During the period of feudal fragmentation, crafts and construction rapidly improved, cities grew rapidly, trade developed. Fragmentation contributed to a richer and more diverse life of the Russian principalities.

The development of crafts was accompanied by the rapid growth of cities and the development of local markets. If in Kievan Rus there were about 20 cities, then in the appanage - more than 300. Old Russian cities were extremely complex socio-economic and political-administrative organisms, the basis of whose economic life was craft and trade, as well as agricultural production.

The appanage princes, having become the owners of the lands, acted as organizers of the construction of new cities and strengthening them with fortresses. Decentralization made it possible to better adapt the political structure of the lands to local conditions. In some lands, grand-ducal power was established in a monarchical form (Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities), others became boyar feudal republics (Novgorod, Pskov). The most striking evidence of the progressive development of Rus' at this time is the flourishing of its culture. Thus, political fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of Ancient Rus'.

All-Russian legislation played an important role in the development of the ancient Russian social system. Unlike some feudal-fragmented states of Western Europe (for example, Germany), where each principality had its own laws, in Ancient Rus' of the 11th-13th centuries. there was a unified legal code of judicial and legal norms that had equal force in all lands. The Kiev state ceased to exist. But the fate of his legal system, his legislation, turned out differently. It continued to operate in those states into which Ancient Rus' broke up. They created their own laws. However, they could not replace the entire complex system of legislation of Kievan Rus.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. In Rus', three main political centers were identified, each of which had a decisive influence on the political life of the surrounding lands and principalities: for North-Eastern and Western (and to a large extent for North-Western and Southern) Rus' - the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality; for Southern and Southwestern Rus' --

Galicia-Volyn Principality; for North-Western Rus' - Novgorod feudal republic

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became independent during the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky (1132-1157). The most ancient cities of the principality are Rostov, Suzdal, Murom). From the middle of the 12th century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became independent during the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky (1132-1157). The geographical location (remoteness from the steppe regions and control over the Volga trade route) contributed to the influx of refugees from the southern principalities and rapid economic development. Against the background of these features, a strong princely power was formed. The land was considered as the property of the prince, and its population, including the boyars, as its servants, which led to the formation of princely-subject relations.

The successor of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), energetically strengthened his own power and statehood. He moved the capital to Vladimir, promoted the development of culture and constantly sought to extend his power to other lands, having won a victory over Kiev in 1169.

The prince's cruelty and autocracy gave rise to conspiracies around him. The internecine struggle for the princely table ended with the victory of his half-brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, so nicknamed for the large size of his family. Vsevolod suppressed the boyar opposition and strengthened the princely power. The time of his reign was the heyday of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.

At the beginning of the 13th century. Vladimir Rus' broke up into fiefs: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Uglich, Pereyaslavl, Yuryevsky and Murom. Principalities of North-Eastern Rus' in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis for the formation of the Moscow state. The process of economic recovery was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.

The Galician-Volyn principality, located in the southwest of the Russian lands, arose as a result of the unification of the strong Galician and Volyn principalities. The territory from the Carpathians to Polesie.

The Novgorod land occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals. She escaped the fate of ruin from the raids of nomads. The huge land fund was in the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the tribal nobility. Hunting, fishing, salt making, and iron production received significant development. The city was located at the crossroads of trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium.

feudal fragmentation Russian principality

Among the dozens of principalities, the largest were Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod land.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.

This principality occupied a special place in the history of the Russian Middle Ages. He was destined to become a link between the pre-Mongol period of Russian history and the period of Muscovite Rus', the core of the future unified state.

Located in distant Zalesye, it was well protected from external threats. Thick black soils, created by nature in the center of the non-chernozem zone, attracted settlers here. Convenient river routes opened the way to eastern and European markets.

In the 11th century this remote region becomes the “fatherland” of the Monomakhovichs. At first, they do not attach importance to this pearl of their possessions and do not even place princes here. At the beginning of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh founded the future capital of Vladimir-on-Klyazma and in 1120 sent his son Yuri to reign here. The foundations of the power of the Suzdal land were laid during the reign of three outstanding statesmen: Yuri Dolgoruky /1120-1157/, Andrei Bogolyubsky /1157-1174/, Vsevolod the Big Nest /1176-1212/.

They were able to prevail over the boyars, for which they were nicknamed “autocrats.” Some historians see in this a tendency to overcome fragmentation, interrupted by the Tatar invasion.

Yuri, with his irrepressible thirst for power and desire for primacy, turned his possession into an independent principality that pursued an active policy. His possessions expanded to include the colonized eastern regions. The new cities of Yuryev Polsky, Pereyaslavl Zalessky, and Dmitrov grew. Churches and monasteries were built and decorated. The first chronicle mention of Moscow dates back to the time of his reign /1147/.

Yuri more than once fought with Volga Bulgaria, a trade competitor of Rus'. He waged a confrontation with Novgorod, and in the 40s. got involved in a grueling and useless struggle for Kyiv. Having achieved his desired goal in 1155, Yuri left Suzdal land forever. Two years later he died in Kyiv /according to one version, he was poisoned/.

The master of North-Eastern Rus' - tough, power-hungry and energetic - was Dolgoruky's son Andrei, nicknamed Bogolyubsky for the construction of a palace in the village of Bogolyubovo near Vladimir. While his father was still alive, Andrei, Yuri’s “beloved child”, to whom he intended to transfer Kyiv after his death, leaves for the Suzdal land without his father’s consent. In 1157, the local boyars elected him as their prince.

Andrei combined several qualities that were important for a statesman of that time. A courageous warrior, he was a calculating, unusually astute diplomat at the negotiating table. Possessing an extraordinary mind and willpower, he became an authoritative and formidable commander, an “autocrat” whose orders even the formidable Polovtsians obeyed. The prince decisively placed himself not next to the boyars, but above them, relying on the cities and his military service court. Unlike his father, who aspired to Kyiv, he was a local Suzdal patriot, and he considered the fight for Kyiv only a means of elevating his principality. Having captured the city of Kyiv in 1169, he gave it to the army for plunder and put his brother there to rule. In addition to everything, Andrei was a well-educated person and was not devoid of original literary talent.

However, in an effort to strengthen princely power and rise above the boyars, Bogolyubsky was ahead of his time. The boyars grumbled silently. When, by order of the prince, one of the Kuchkovich boyars was executed, his relatives organized a conspiracy, in which the prince’s closest servants also participated. On the night of April 29, 1174, the conspirators broke into the prince's bedroom and killed Andrei. The news of his death became a signal for a popular uprising. The prince's castle and the courtyards of the townspeople were plundered, the most hated mayors, tiuns, and tax collectors were killed. Only a few days later the riot subsided.

Andrey's brother Vsevolod the Big Nest continued the traditions of his predecessors. Powerful, like Andrei, he was more prudent and careful. Vsevolod was the first among the princes of the Northeast to receive the title of “Grand Duke”, dictated his will to Ryazan, Novgorod, Galich, and led an attack on the lands of Novgorod and Volga Bulgaria.

Vsevolod had 8 sons and 8 grandchildren, not counting female descendants, for which he received the nickname “Big Nest”.

Having fallen ill in 1212, he bequeathed the throne to his second son Yuri, bypassing the elder Constantine. A new strife followed, lasting 6 years. Yuri ruled in Vladimir until the Mongol invasion and died in a battle with the Tatars on the river. City.

Novgorod land.

The vast expanses of Novgorod land, inhabited by Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes, could successfully accommodate several European states. From 882 to 1136, Novgorod - the “northern guard of Rus'” - was ruled from Kyiv and accepted the eldest sons of the Kyiv prince as governors. In 1136, the Novgorodians expelled Vsevolod /the grandson of Monomakh/ from the city and from then on they began to invite the prince from wherever they wanted, and expelled the unwanted one / the famous Novgorod principle of “liberty in princes”/. Novgorod became independent.

A special form of government developed here, which historians call a boyar republic. This order had long traditions. Even in the Kiev period, distant Novgorod had special political rights. In the X1st century. a mayor had already been chosen here, and Yaroslav the Wise, in exchange for the support of the Novgorodians in the fight for Kyiv, agreed that the boyars would not have jurisdiction over the prince.

The Novgorod boyars descended from the local tribal nobility. It became rich through the division of state revenues, trade and usury, and from the end of the 11th century. began to acquire fiefdoms. Boyar land ownership in Novgorod was much stronger than princely land ownership. Although the Novgorodians tried more than once to “feed” a prince for themselves, their own princely dynasty never developed there. The eldest sons of the great princes, who sat here as governors, after the death of their father, aspired to the Kiev throne.

Situated on infertile lands along the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” Novgorod developed primarily as a craft and trade center. Metalworking, woodworking, pottery, weaving, tanning, jewelry, and fur trading reached a particularly high level. Lively trade took place not only with Russian lands, but also with foreign countries of the West and East, from where cloth, wine, ornamental stone, non-ferrous and precious metals were brought.

In exchange they sent furs, honey, wax, and leather. In Novgorod there were trading yards founded by Dutch and Hanseatic merchants. The most important trading partner was the largest among the cities of the Hanseatic League, Lübeck.

The highest authority in Novgorod was a meeting of free owners of courtyards and estates - the veche. It made decisions on issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited and expelled the prince, elected the mayor, the thousand, and the archbishop. The presence without the right to vote of the masses of the urban population made veche meetings stormy and loud events.

The elected mayor actually headed the executive branch, administered court, and controlled the prince. Tysyatsky commanded the militia, judged trade matters, and collected taxes. The archbishop /"lord"/, who was appointed by the Kiev metropolitan until 1156, was also later elected. He was in charge of the treasury and foreign relations. The prince was not only a military commander. He was also an arbitrator, participated in negotiations, and was responsible for internal order. Finally, he was simply one of the attributes of antiquity, and in accordance with the traditionalism of medieval thinking, even the temporary absence of a prince was considered an abnormal phenomenon.

The veche system was a form of feudal "democracy". The illusion of democracy was created around the actual power of the boyars and the so-called “300 golden belts”.

Galicia-Volyn land.

Southwestern Rus', with its highly fertile soils and mild climate, located at the intersection of numerous trade routes, had excellent opportunities for economic development. In the XIII century. Almost a third of the cities of all Rus' were concentrated here, and the urban population played an important role in political life. But the princely-boyar feuds, acute as nowhere else in Rus', turned internecine conflicts into a constant phenomenon. The long border with the strong states of the West - Poland, Hungary, the Order - made the Galician-Volyn lands the object of the greedy claims of their neighbors. Internal turmoil was complicated by foreign interference that threatened independence.

At first, the fate of Galicia and Volyn was different. The Galician principality, the westernmost in Rus', until the middle of the 12th century. was divided into small holdings.

Prince Vladimir Volodarevich of Przemysl united them, moving the capital to Galich. The principality reached its highest power under Yaroslav Osmomysl /1151-1187/, so named for his high education and knowledge of eight foreign languages. The last years of his reign were marred by clashes with the powerful boyars. The reason for them was the prince’s family affairs. Having married Dolgoruky’s daughter Olga, he took a mistress, Nastasya, and wanted to transfer the throne to his illegitimate son Oleg “Nastasich”, bypassing the legitimate Vladimir. Nastasya was burned at the stake, and after the death of his father, Vladimir expelled Oleg and established himself on the throne /1187-1199/.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Volyn passed from hand to hand more than once until it fell to the Monomakhovichs. Under Monomakh's grandson Izyaslav Mstislavich, she separated from Kyiv. The rise of the Volyn land occurs at the end of the 12th century. under the cool and energetic Roman Mstislavich, the most prominent figure among the Volyn princes. He fought for 10 years for the neighboring Galician table, and in 1199 he united both principalities under his rule.

The short reign of Roman /1199-1205/ left a bright mark on the history of southern Rus'. The Ipatiev Chronicle calls him “the autocrat of all Rus',” and the French chronicler calls him “the Russian king.”

In 1202 he captured Kyiv and established control over the entire south. Having initially begun a successful fight against the Polovtsians, Roman then switched to Western European affairs. He intervened in the struggle between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens on the side of the latter. In 1205, during a campaign against the king of Lesser Poland, Roman's army was defeated, and he himself was killed while hunting.

Roman's sons Daniil and Vasilko were too young to continue the broad plans to which their father fell victim. The principality collapsed, and the Galician boyars began a long and ruinous feudal war that lasted about 30 years. Princess Anna fled to Krakow. The Hungarians and Poles captured Galicia and part of Volhynia. Roman's children became toys in a major political game that the warring parties sought to gain. The national liberation struggle against foreign invaders became the basis for the consolidation of forces in Southwestern Rus'. Prince Daniil Romanovich grew up. Having established himself in Volyn and then in Galich, in 1238 he again united both principalities, and in 1240, like his father, he took Kyiv. The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the economic and cultural rise of Galician-Volyn Rus, which began during the reign of this outstanding prince.



The period of feudal fragmentation, traditionally called the “appanage period,” lasted from the 12th to the end of the 15th centuries. Feudal fragmentation weakened the defensive capabilities of the Russian lands. This became noticeable in the second half of the 11th century, when a new strong enemy appeared in the south - the Polovtsians (Turkic nomadic tribes). According to the chronicles, it is estimated that from 1061 to the beginning of the 13th century. there were more than 46 major invasions of the Polovtsians. A feature of feudal fragmentation in Rus' compared to European countries was the simplified feudal hierarchy: it consisted of only 3 main levels - grand princes, appanage princes and their boyars (close associates), and all princely families were branches of only two families - the ruling dynasty of Rurikovich and Gediminovich. As a result of the fragmentation of the ancient Russian state by the middle of the 12th century. separated into independent ten states-principalities. Subsequently, by the middle of the 13th century, their number reached eighteen. They were given names based on the capital cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Muromo-Ryazans. Suzdal (Vladimir). Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Novgorod Boyar Republic. In each of the principalities, one of the branches of the Rurikovichs ruled, and the sons of princes and governor-boyars ruled individual appanages and volosts. However, all lands retained the same written language, a single religion and church organization, the legal norms of the “Russian Truth”, and most importantly, an awareness of common roots, a common historical destiny. At the same time, each of the established independent states had its own development characteristics. The largest of them, which played a significant role in the subsequent history of Rus', were: Suzdal (later - Vladimir) principality - North-Eastern Rus'; Galician (later - Galician-Volyn) principality - South-Western Rus'; Novgorod boyar republic - Novgorod land (North-Western Rus'). The main centers of Rus' during the period of specific fragmentation were the great principalities of Vladimir-Suzdal (since 1169, after the victory of its prince Andrei Bogolyusbsky over Kiev, the city of Vladimir became the nominal capital of all Rus'), Kiev (according to tradition, Kiev remained for a long time the cultural and ecclesiastical center of Rus'; only in 1299 did the head of the Russian church, the Metropolitan, move to Vladimir), Galicia-Volyn in the west and the Novgorod feudal republic.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality during the period of feudal fragmentation.

Features of development: the main branch of the economy is agriculture due to the abundance of fertile lands, a constant influx of population in search of protection from the raids of nomads, the rapid growth of cities, location at the intersection of trade routes, the unlimited nature of the power of the prince.

Political structure: Prince, Druzhina, Veche, Boyars

Novgorod boyar republic during the period of feudal fragmentation.

Features of development: leading sectors of the economy - trade and crafts, weak development of agriculture due to harsh climatic conditions, widespread development of trades - salt making, hunting, etc., special public administration, constant orientation towards European countries.

Political structure: Veche, Boyar Council, Tysyatsky, Posadnik, Prince.

Consequences of fragmentation:

Positive: 1) development of crafts and trade. 2) growth in the number of cities. 3) political stabilization on the ground. 4) the flourishing of culture

Negative: 1) lack of a unified defense system. 2) external danger for each principality. 3) ruinous civil strife. 4) weakness of the central government

7.Mongol-Tatar invasion and its consequences. Rus' and the Golden Horde. At the beginning of the 13th century. In the steppes of Central Asia, the Mongol-Tatars formed a military-feudal power. This was a unification not of a single people, but of dozens of nomadic tribes. In 1222, the hordes of Genghis Khan invaded Transcaucasia, passed through Iran and the Caucasus with fire and sword. Having devastated the country of the Alans (Ossetia), the Mongols defeated the Polovtsians and in the spring of 1223 they reached the banks of the Don. The threat of Mongol conquest loomed over the Cumans, who turned to the Russian princes for help, warning them of the impending danger. In conditions of feudal fragmentation, far from all the princes supported the Polovtsians. The united Russian-Polovtsian army took on the battle with the main forces of the Mongols on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River. The battle ended in complete victory for the Mongol-Tatars. The reason for the defeat of the Russians was the complete lack of overall command. Thirteen years later, the army of the Mongol-Tatars, which was led by the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu, having defeated Volga Bulgaria, began the conquest of Russia. In 1236, Batu invaded the territory of North-Eastern Rus'. The first victim of his invasion was the Ryazan principality. In conditions of fragmentation, each principality defended itself with its own forces. Following the Ryazan army, Batu's army conquered the Vladimir-Suzdal and Smolensk principalities. In 1239-1240. Batu made his second campaign against Rus'. The southwestern principalities came under attack. Without encountering organized resistance, he conquered the Chernigov, Pereyaslav and Gapitsin-Volyn principalities. In 1242, Batu created a powerful state - the Golden Horde, with its capital Sarai on the Lower Volga. The Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in Rus'. The Mongols retained the previous system of government and social relations in the occupied lands, but established control over them. The khans of the horde began to issue permits (labels) for the great reign in Rus'. To collect tribute, the Mongol-Tatars introduced the institution of baskaks (tribute collectors). At first, tribute was collected in kind, then in money. The Mongol conquest led to a long-term economic, political and cultural decline of the Russian lands. Many territories were ravaged and devastated, cities were destroyed, the most skilled artisans were taken to the Horde, and a demographic decline began. Despite the severity of the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Rus' managed to preserve its statehood, religion and culture.

The reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars:

The absence of a unified Russian army, the significant numerical superiority of the Mongols, the high military skill of the Mongols, fragmentation and lack of unity in the Russian lands, the most severe discipline that reigned in the Mongol army, the lack of mounted warriors in the Russian troops.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion:

Migration of the population to the northern regions, the weakening of the military potential of the Russian principalities, the decline of crafts and trade, the conversion of a significant number of the population into slavery, numerous casualties among the civilian population, the conservation of feudal fragmentation, the inhibition of the development of commodity-monetary relations, the political dependence of the Russian princes, the desolation of agricultural land, theft of artisans into the Horde.

Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.

Alexander Nevskiy

Udelnaya Rus' originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities emerged. In Russian literature, this period is also called fragmentation, since all events were based on the disunion of lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a nominal figure rather than a truly significant one.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the structure, the way of life, and the cultural customs of the peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes, Rus' for many years found itself branded with a yoke, which was only possible to get rid of after the rulers of the destinies began to unite around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. In this material we will consider the main distinctive features of appanage Rus' as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.

The main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that point in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Appanage Rus' and fragmentation can be identified:

This whole set of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Rus' turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state at stake.

Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state has encountered, but in Rus' there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who ruled the estates were from the same ruling dynasty. There was nothing like this anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained a leading role, but this was only formal. At the beginning of this era, the Kiev prince was still dominant over everyone, other fiefs paid him taxes (whoever could). But literally within a few decades this changed, since first the Russian princes took the previously impregnable Kyiv by storm, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the Grand Duke was the representative of the city of Vladimir.

Appanage Rus' - consequences of existence

Any historical event has its causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes occurring within the state during such achievements, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the emergence of individual appanages:

1. Uniform population of the country. This is one of the positive aspects that was achieved due to the fact that the southern lands became the object of constant wars. As a result, the main population was forced to flee to the northern regions to find safety. If by the time the state of Udelnaya Rus was formed, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
2. Development of cities and their arrangement. This point also includes economic, spiritual, and craft innovations that appeared in the principalities. This is due to a rather simple thing - the princes were full-fledged rulers in their lands, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a natural economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
3. The appearance of vassals. Since there was no single system providing security to all principalities, weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
4. Decrease in the country's defense capability. The individual squads of the princes were quite strong, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents, they could win, but strong enemies alone could easily cope with each of the armies. Batu’s campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
5. Impoverishment of the country's population. Such consequences were caused not only by external enemies, but also by internal ones. Against the backdrop of the yoke and constant attempts by Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large-scale and destructive. In such a situation, as always, the common population suffered. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave birth to appanage Rus'.

We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from clear-cut. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is characteristic not only of Rus'. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. Ultimately, the destinies united anyway and created a strong state capable of ensuring its own security.

The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod a political system that was unique at that time was formed - a republic. Appanage Rus' became a unique state of its time.

Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

This inheritance was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.

The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is that for many years it maintained its dominant position, and the Grand Duke ruled from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to personally collect tribute for them from all destinies. There are a lot of guesses on this matter, but we can still say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.

Features of the Galicia-Volyn Principality

It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the peculiarities of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this inheritance were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Local residents for the most part were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, these cities could not become important shopping centers due to their geographical location.

Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volyn, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly emerged, who had a huge influence on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.

Principality of Novgorod

Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city dates back to the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, keeping only the most worthy ones. During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, it was this city that became the stronghold of Rus', a city that the enemy was never able to take. The Principality of Novgorod once again became a symbol of Russia and a land that contributed to their unification.

The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the Torzhok fortress. The special position of the principality led to the rapid development of trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kyiv, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.

Significant dates

History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words what happened in each specific segment of human development. Speaking about feudal fragmentation, we can highlight the following key dates:

• 1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsians, immortalized in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
• 1223 – Battle of the Kalka River
• 1237 - the first Mongol invasion, which led to the conquest of Appanage Rus'
• July 15, 1240 – Battle of the Neva
• April 5, 1242 – Battle of the Ice
• 1358 – 1389 – The Grand Duke of Russia was Dmitry Donskoy
• July 15, 1410 – Battle of Grunwald
• 1480 - great stand on the Ugra River
• 1485 – annexation of the Tver principality to the Moscow one
• 1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last inheritances
• 1534 - the reign of Ivan 4, the Terrible, begins.

Abstract on the history of Russia

In the 12th century. the period begins on the territory of Rus' political fragmentation, a natural historical stage in the development of feudalism.

The specific period is full of complex, contradictory processes. On the one hand, there was the flourishing and strengthening of individual lands, for example, Novgorod, Vladimir, on the other hand, there was a clear weakening of the overall military potential, the increasing fragmentation of the princely possessions. If in the middle of the 12th century. There were 15 states in Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century. - about 50, then in the 14th century, when the process of consolidation had already begun, the number of states reached 250.

This process was natural not only for the history of Rus'. Similar processes took place in Europe, for example, the collapse of the Carolingian Empire.

The real power of the Kyiv princes already in the middle of the 12th century. limited to the borders of Kyiv itself. The attempt of Yaropolk, who became the prince of Kyiv after the death of Mstislav, to arbitrarily dispose of the “fatherland” of other princes was decisively stopped. Despite the loss of all-Russian significance by Kiev, the struggle for its possession continued until the Mongol invasion. The Kiev table passed from hand to hand depending on the balance of power between the rival princely and boyar factions. Soon the rulers of the strongest principalities, who had become “great” in their lands, began to place dependent princes - “subordinates” - on the Kiev table. The strife turned the Kyiv land into an arena of frequent military operations, as a result of which cities and villages were ruined and the population was driven into captivity. All this predetermined the gradual decline of Kyiv.

The complex of reasons that gave rise to fragmentation, covered almost all spheres of society:
- dominance of subsistence farming;
- lack of strong economic ties between different parts of Kievan Rus;
- features of the transfer of princely power not from father to son, but to the eldest in the family, division of territory between the heirs;
- civil strife between princes;
- growth of cities;
- weakening of the central government, i.e. Prince of Kyiv;
- strengthening the administrative apparatus in each feudal estate;
- the growth of economic and political independence of local princely dynasties, the growth of political separatism;
- the development of large land ownership, the active development of crafts, the complication of the social structure, the emergence of the nobility;
- loss of Kiev’s historical role due to the movement of trade routes from Europe to the East.

In 1097, the Lyubechsky Congress established: “let each one maintain his own fatherland.” This was the transition to new political system.

Among the most famous new formations stood out: Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Kiev, Polotsk, Smolensk, Chernigov principalities, as well as the boyar republics: Novgorod and Pskov, which separated from it somewhat later.

A feature of the new era was that in the named entities, as they continued their economic and political development, the process of fragmentation and the allocation of new possessions and destinies did not stop.

The feudal fragmentation of Rus' led to the following consequences:
- the rise of the economy and culture of individual principalities and lands;
- fragmentation of principalities between heirs;
- conflicts between princes and local boyars;
- weakening of Rus''s defense capability.

Of the feudal formations into which the Old Russian state broke up, the most noticeable in terms of power and influence on all-Russian affairs were: the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Galician-Volyn Principality and the Novgorod Land.

Vladimir-Suzdalskoe The principality occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers, covered by forests from Polovtsian raids. The population moved here in droves from the southern principalities bordering the steppe. In the XII - XIII centuries. Rostov-Suzdal the land was experiencing an economic and political boom, which promoted it to the ranks of the strongest principalities of Rus'. The cities of Dmitrov, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Galich, Starodub and others arose. In 1108, Vladimir Monomakh founded the city of Vladimir on the Klyazma River, which later became the capital of all North-Eastern Rus'. The political importance of the Rostov-Suzdal land increases sharply under Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). In 1147, the chronicle first mentioned Moscow, a small border town founded by Yuri Dolgoruky. In 1156, a wooden “city” was built in Moscow.

Dolgoruky pursued an active foreign policy, subjugated Ryazan and Murom to his power, and organized several campaigns against Kyiv. This policy was continued by his son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), who initiated the struggle of the Suzdal princes for political supremacy over the rest of the Russian lands. In internal affairs, relying on the support of townspeople and warriors, Andrei harshly dealt with the rebellious boyars, expelled them from the principality, and confiscated their estates. To strengthen his position, he moved the capital from the ancient citadel of Rostov to Vladimir, a young city with a significant trade and craft district. After the successful campaign against Kyiv in 1169, the role of the political center of Rus' passed to Vladimir.

The discontent of the boyar opposition led to the murder of Andrei, followed by a two-year struggle and further strengthening of princely power. It flourished under the reign of Andrei's brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). During his reign, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reached its greatest prosperity and power, playing a decisive role in the political life of Rus'. He broke the resistance of the old boyars. Ryazan and Novgorod were again “at hand” of the Vladimir prince. However, after his death, a new period of strife in the principality nullified all efforts, which especially weakened Rus' before the Mongol invasion.

Galicia-Volynskaya the land extended from the Carpathians to the Black Sea region in the south, to the Polotsk land in the north. In the west it bordered with Hungary and Poland, in the east - with the Kyiv land and the Polovtsian steppe. Favorable conditions have developed here for the development of agriculture and cattle breeding. Crafts reached a high level, there were more cities than in other Russian lands (Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Berestye, etc.). Galician land until the middle of the 12th century. was divided into several small principalities, which in 1141 were united by the Przemysl prince Vladimir Volodarevich, who moved his capital to Galich. The Galician principality reached its highest prosperity under Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After his death, the principality for a long time became an arena of struggle between princes and influential boyars.

The Volyn land separated from Kyiv in the middle of the 12th century, becoming the “fatherland” of the descendants of the Kyiv Grand Duke Izyaslav Mstislavovich. Unlike the Galician land, a large princely domain was formed early in Volyn - the basis of strong princely power. Boyar land ownership grew mainly due to princely grants to serving boyars; their support allowed the Volyn princes to actively fight for the expansion of their “fatherland.”

In 1199, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich united the Volyn and Galician lands, and with his occupation of Kyiv in 1203, all of Southern and South-Western Rus' came under his rule. The advantageous geographical position contributed to the growth of the political importance of the principality and its economic prosperity. The rise of the economy was explained by the decline in the international role of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which came under the control of the Polovtsians - trade routes moved west, to the Galician lands.

After the death of Roman, who actively fought against the boyars, a period of feudal unrest began (1205-1236). Hungary and Poland actively intervened in the internal political struggle of the principality. Relying on the trade and craft population, Roman's son Daniel in 1236 managed to break the main forces of the opposition. The grand ducal power won, and there was a tendency to overcome fragmentation. But this process was interrupted by the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.

The special political system of the feudal republic, different from the monarchical reigns, took shape in the 12th century. V Novgorod land.

Three factors were of decisive importance for the economy of Novgorod:
1. The outstanding role of trade, especially external - Novgorod from the north controlled the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”;
2. Large share of handicraft production in the economy;
3. The abundance of colony lands, which were an important source of commercial products.