paganism as in other areas. The last fighter for this paganism and fading independence was Westgard, the most significant and brave of the native princes. Seeing how Christianity invaded his country from all sides and sacred oaks fell under the ax of German missionaries without any vengeance on the part of Perkun, Westgard at the end of his life realized the powerlessness of the household gods. He died almost at the same time as his great enemy Bishop Albert, and after him Zimgola finally submitted to German rule and Christianity. Behind her came the turn of her western neighbors, the Kurons. German preaching and German politics were already in effect there. The preachers especially emphasized the fact that only those who voluntarily converted to Christianity retain freedom of property, while stubborn pagans face the fate of the Estonians. By the way, the Livonian Germans managed to attract one of the influential Kuronian princes Lamekhin to their side, with his help they in 1230-31. concluded a number of agreements with the elders of the Kuron volosts (called Killegunde in the local language). The Kurons undertook to accept Christian priests, receive baptism from them, pay taxes to the clergy and field auxiliary troops against other pagans; For this reason, they retained their personal freedom for now.
But already in the previous 1229, the famous Bishop Albert of Buxhoeveden died after thirty years of ruling the young Livonian state, which was his creation. His death occurred during the conclusion of the famous trade agreement between Riga and Gotland on the one hand, Smolensk and Polotsk on the other. Albert's ashes were laid with great ceremony in the Riga Cathedral Church of Our Lady. The chapter of this church, together with the bishops of Dorpat and Ezel, chose the Premonstrans canon Nicholas of Magdeburg as his successor. The Archbishop of Bremen declared his claims to the former dependence of the Livonian Church on him and appointed another person; but Pope Gregory IX decided the dispute in favor of Nicholas.
Sources and manuals for the history and ethnography of the Livonian region represent an extensive literature, thanks in particular to local German science, which carefully collected, published and explained the historical monuments of the region. Among the collections of sources, the main place is occupied by: Monumenta Livoniae antiquae. 5 Bde. Riga, Dorpat und Leipzig 1835–1847, performed mainly by the works of Napierski. Scriptores rerum Livonicarum. 2 Bde. Riga und Leipzig. 1847–1853. For the initial history, the first volume is important, where the Latin chronicle of Henry Latvian is reprinted, covering the period from 1184 to 1226, with a German translation and comments by Prof. Hansen; and rhyming German chronicle of Dietlieb von Alnpecke (written at the end of the 13th century) with a translation into the new German language, processed by Calmeyer. Then extracts from various chronicles from Bunge in his Archiv fur die Geschichte Liv-Estn und Kurlands. His Liv-Estn und Kurlandicher Urkundenbuch; 4 Bde. R. 1852 – 59. Peter of Duisburg Chronicon Prussiae. Edition by Hartknoch. Jena, 1679 (also in Scriptores rer. Prussic.) and Bows of David Preussische Urkunden, collected by Napiersky and published by the Archaeographical Commission with the participation of Academician Kunik. St. Petersburg 1868. “Certificates concerning relations between northwestern Russia and Riga and the Hanseatic cities.” Found by Napersky, published by Archaeographer. By the Commission. (SPb. 1857).
The most important benefits; Urgeschichte des Esthnischen Volkstammes und der Ostseeprovinzen bis zur Eintuhrung der christlichen Religion. Von Fr. Kruse. Moscow. 1840. Necrolivonica oder Alterhumer Liv-Ectn und Kurlands. Von Dr. Kruse. Dorpat. 1842. Russisch-Livlandische Chronographfe. Von Bonnell. Petersburg edition. Academy of Sciences. 1862. "Chronological studies in the field of Russian and Livonian history in the XIII and XIV centuries." A. Engelman. St. Petersburg 1858. Geschichte der Ostseeprovinzen Liv-Estn und Kurland. Von Otto von Rutenberg. 2 Bde. Leipzig. 1859 – 1860. Geschichte der deutschen Ostsee-prozinven. Von Richter. 2 Th. Riga. 1857 - 1858. (Indicating the literature of the subject.) For information about the literature (specifically 1836 - 1848), see Pauker Die Literatur der Geschichte Liv-Estn und Kurlands. Dorpat. 1848. Also “Index of essays on the indigenous inhabitants of the Baltic region.” X. Baorona. (Zap. Geogr. General on the department of ethnography. I. 1869), as well as Bibliotheca Livoniae Historica. Von Winkelman. Zweite Ausgabe. Berlin. 1878. "Materials on the ethnography of the Latvian tribe." Edited by Treyland (Izvestia Mosk. Ob. Lovers of Natural History and Ethnography. XL. 1881). And finally, Ernest Seraphim's tendentious German compilation Geschichte von Livland. First volume (before 1582). Gotha. 1906.
Regarding the almost extinct Liv tribe, the study by Academician Wiedemann, “Review of the former fate and current state of the Livs,” is interesting. St. Petersburg 1870. (Appendix to XVIII volume. Western Academician N.). Of the newest works, I will also mention Bunge’s Die Stadt Riga im Dreizehnten und Vierzehnten Jahrhundert. Leipzig. 1878; For the establishment of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, the main guide is Voigt's famous work Geschichte Preussens. "Trade and peaceful relations between the Russian principalities and Livonia in the 13th century." I. Tikhomirov. (J. M. N. Pr. 1876. May).
The “Chronicle” of Heinrich the Latvian, which serves as the main source for the history of the settlement of the Germans in Livonia, is distinguished by its great predilection for them and especially for Bishop Albert. In his simplicity, he sometimes openly conveys their unseemly traits; but it obviously gives a different light to many things. By the way, regarding Yuryev, Tatishchev writes that the Germans took him with the help of treachery: they concluded a truce with the besieged; and when the vigilance of the city guard weakened as a result, at night, creeping up to the city, they set it on fire and, taking advantage of the fire, made an attack (III. 431). It is not known where he got this news from; but it does not contradict the general modus operandi of the Germans. According to Mr. Sapunov (see above in note 41), Vyachko was the elder half-brother of Vladimir of Polotsk, and the latter was raised by his mother Svyatokhna, a secret Catholic. See also Kharuzin "On the history of the city of Gertsike". (Archaeologist, news and notes. M. 1895. No. 2 – 3). In addition, in “Moskitian” 1843, No. 7, there is a useful article “Where did the indigenous inhabitants of Livonia initially receive Christianity, from the east or west?” Decides that it is from the east.
During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had unlimited power not only in the sphere of shaping the worldview of people, but also in the government of apologist countries. The secular power of religious leaders was exercised through the orders, which led the famous crusades, the purpose of which was not only the conversion of pagans to God's faith, but also the actual annexation of the lands of the conquered states. In the second quarter of the 13th century, the Livonian Order became one of these paramilitary forces. Its founder was Bishop Albert of Riga, who had exorbitant aggressive ambitions.
Fundamentals of the formation of the order
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Order of the Swordsmen existed in Riga - a German Catholic association, which included representatives of the clergy and knights. The uniform of members of the order was a white cloak with a print in the form of a red cross and a sword. The first master who led the order was named Winno von Rohrbach, he was replaced by Volkwin von Naumburg, with whom the history of the order ended. The main task of the order was crusades on the lands of the modern Baltic states. The conquest of Lithuania was especially difficult; attempts were made repeatedly to conquer the Novgorod lands. Together with Danish troops, the Revel fortress (modern Tallinn) was founded in 1219.
The decline of the order occurred during the Northern Crusade of 1233 - 1236, which was suspended by the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. The Swordsmen suffered a complete defeat during the Crusade against Lithuania in 1236, which was organized by Pope Gregory IX. In May of the following year, the leader of the Teutonic Order and Pope Gregory agreed on the inclusion of the remaining swordsmen into the order. Since the Swordsmen were stationed in modern Latvian and Estonian lands, the new association began to bear the name of the Livonian Order, a branch of the Teutonic Order. The knights of the Livonian Order kept the same uniform as their predecessors.
Lands of Subjugation
The name of the order was given by the name of the people who lived in the lower reaches of the Western Dvina River - the Livs. Livonia united five principalities of the clergy: the Livonian Order, as well as the bishoprics of Riga, Courland, Dorpat and Ezel-Vik. Formally, power over these lands belonged to the German emperor and the Pope.
Officially, the Livonian branch was called the Order of St. Mary of the German House in Livonia. Historians note that with the organization of the new structure, the balance of power in this territory changed. The Sword Bearers were subordinate to the Bishop of Riga, and the Livonians were subordinate to the head of the Teutonic Order, who was directly subordinate to the Pope. This subsequently gave rise to a power struggle between the bishopric and the order.
First defeat
The newly formed order tested its strength only five years later. Then the Livonian and Teutonic orders set out on a campaign against Novgorod and Pskov. However, they met fierce resistance from the Russian army led by the Novgorod prince Alexander, who went down in history as Alexander Nevsky. According to legend, the battle took place on Lake Peipsi on April 5, 1242. The famous battle on the ice ended with the complete defeat of the invaders, of whom about 400-500 knights died.
At the same time, history from Livonia claims that there could not have been such a number of knights. Moreover, most of them consisted of soldiers of the Bishop of Tartu. Be that as it may, this defeat weakened the order's ardor towards Rus' for more than twenty years.
Fierce resistance to Samogitia
In the 50s of the 13th century, the Livonian Order brought Prince Mindaugas to power in Lithuania. In exchange, Samogitia was transferred to their jurisdiction. The alliance with the Lithuanian leadership significantly strengthened the order. At the same time, the inhabitants of the given territory were not going to obey and put up powerful resistance to the new masters.
Having secured the support of the Courlanders, whom the order had enslaved, in 1260 he decided to organize an attack on Samogitia. However, the latter managed to get ahead of them and attack first. The battle took place on the territory of the current city of Durbe, in the western part of Latvia. During the battle, the legionnaires of the order from the defeated territories - Estonians, Latgalians, Courlanders - quickly left the battlefield, leaving the few Livonians alone with the Samogitians, who won an unconditional victory.
The defeat entailed the loss of Samogitia, the liberation of most of Courland, as well as Saaremaa.
The end of the Crusade in the Baltics
Resistance in Estonia, which was formally conquered back in 1227, did not subside until the late 1260s. Uprisings broke out in Courland and Semgall with enviable regularity. In 1267, Courland fell, where almost all the land went to Bishop Albert, with the exception of one third, which was transferred to the Courland bishop.
This distribution of land significantly increased the influence of the Livonian Order. Memel Castle was built, which facilitated land communication with the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The establishment in Courland allowed the crusaders to direct all their forces to the conquest of Semgall, which was finally defeated only in 1291. Some of the Courlanders then fled to Lithuania, assimilating with the Lithuanians. Those who remained, many centuries later, became Latvians.
Civil wars
The Livonian Order first came into open conflict with the Riga bishopric only in 1297, although earlier there had been repeated attempts by the clergy to challenge the power of the order. The war lasted with varying success until 1330, when the order won a final victory and completely subjugated Riga. However, even before the middle of the 15th century, the city was alternately subordinate to the master of the order and the archbishop, until in 1451 they were equal in the rights of leading the city. This situation remained until the disappearance of the order.
Northern Estonia became the property of the Teutonic Order in 1346. The Order bought the territory for real money from the Danish king Valdemar IV Atterdag. The ease of this acquisition was due to the successfully suppressed rebellion here in 1343, which went down in history as the St. George's Night uprising. However, a year after the acquisition, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order transferred actual power over the lands to the Livonian Order. In the 15th century, when trying to separate from the mother order, this is where the biggest problems arose.
At the beginning of the 15th century, the Livonian Order began to strive for independence from its patron, the Teutonic Order. This was especially facilitated by the latter’s defeat in 1410 in a battle with a united Polish-Lithuanian army. Then peace agreements disastrous for the Teutonic Order were concluded, as a result of which power over Samogitia was lost. The leadership of the Livonian Order became increasingly reluctant to support its patron in military campaigns, and then began to refuse it altogether. The confrontation intensified due to the internal contradictions of the Livonian Order itself.
Difficult relations with Russia
The history of the Livonian Order included a rather difficult relationship with the Russian state. Basically all clashes ended in defeat. Military confrontations, which took place with varying degrees of success, ended in peace treaties, which were quickly annulled. Because of the closed Hanseatic trading office in Novgorod, the Livonian-Moscow War broke out in 1501. The Livonian Order chose Lithuania, which was at war with Russia, as an ally. However, this did not lead to anything, and in 1503 peace was concluded, an agreement on which was regularly confirmed until the outbreak of the Livonian War.
In 1551, the agreement could not be extended. The Russian side, having successfully gotten rid of the yoke of the khanates, reoriented its interests to the west. Negotiations dragged on for several years, until Ivan the Terrible set as an ultimatum the cancellation of payment of Yuryev's tribute for the lands of the Tartu bishopric, which, according to the tsar, was originally Russian land. The last negotiations between the parties, which took place in 1558, came to nothing. The Livonian War began. By the end of the year, Grozny's troops captured eastern and southeastern Estonia.
Decline of the Order
It was with the war with the Russians that the defeat of the Livonian Order began. Seeing how quickly Russian troops were advancing through the lands of the order, Northern Estonia and Tallinn voluntarily went into submission to Sweden. The nobles of the remaining lands were forced to join the Polish-Lithuanian state on conditions of complete submission. However, the last head of the order, Master Kettler, was able to defend for himself the Duchy of Courland, which he headed.
The famous Livonian Order, the year of official collapse of which was 1561, successfully implemented the official policy of the Catholic Church. The Crusades brought fame and fortune. However, internal contradictions and the desire for independence significantly weakened the order and ultimately led to its disappearance.
The Livonian Order of Knights was formed by German knights in the first half of the 13th century in Livonia (modern Latvia and Estonia). It was a branch of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic states. Initially, the Livonian Order was called the Order of the Sword.
The spiritual knightly order of the Swordsmen was founded in 1202 on the initiative of the Cistercian Dietrich and with the assistance of Pope Innocent III. The Order was created in order to bring the Christian faith to the Baltic peoples of the Livs, Estonians, and Semigallians. The charter of the sword bearers was based on the charter of the Knights Templar, and the distinctive sign was a sword on a white background. The Order of the Swordsmen was subordinate to the Pope and Bishop Albert of Riga. The Sword Bearers were the military force of the bishop, with the help of which it was possible to both maintain order in the conquered lands and conquer new territories. Von Rohrbach became the first Master of the Order of the Sword in 1202. He founded the city of Wenden (modern Cesis in Latvia). According to the agreement between the Riga bishop and the master, 2/3 of all the land that will be conquered by the order should belong to the church, that is, to the bishop and the order, which recognized itself as a vassal of the church. At the beginning of the 13th century, the Swordsmen captured vast lands in the Eastern Baltic, a third of which was assigned to the order by the Pope.
In 1214, clashes between Russian princes and the Order of the Sword began. In 1217, the Danish king Valdemar II landed on the shores of Estonia, seized the land, converted the inhabitants to Christianity, founded the Revel fortress (modern Tallinn) and, by agreement in 1230, ceded part of Estonia to the order. In 1236, the army of the Lithuanian prince Mindaugas, together with the Semigallians, inflicted a crushing defeat on the army of the Order of the Swordsmen in the Battle of Saul (modern Shau-liai). This defeat significantly undermined the strength of the order and served as an impetus for the unification of the weakening Order of the Swordsmen with the gaining strength of the Teutonic Order. Using influence in the papal curia, as well as at the court of the emperor, in 1237, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Hermann von Salz, carried out the unification of the Order of the Swordsmen with the Teutonic Order. This association gave the Crusader knights enormous advantages in conquering the Baltic lands. After the unification, the Order of the Swordsmen became known as the Livonian Order. From that time on, it began to be controlled by local masters.
By the end of the 13th century, the Livonian Order became part of the confederation of five states, together with the Archbishopric of Riga, Courland, Dorpat and Ezel bishoprics. Since then, constant strife began between the masters of the order and the bishops. The Confederation was located in Livonia. The Livonian Order had the most extensive possessions. His lands were deeply wedged into the possessions of other states, thereby isolating them from each other. This arrangement of possessions and great military superiority allowed the order to eventually occupy a dominant position among the Livonian states. The Livonian Order also tried to conquer lands belonging to Rus', but in 1242 Alexander Nevsky defeated the knights of the Livonian Order in the battle of Lake Peipsi. In connection with this, the Livonian knights were forced to conclude a peace treaty, according to which they renounced their claims to Russian lands. In 1343, a peasant uprising broke out in northwestern Estonia, which escalated into a peasant war that lasted from 1343 to 1345, which ended in the complete defeat of the rebels. But this uprising showed how difficult it was for Denmark to maintain its possessions in distant Estonia, and therefore the King of Denmark Valdemar IV Atterdag, meeting the requests of the Livonian Order, sold the lands that belonged to him for 19,000 Cologne marks of pure silver. Thus, by the middle of the 14th century, the territory of Livonia ended up in the hands of German feudal lords. The Order sought to create a unified state in Livonia, subordinate to its authority, by pushing members of the Order into archbishops, bishops and house chapters. These plans of the order were opposed by the Archbishop of Riga, who himself tried to expand his power - to extend his suzerain rights to the order and the city of Riga. In the 16th century, the Livonian states watched the strengthening of Russia with alarm and concern. The Order, fearing the further strengthening of the Russian state, prevented the import of industrial products and raw materials that were important from a military point of view, as well as the entry of foreign specialists into Russia. The Livonian Order was an ally in the war of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania against Russia, which lasted from 1501 to 1503. The last master of the Livonian Order from 1559 to 1562, Gotthard Kettler, put an end to the existence of the Livonian Order. Gotthard Kettler was a representative of feudal lord groups with a Polish orientation. He was elected coadjutor of the Master of the Order of Fürstenberg, but soon he managed, through intrigue, to force Fürstenberg (who was hostile to Poland) to leave his position, and Kettler himself became the Master of the Order. As Master of the Order, he swore allegiance to the King of Poland in 1562 and received from him the title of Duke of Courland. As Duke of Courland he reigned from 1562 to 1582.
Masters of the Livonian Order:1. Hermann Valcke (1237 - 1239).
2. Andreas von Velven (1240 - 1241).
3. Diebirik von Groningen (1242 - 1245).
4. Heinrich von Hemburg (1245 - 1246).
5. Andreas von Stirland (1248 - 1253).
6. Anno von Sangerhausen (1253 - 1256).
7. Burchard von Hornhusen (1257 - 1260).
8. Werner (1261 - 1263).
9. Konrad von Manbern (1263 - 1266).
10. Otto von Lutterberg (1266 - 1270).
11. Walter von Northeken (1270 - 1273).
12. Ernst von Ratzenburg (1273 - 1279).
13. Conrad von Fechtwagen (1279 - 1281).
14. Wilken von Enborg (1281 - 1287).
15. Conrad von Hasigenstein (1288 - 1290).
16. Halt (1290 - 1293).
17. Heinrich von Dinkelag (1295 - 1296).
18. Bruno (1296 - 1298).
19. Gottfried von Rogge (1298 - 1307).
20. Konrad von Erck (1309 - 1322).
21. Ketelhob (1322 - 1324).
22. Hane (1324 - 1328).
23. Everhard von Monheim (1328 - 1340).
24. Buchard von Drileben (1340 - 1345).
25. Goshin von Hericke (1345 - 1359).
26. Arnold von Wetinghof (1359 - 1364).
27. Wilhelm von Vrumersheim (1364 - 1385).
28. R. von Eltz (1385 - 1389).
29. Volmer von Brugen (1389 - 1401).
30. Conrad von Wetinghof (1401 - 1413).
31. Dietrich Tork (1413 - 1415).
32. Siegfried Lander von Spanheim (1415 - 1424).
33. G. von Rutenberg (1424 - 1433).
34. Franco Kerskoff (1433 - 1435).
35. Heinrich von Bockenward (1435 - 1437).
36. X. V. von Overberg (1438 - 1450).
37. Ehan Osthof von Menged (1450 - 1469).
38. V. von Gers (1470 - 1471).
39. Bernd von der Borg (1471 - 1483).
40. Johann Freytag von Loringhofen (1483 - 1494).
41. Voltaire von Plettenberg (1494 - 1535).
42. Hermann von Bruggeney - Hasenkamp (1535 - 1549).
43. Johann von der Recke (1549 - 1551).
44. Heinrich von Galen (1551 - 1557).
45. Wilhelm von Furstenberg (1557 - 1559).
46. Gotthard Kettler (1559 - 1561).
Zharkov Sergey Vladimirovich “The history of the creation of knightly orders and a catalog of bladed weapons, equipment of knights of medieval Europe”