After the death of Muhammad in 632, secular and spiritual power in the state that united all Arabs passed to his closest associates - the caliphs. It was believed that the caliph (“khalifa” translated from Arabic means deputy, viceroy) merely replaces the deceased prophet in a state called the “caliphate.” The first four caliphs - Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and Ali, who ruled one after another, went down in history as the “righteous caliphs”. They were succeeded by the caliphs from the Umayyad clan (661-750).
Under the first caliphs, the Arabs began conquests outside of Arabia, spreading the new religion of Islam among the peoples they conquered. Within a few years, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Iran were conquered, and the Arabs broke through to Northern India and Central Asia. Neither Sasanian Iran nor Byzantium, drained of blood by many years of wars against each other, were able to offer serious resistance to them. In 637, after a long siege, Jerusalem passed into the hands of the Arabs. Muslims did not touch the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and other Christian churches. In 751 Central Asia- The Arabs fought with the army of the Chinese emperor. Although the Arabs were victorious, they no longer had the strength to continue their conquests further east.
Another part of the Arab army conquered Egypt, victoriously moved along the coast of Africa to the west, and at the beginning of the 8th century, the Arab commander Tariq ibn Ziyad sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar to the Iberian Peninsula (to modern Spain). The army of the Visigothic kings who ruled there was defeated, and by 714 almost the entire Iberian Peninsula was conquered, with the exception of a small area inhabited by the Basques. Having crossed the Pyrenees, the Arabs (in European chronicles they are called Saracens) invaded Aquitaine and occupied the cities of Narbonne, Carcassonne and Nîmes. By 732, the Arabs reached the city of Tours, but near Poitiers they suffered a crushing defeat from the combined forces of the Franks led by Charles Martell. After this, further conquests were suspended, and the reconquest of the lands occupied by the Arabs began on the Iberian Peninsula - the Reconquista.
The Arabs tried unsuccessfully to take Constantinople, either by surprise attacks from the sea or by land, or by a persistent siege (in 717). Arab cavalry even penetrated the Balkan Peninsula.
By the middle of the 8th century, the territory of the caliphate reached largest sizes. The power of the caliphs then extended from the Indus River in the east to Atlantic Ocean in the west, from the Caspian Sea in the north to the Nile Rapids in the south.
Damascus in Syria became the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate. When the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids (descendants of Abbas, Muhammad's uncle) in 750, the capital of the caliphate was moved from Damascus to Baghdad.
The most famous Baghdad caliph was Harun al-Rashid (786-809). In Baghdad, under his reign, a huge number of palaces and mosques were built, amazing all European travelers with their splendor. But amazing things made this caliph famous Arabian tales"A Thousand and One Nights."
However, the flourishing of the caliphate and its very unity turned out to be fragile. Already in the 8-9 centuries there was a wave of riots and popular unrest. Under the Abbasids, the huge caliphate began to rapidly disintegrate into separate emirates led by emirs. On the outskirts of the empire, power passed to dynasties of local rulers.
On the Iberian Peninsula, back in 756, an emirate with the main city of Cordoba arose (since 929 - the Cordoba Caliphate). The Emirate of Cordoba was ruled by the Spanish Umayyads, who did not recognize the Baghdad Abbasids. After some time, independent dynasties began to appear in North Africa (Idrisids, Aghlabids, Fatimids), Egypt (Tulunids, Ikhshidids), in Central Asia (Samanids) and in other areas.
In the 10th century, the once united caliphate broke up into several independent states. After Baghdad was captured by representatives of the Iranian Buid clan in 945, only spiritual power was left to the Baghdad caliphs, and they turned into a kind of “popes of the East.” The Baghdad Caliphate finally fell in 1258, when Baghdad was captured by the Mongols.
One of the latter's descendants Arab Caliph fled to Egypt, where he and his descendants remained nominal caliphs until the conquest of Cairo in 1517 Ottoman Sultan Selim I, who proclaimed himself Caliph of the Faithful.
Middle Ages in the East.
The emergence of Islam.
Basic terms and concepts: Islam, Sunnis, Shiites, Caliph, Caliphate, calligraphy, Ottoman Empire, Seljuk Turks, Arabization, theocratic state.
Middle Ages in the East
In the history of the East, the concept of the Middle Ages was transferred from Europe. The Middle Ages of the East is the period between antiquity and the beginning of colonialism, i.e. active penetration European countries to the East. It should be noted that this happened in different territories in different time frames. The development of the Middle Ages of the West and the East has its own specifics, in particular in individual regions it has different time frames. IN European history The content of the Middle Ages is feudalism, which has a specific form of feudal property: land that feudal lords owned on a contractual basis, exploitation dependent peasants. In vassal-feudal relations, feudal lords had a certain degree of independence from the supreme power. In the East feudal system differs from the European one, first of all, in that the state, in the person of the ruler, remained the supreme owner of the land, and representatives of the ruling power possessed their wealth to the extent of their involvement in the supreme power and were not separated from the state. In the East, the type of power-property and redistribution of rent-hire by the state that was formed in ancient times was dominant. This guaranteed stability social structure and the dependence of the individual on the state. He was consumed by it. Each was entitled to as much as tradition prescribed, in accordance with his status
| West | East |
| 1.Different time frames for the establishment of the Middle Ages | |
| 1.Feudal ownership of land | State ownership of land. |
| 2.Specific shape private property: The owners did not depend on the supreme power. Ownership of land based on contract. Peasants were exploited and their labor was appropriated. Instability of the social structure, predatory wars Man depended, first of all, on his master. Wealth was conquered and appropriated. The feudal lord could give land to the most distinguished warriors and the latter became a feudal lord. | 2. Specific form of private property: The state is the supreme owner of the land. Representatives of the ruling classes possessed their wealth according to their involvement in the supreme power. Existed eastern type power-property, formed in ancient times. Redistribution of rent-hire by the state. Stability of social structure. Man was absorbed by the state. Each was entitled to as much as tradition prescribed in accordance with his position in the state and society. |
The emergence of Islam
V-VII centuries - an era of turning point in world history, a time of choice, when two great worlds began to form - the Christian one, from which it grew European civilization and Islamic, which united many civilizations of Asia and Africa. For both worlds, religion became a factor that determined their identity, spiritual potential and culture, the structure of society, customs and mores. In the 8th century, these nascent worlds will meet each other for the first time and will be established through self-identification.
Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century, inhabited by Semitic tribes of nomadic Arabs. A preacher appeared in the Quraish tribe, his name was Muhammad. He claimed that the highest truth had been revealed to him and that he had been given the opportunity to know Allah, the only god. Because Muhammad was poor. Few people listened to him. His sermons caused irritation and he was soon expelled from Mecca and moved to Yathrib (currently Medina - the “city of the prophet”). This happened in 622 according to the Christian calendar. This date became the date of the founding of Islam and the beginning of the Muslim chronology. In 632, Muhammad died and was buried in Medina. From now on it began political unification Arab tribes.
The word Islam means "submission". Islam is also called Islam, and the followers of this religion are called Muslims. Islam is a monotheistic religion. Islam recognizes the existence of one god - Allah, the Creator of the world and humanity. Muslim Holy Scripture - Holy book- The Koran, which contains the Divine revelation sent down through the Archangel Jebrail (Archangel Gabriel) to the Prophet Muhammad. In Islam, the cult, ritual side is important. The cult of Islam is based on the “five pillars of faith”:
1.Dogma - “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet”;
2.Daily five times prayer;
3. Uraz - fasting in the month of Ramadan;
4. Zakat is obligatory charity;
5.Hajj - pilgrimage to Mecca - the holy city for Muslims.
As Islam progresses, additions and changes appear. So except Holy Scripture, arose Sacred Tradition- an addition to the Koran, which is called the Sunnah. The advent of this addition is associated with the division of Islam into Shiism and Sunnism.
Shiites limit themselves to the veneration of the Koran. It is believed that only his direct descendants can be the heirs of Muhammad's mission.
Sunnis recognize both the holiness of the Koran and the holiness of the Sunnah, and exalt a number of caliphs who are not recognized by the Shiites.
Islam is heterogeneous, has a number of sects and branches. Islam world religion, it is followed by about one and a half billion followers.
Arab Caliphate
After the death of Muhammad, the Arabs began to be ruled by caliphs - the heirs of the prophet. Under the first four caliphs, his closest associates and relatives, the Arabs went beyond the Arabian Peninsula and attacked Byzantium and Iran. Their main strength was cavalry. The Arabs conquered the richest Byzantine provinces - Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the vast Iranian kingdom. At the beginning of the 8th century. In North Africa they subjugated the Berber tribes and converted them to Islam. In 711 The Arabs crossed to Europe, to the Iberian Peninsula, and almost completely conquered the Visigothic kingdom. But later, in a clash with the Franks (732), the Arabs were thrown back to the south. In the east, they subjugated the peoples of Transcaucasia and Central Asia, breaking their stubborn resistance. The caliph combined the functions of a secular and spiritual ruler and enjoyed unquestioning authority among his subjects. In Islam there is such a thing as “jihad” - zeal and special zeal in the spread of Islam. Initially, jihad was understood as a spiritual movement. But soon jihad began to be understood as a war for the faith of “Gazavat”. Jihad initially called for the unification of the Arab tribes, but then turned into a call for wars of conquest. The Arabs conquered Eastern Iran, Afghanistan, and penetrated into Northwestern India. So, during the 7th – first half of the 8th centuries. A huge state arose - the Arab Caliphate, stretching from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of India and China. Its capital was the city of Damascus.
In the middle of the 7th century. Under Caliph Ali, civil strife broke out in the country, leading to the split of Islam into Sunnis and Shiites. After the assassination of Ali, the Umayyad caliphs seized power. Under them, the caliph became the supreme owner and administrator of the land. The strengthening of the power of the caliphs was facilitated by the Arabization of the multi-ethnic population of the caliphate. Arabic was the language of religion. Unified land use procedures emerged. The lands of the caliph and his relatives were not taxed. Officials and civil servants received land for their service. The land was worked by peasants and slaves. The basis of the Arab caliphate was the religious community. The structure of the community was created by Sharia - the path predetermined by Allah.
In 750 Power in the caliphate passed to the Abbasid dynasty. Under the Abbasids, Arab conquests almost ceased: only the islands of Sicily, Cyprus, Crete and part of southern Italy were annexed. At intersection trade routes was founded on the Tigris River new capital- Baghdad, which gave the name to the state Baghdad Caliphate. Its heyday occurred during the reign of the legendary Harun ar-Rashid (766-809). The huge caliphate did not remain united for long.
In the IX-X centuries. a number of Turkic tribes living in Central Asia converted to Islam. Among them stood out the Seljuk Turks, who in the middle of the 11th century. They reached Baghdad, captured it, and their head began to be called the “Sultan of the East and West.” By the end of the 12th century. The Seljuk state broke up into several states. In the last decade of the 12th century. Sultan Osman I subdued the Seljuks and became the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. In the XIV century. The Ottoman Empire included almost all the lands of the Arab Caliphate, as well as the Balkans, Crimea, and part of Iran. Army Turkish sultans was the strongest in the world Turkish fleet dominated the Mediterranean Sea. The Ottoman Empire became a threat to Europe and the Moscow State - future Russia. In Europe the empire was called the "Splendid Porte".
Questions and tasks for self-control
1.What was the significance of the emergence and spread of Islam for world history?
2. Why is Islam called world history?
3.How are Islam and Christianity related?
4.What is a theocratic state?
5.What role did the Ottoman Empire play in European history?
TOPIC 11
ANCIENT SLAVS
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Is Islam, whose birth dates back to 7th century and is associated with the name of the Prophet Muhammad, who professed monotheism. Under his influence, a community of co-religionists was formed in Hadjiz, on the territory of Western Arabia. Further Muslim conquests of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran and a number of other states led to the emergence of the Arab Caliphate - a powerful Asian state. It included a number of conquered lands.
Caliphate: what is it?
The word “caliphate” itself translated from Arabic has two meanings. This is both the name of that huge state created after the death of Muhammad by his followers, and the title of the supreme ruler under whose rule the countries of the caliphate were. The period of existence of this state entity, marked high level development of science and culture, went down in history as the Golden Age of Islam. It is conventionally accepted to consider its borders to be 632-1258.
After the death of the caliphate there are three main periods. The first of them, which began in 632, was due to the creation of the Righteous Caliphate, which was led in turn by four caliphs, whose righteousness gave the name to the state they ruled. The years of their reign were marked by a number of major conquests, such as the capture of the Arabian Peninsula, the Caucasus, the Levant and large parts of North Africa.
Religious disputes and territorial conquests
The emergence of the caliphate is closely connected with the disputes about his successor that began after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. As a result of numerous debates, the supreme ruler and religious leader became close friend the founder of Islam - Abu Bakr al-Saddik. He began his reign with a war against the apostates who deviated from the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad immediately after his death and became followers of the false prophet Musailima. Their army of forty thousand was defeated at the Battle of Arkaba.
Subsequent ones continued to conquer and expand the territories under their control. The last of them - Ali ibn Abu Talib - became a victim of rebellious apostates from the main line of Islam - the Kharijites. This put an end to elections supreme rulers, since Muawiya I, who seized power by force and became caliph, at the end of his life appointed his son as successor, and thus a hereditary monarchy was established in the state - the so-called Umayyad Caliphate. What it is?
New, second form of caliphate
To its name this period in history Arab world owes to the Umayyad dynasty, from which Muawiyah I came. His son, who inherited supreme power from his father, further expanded the boundaries of the caliphate, winning high-profile military victories in Afghanistan, North India and in the Caucasus. His troops even captured parts of Spain and France.
Only Byzantine emperor Leo the Isaurian and the Bulgarian Khan Tervel were able to stop his victorious advance and put a limit territorial expansions. Europe owes its salvation from the Arab conquerors primarily to outstanding commander VIII century to Charles Martel. The army of the Franks led by him defeated the hordes of invaders in famous battle at Poitiers.
Restructuring the consciousness of warriors in a peaceful way
The beginning of the period associated with the Umayyad Caliphate is characterized by the fact that the position of the Arabs themselves in the territories they occupied was unenviable: life resembled the situation in a military camp, in a state of continuous combat readiness. The reason for this was the extremely religious zeal of one of the rulers of those years, Umar I. Thanks to him, Islam acquired the features of a militant church.
The emergence of the Arab Caliphate gave birth to a large social group of professional warriors - people whose only occupation was participation in aggressive campaigns. To prevent their consciousness from being rebuilt in a peaceful way, they were forbidden to take possession land plots and become settled. By the end of the dynasty, the picture had changed in many ways. The ban was lifted, and, having become landowners, many of yesterday's warriors of Islam preferred the life of peaceful landowners.
Abbasid Caliphate
It is fair to note that if during the years of the Righteous Caliphate for all its rulers, political power in its importance gave way to religious influence, now it has taken a dominant position. In terms of its political greatness and cultural flourishing, the Abbasid Caliphate deservedly acquired the greatest fame in the history of the East.
Most Muslims know what it is these days. Memories of him strengthen their spirit to this day. The Abbasids are a dynasty of rulers that gave their people a whole galaxy of brilliant statesmen. Among them were generals, financiers, and true connoisseurs and patrons of art.
Caliph - patron of poets and scientists
It is believed that the Arab caliphate under Harun ar Rashid - one of the most prominent representatives ruling dynasty- has reached highest point its heyday. This statesman went down in history as the patron of scientists, poets and writers. However, having devoted myself entirely spiritual development the state he headed, the caliph turned out to be a bad administrator and a completely useless commander. By the way, it is his image that is immortalized in the collection that has survived centuries oriental tales"Thousand and One Nights".
“The Golden Age of Arab Culture” is an epithet that to the greatest extent It was the caliphate headed by Harun ar Rashid that deserved. What it is can be fully understood only by becoming familiar with the layering of Old Persian, Indian, Assyrian, Babylonian and partly Greek cultures that contributed to the development of scientific thought during the reign of this enlightener of the East. All the best that was created by a creative mind ancient world, he managed to unite, making for this the basic basis Arabic. That is why the expressions came into our everyday life: “ arab culture", "Arab art" and so on.
Trade Development
In the vast and at the same time orderly state, which was the Abbasid Caliphate, the demand for the products of neighboring states increased significantly. This was a consequence of the increase general level life of the population. Peaceful relations with neighbors at that time made it possible to develop barter trade with them. Gradually, the circle of economic contacts expanded, and even countries located at a considerable distance began to be included in it. All this gave impetus to further development crafts, art and navigation.
In the second half of the 9th century, after the death of Harun ar Rashid, in political life the caliphate, processes emerged that ultimately led to its collapse. Back in 833, the ruler Mutasim, who was in power, formed the Praetorian Turkic Guard. Over the years it has become so powerful political force that the ruling caliphs became dependent on her and practically lost the right to make independent decisions.
The growth of national self-awareness among the Persians subject to the caliphate also dates back to this period, which was the reason for their separatist sentiments, which later became the reason for the breakaway of Iran. The general disintegration of the caliphate was accelerated due to the separation from it in the west of Egypt and Syria. The weakening of centralized power made it possible to assert their claims to independence and a number of other previously controlled territories.
Increased religious pressure
The caliphs, who had lost their former power, tried to enlist the support of the faithful clergy and take advantage of their influence on the masses. The rulers, starting with Al-Mutawakkil (847), their main political line made a fight against all manifestations of freethinking.
In the state, weakened by the undermining of the authority of the authorities, active religious persecution began against philosophy and all branches of science, including mathematics. The country was steadily plunging into the abyss of obscurantism. The Arab Caliphate and its collapse were a clear example of how beneficial the influence of science and free thought is on the development of the state, and how destructive their persecution is.
The end of the era of the Arab caliphates
In the 10th century, the influence of the Turkic military leaders and emirs of Mesopotamia increased so much that the previously powerful caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty turned into petty Baghdad princes, whose only consolation were the titles left over from previous times. It got to the point that the Shiite Buyid dynasty, which had risen in Western Persia, having gathered a sufficient army, captured Baghdad and actually ruled there for a hundred years, while representatives of the Abbasids remained the nominal rulers. There could be no greater humiliation for their pride.
In 1036, a very difficult time came for all of Asia. difficult period— the Seljuk Turks began an aggressive campaign unprecedented at that time, which became the reason for the destruction of Muslim civilization in many countries. In 1055, they drove the Buyids who ruled there out of Baghdad and established their dominance. But their power also came to an end when early XIII century, the entire territory of the once powerful Arab caliphate was captured by the countless hordes of Genghis Khan. The Mongols finally destroyed everything that had been achieved eastern culture over the previous centuries. The Arab Caliphate and its collapse are now just pages of history.
Caliphate as medieval state formed as a result of the unification of Arab tribes, the center of settlement of which was the Arabian Peninsula (located between Iran and North-East Africa).
A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the 7th century. There was a religious connotation to this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam (Islam translated from Arabic means “surrendering oneself” to God). The political movement for the unification of tribes under the slogans of renouncing paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the trends in the emergence of a new system, was called "Hanif".
Searches by Hanif preachers new truth and the new god, which took place under strong influence Judaism and Christianity are associated primarily with the name of Muhammad. Muhammad (about 570-632), a shepherd who became rich as a result of a successful marriage, an orphan from Mecca, to whom “revelations descended”, later recorded in the Koran, proclaimed the need to establish the cult of a single god - Allah and the new public order, excluding tribal strife. The head of the Arabs was to be a prophet - “the messenger of Allah on earth.”
Calls of early Islam to social justice(limiting usury, establishing alms for the poor, freeing slaves, honesty in trade) caused discontent among the tribal merchant nobility with the “revelations” of Muhammad, which forced him to flee with a group of his closest companions in 622 from Mecca to Yathrib (later Medina, the “city of the Prophet”) . Here he managed to enlist the support of various social groups, including Bedouin nomads. The first mosque was built here, and the order of Muslim worship was determined. From the moment of this migration and separate existence, which received the name “Hijra” (621-629), the summer reckoning according to the Muslim calendar begins.
Muhammad argued that Islamic teachings do not contradict the two previously widespread monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirm and clarify them. However, already at that time it became clear that Islam also contained something new. His rigidity and, at times, fanatical intolerance in some matters, especially in matters of power and authority, were quite clearly evident. According to the doctrine of Islam, religious power is inseparable from secular power and is the basis of the latter, and therefore Islam demanded equally unconditional obedience to God, the prophet and “those who have power.”
For ten years, in the 20-30s. VII century The organizational restructuring of the Muslim community in Medina was completed in public education. Muhammad himself was its spiritual, military leader and judge. By using new religion and military detachments of the community began to fight opponents of the new socio-political structure.
Muhammad's closest relatives and companions gradually consolidated into a privileged group that received exclusive right to power. From its ranks, after the death of the prophet, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs ("deputies of the prophet"). Some groups of Islamic tribal nobility formed an opposition group of Shiites, which recognized the right to power only by inheritance and only by the descendants (and not the companions) of the prophet.
The first four caliphs, the so-called "righteously guided" caliphs, quelled discontent with Islam among certain sections and completed the political unification of Arabia. In the 7th - first half of the 8th century. were conquered huge territories from former Byzantine and Persian possessions, including the Middle East, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and Spain. The Arab army entered French territory, but was defeated by the knights of Charles Martell at the Battle of Poitiers in 732.
In history medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, is usually distinguished two periods, which correspond to the main stages of development of Arabic medieval society and states:
- Damascus, or the period of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750);
- Baghdad, or the period of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258).
Umayyad dynasty(from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the next one after them Abbasid dynasty(from the descendants of a prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.
The most famous of the Abbasids were the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who was included in the characters of the Arabian Nights, as well as his son al-Mamun. These were enlightened autocrats who combined concerns for spiritual and secular enlightenment. Naturally, in their role as caliphs, they were also occupied with the problems of spreading the new faith, which they themselves and their subjects perceived as a commandment to live in equality and universal brotherhood of all true believers. The duties of the ruler in this case were to be a fair, wise and merciful ruler. Enlightened caliphs combined concerns about administration, finance, justice and the army with support for education, art, literature, science, as well as trade and commerce.
Organization of power and administration in the Arab Caliphate
The Muslim state for some time after Mohammed remained a theocracy in the sense of recognizing it as the true possession of God (state property was called God's property) and in the sense of striving to govern the state according to the commandments of God and the example of his Messenger (the prophet was also called rasul, that is, messenger).
The first entourage of the prophet-ruler consisted of mujahirs(exiles who fled with the prophet from Mecca) and Ansar(assistants).
Characteristic features of the Muslim social system:
- dominant position of state ownership of land with widespread use slave labor V state economy(irrigation, mines, workshops);
- state exploitation of peasants through rent-tax in favor of the ruling elite;
- religious-state regulation of all spheres of public life;
- the absence of clearly defined class groups, special status for cities, any freedoms and privileges.
The Arab Caliphate was a theocratic Muslim state, which arose as a result of the conquests of Muslims led by the caliph in the 7th-9th centuries. Its original core was created in the form of a community by the Prophet Muhammad in Western Arabia in the Hijaz in the 7th century. The result of numerous Muslim conquests was the creation of a huge state, which included Iran and Iraq. It included most of Transcaucasia and Central Asia. It also included the lands of Egypt, North Africa, Syria and Palestine, covered a significant part of the Iberian Peninsula and one of the four provinces of Pakistan - the Sindhi lands. So vast was the state of the Arab Caliphate. The history of its creation is directly related to the influence of the caliphs (heirs or governors).
During the Arab Caliphate, science flourished and was the Golden Age of Islam. The date of its foundation is considered to be 632. Let's consider the era of the first 4 caliphs who walked the “right path”. The Arab Caliphate included the following rulers: Abu Bakr (his reign lasted from 632 to 634), Umar (634-644), Uthman, who ruled for the next 12 years (656), Ali (656 to 661) and further dominance of the Umayyad dynasty, lasting from 661 to 750.
Formed in less than 100 years, its size exceeded the Roman one. After the death of Muhammad, there were preconditions for its collapse and the collapse of the successes of Islam that were achieved thanks to him. After his death, almost all of Arabia moved away from this belief, with the exception of Mecca, Medina and Taif.
The Prophet did not leave behind an heir and a dispute about a successor broke out between the Medinans and the Meccans. After discussions, the Caliph nominated Abu Bakr, who managed to return both Islam and divided Arabia to the Arab Caliphate. After pacifying the Arab uprising, Bakra continued the policies of Muhammad and waged war against the Iranian and Byzantine possessions. At the end of his life he ruled Arabia, Babylonia, Syria, Mesopotamia, western Iran, Bark, Egypt and Tripoli.
Uthman conquered Cyprus, Eastern Iran, and the Carthage region, expanding the Arab Caliphate. Due to the civil strife between the Arabs that arose in connection with the assassination of Uthman, some border areas were eliminated.
Ali was killed during the " palace coup", and the Umayyads came to power. With them in a state that has elected board, a hereditary monarchy was established.
The conquests of the first caliphs were successful due to the weakness of their opponents, since no one opposed the Arabs. Local population Because of hatred of the Greeks, he often called on and helped the Arabs. The Greeks never allowed them to conquer, and the Arabs suffered defeats at Constantinople.
In the conquered lands where the Arab Caliphate spread, history characterizes the style of government under Umar as a militant church. Under Uthman, Arabs were allowed to own conquered lands, which led to landlordism. The religious character changed with the arrival of the Umayyads. From a church-religious community led by a spiritual leader, there was a transformation into a secular-political power.
The next Abbasid dynasty is noted as oppressive, bloody and accompanied by heartless cruelty. The people witnessed hypocrisy, and treachery manifested itself on the sly, in the form of reprisals against restless citizens. This dynasty was characterized by madness and a system of torture was introduced. Despite this, the ruling circles were considered brilliant politicians, under whom finances were managed brilliantly.
The culture of the Arab Caliphate and its development during this period were encouraged in every possible way, science and medicine developed. This was facilitated by the talented family of viziers, which ruled until 803, and which Harun overthrew. The family members maintained the balance between the Arabs and Persians for 50 years, created a political fortress and restored Sasanian life.
Under the Abbasids, the culture of the Arab caliphate was developed thanks to peaceful relations with neighbors and barter trade. Luxury goods, silk fabrics, weapons, jewelry on leather and canvas, carpets, and bone carvings were produced. Mosaics, embossing, engraving, earthenware and glass products became widespread in those years. Persia influenced the emergence of correct historiography and scientific Arabic philology. In those years it was created Arabic grammar, literature was being collected.