Main language of Pakistan 4 letters crossword puzzle. Official language of Pakistan

- so-called Azad Kashmir (i.e. Free Kashmir).

NATURE

Terrain.

Within Pakistan, two large orographic regions are clearly distinguished - the Indus Plain (the western part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain) and the mountains and hills bordering it from the west and north, belonging to the systems of the Iranian Plateau and the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas, formed mainly during the era of Alpine orogenesis. The Indus Plain arose on the site of a vast foothill marginal trough, to which considerable reserves of natural gas and oil are confined. Significant deposits of brown coal, chromite ore and other minerals have been discovered in the mountains.

The Indus Plain is one of the largest alluvial plains in the tropical zone, stretching from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea for 1200 km with a width of up to 550 km. Almost its entire territory is located below 200 m and is characterized by a monotonous flat topography. Within its boundaries, three parts are distinguished: the northern - Punjab (or Pyatirechye), formed by the Indus and its five large tributaries (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej); Sindh - middle and lower reaches of the Indus; and the Thar Desert, located east of Sindh.

In the north of the plain there are numerous debris fans cut by rivers. In Sindh, in the interfluves, traces of an ancient river network have been preserved, indicating greater waterlogging of the plain in the past. The Indus Delta is formed by several active channels, dead estuaries and a series of ancient sandy beach bars. In the Thar Desert there are dunes, dunes, sand ridges combined with salt marshes, takyrs and salt lakes in depressions. The absolute height of this area is from 100 to 200 m. From the south, the desert is framed by the saline lowlands of the Greater Rann of Kutch, flooded by sea tides and during heavy rainfall.

The mountains of Pakistan are young folded ridges composed of crystalline shales, limestones, sandstones and conglomerates. The highest ridges are dissected by river valleys and gorges and crowned with snowfields. In the far north, the axial ridges of the Hindu Kush partially extend into the borders of Pakistan with the Tirichmir peak (7690 m), which is the highest point of the country. To the east is the Hinduraj ridge, the southwestern end of which is separated from the border ridge Spingar by the Khyber Pass (1030 m) - the most important pass used for communication between Peshawar and Kabul. In the northeast, the western spurs of the Himalayas enter the territory of Pakistan. In the north of Pakistan, between the Indus Plain and the mountains, there is the Potwar sandstone plateau with average heights of 300–500 m, bordered on the south by the Salt Range (up to 1500 m in height).

The western part of Pakistan is occupied by the plateau and mountains of Balochistan, which represent the southeastern frame of the Iranian Plateau. The average heights of these mountains usually do not exceed 2000–2500 m. Such are, for example, the Suleiman Mountains, elongated in the submeridional direction and steeply plunging towards the Indus Valley. However, in the north of these mountains there are also higher individual peaks (up to 3452 m). The meridional Kirthar ridge with steep slopes facing the Indus Valley almost reaches the coast of the Arabian Sea and drops from 2440 m in the north to 1220 m in the south.

The Makran Mountains, consisting of several subparallel ridges up to 2357 m high, frame the Balochistan plateau from the south. From the north it is bordered by the border mountains of Chagai, where there are extinct volcanoes. Further to the northeast extends the Tobacacar ridge (up to 3149 m), at its western end there is the Khojak (Bolan) pass, through which a strategically important route from Quetta to Kandahar (Afghanistan) passes.

Natural disasters are common in the mountains of Pakistan. Thus, in the highlands, avalanches often occur, mudflows, rockfalls, and glacial pulsations (surges) occur. There are a number of seismically dangerous areas. In 1935, the city of Quetta was severely damaged by an earthquake.

Climate

Pakistan is formed under the strong influence of monsoons. In most of the country it is tropical, in the north-west it is subtropical, dry and only wetter in the mountains. Average temperatures in January on the plains are 12.5–17.5° C, in July 30–35° C. In the highlands there are frosts down to –20° C and even in the summer months frosts occur. The average annual rainfall on the Balochistan plateau and the Indus Valley is less than 200 mm, in the Thar Desert - less than 100 mm, in Quetta - 250 mm, and in the mountains in the north-west of the country the most favorable conditions 500–1000 mm. In Sindh it does not exceed 125 mm, and the cultivation of agricultural crops there is possible only thanks to well-established irrigated agriculture using the waters of the Indus. In the foothill areas in the north of the country, the amount of precipitation increases to 300–500 mm, and in the mountains – up to 1500 mm. Maximum precipitation occurs during the summer monsoon period. In the plains of Pakistan, evaporation is 15–20 times higher than precipitation, so droughts are common.

Soils.

On the Indus Plain, fertile alluvial soils in river valleys and semi-desert gray soils in the interfluves are widespread. In mountainous areas, chestnut, brown forest, subalpine and alpine mountain meadow and meadow-steppe soils are successively replaced from bottom to top. Sandy desert soils and salt marshes are common in the intermountain depressions of Balochistan, salt marshes are common in the south of Sindh, and barren sands are found within the Thar Desert.

Vegetable world.

The Indus Plain is dominated by herbaceous-shrub semi-desert (Punjab) and desert (Sindh) vegetation. Excessive plowing and grazing, intensive water intake, and removal of woody vegetation have led to a decrease in river flow, degradation of landscapes, and expansion of the area anthropogenic deserts. The sparse plant cover is dominated by wormwood, capers, camel thorn, and solyanka. Grasses settle on fixed sands. Individual trees and groves, usually mangoes and other fruits, grow along roads, around villages and wells. Gallery forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarisk are preserved in places along river valleys. Thanks to artificial irrigation, large areas in the Indus basin and its tributaries have been turned into a system of oases where rice, cotton, wheat, millet and other crops are grown.

The highlands of Balochistan are dominated by desert vegetation with characteristic spiny cushion forms (acanthus, astragalus, etc.). Wormwood and ephedra are widespread. Higher in the mountains, sparse forests of olive, pistachio, and juniper appear.

In the mountains in the north and northeast of Pakistan, coniferous and deciduous forests have been preserved, occupying approx. 3% of the country's area. In the Salt Range, located between the Jhelum and Indus rivers and forming the southern edge of the Potwar Plateau, as well as in the foothills of the Himalayas and some other areas of the country, unique subtropical woodlands of evergreen xerophytic species grow. It is dominated by wild olives, acacias and dwarf palms. In the mountains at altitudes of 2000–2500 m above sea level. significant areas are occupied by tall forests of evergreen broad-leaved species, mainly oaks and chestnuts. Higher up they give way to majestic forests of Himalayan cedar ( Cedrus deodara), longleaf pine ( Pinus longifolia), fir and spruce. They often have a dense shrub layer of magnolia, laurel and rhododendron.

Mangrove forests grow in the Indus delta and on the coast of the Arabian Sea.

Animal world

Pakistan is quite diverse. Large mammals in the mountains include wild sheep and goats, including the Siberian ibex, while the plains are inhabited by wild boars, antelopes, goitered gazelles, kulans and the Persian gazelle. There are many monkeys in the forests and groves. Predators in the mountains include leopard, snow leopard, brown and white-breasted bear, fox, hyena, and jackal. The world of birds is diverse, including birds of prey such as eagles, kites, vultures, as well as peacocks, parrots and many others. Snakes live almost everywhere, including many poisonous ones. Crocodiles live in the Indus Delta. Common invertebrates include scorpions, ticks, malarial mosquitoes and mosquitoes. The Arabian Sea is rich in fisheries resources. The most important commercial fish are herring, sea bass, and ravana (Indian salmon). They also catch sharks, stingrays, octopuses and shrimp. Giant sea turtles with a diameter of up to 1.5 m live off the coast.

POPULATION

Demography.

The country's population in 2004 was estimated at 159.20 million people, while in 1901 there were 16.6 million inhabitants in the territory occupied by today's Pakistan. Consequently, in about 100 years there was an almost ninefold increase in population. Average density population in 1999 was 184 people per 1 sq. km, with maximum density in Punjab and minimum in Balochistan. The demographic growth rate in 2003 was 2.01% per year. Life expectancy is 61.3 years for men and 63.14 for women (2003). Pakistan tried to limit population growth through a family planning program. In the 1960s, the government launched a large-scale campaign to promote contraceptives, but only 12% of married couples use them, according to data from 1987-1994.

The birth rate in 2004 was 31.22 per 1000 people, and the death rate was 8.67 per 1000 people.

As of 2011, the country's population was 190.291 million people. The birth rate was 24.3 per 1000 people. The mortality rate is 6.8 people per 1000. The average population density is 239 people. Life expectancy is 66.3 years (men - 64.5, women - 68.3).

Migration.

Since ancient times, important population migrations have taken place in what is now Pakistan. In the 2nd millennium BC. Aryan tribes invaded Hindustan from the north-west, bringing their language and a new social structure. The same way in the 8th century. and later Muslim conquerors came here, and their religion and culture spread with them.

Some major migrations population occurred in the modern era. From 1890 to 1920, the British colonial authorities resettled from 500 thousand to 1 million Punjabis from Eastern Punjab, now located within the Republic of India, to Western Punjab, i.e. to the territory of modern Pakistan, to develop lands on which a network of irrigation canals had been created shortly before. A massive resettlement of refugees also occurred immediately after the partition of the independent Indian possessions of Great Britain in 1947. Approximately 6.5 million people rushed from India to Pakistan, and 4.7 million in the opposite direction, i.e. the country added 1.8 million inhabitants over the year. This migration affected mainly Punjab: 3.6 million people left it and were replaced by 5.2 million. Most of the remaining refugees settled in the cities of Sindh, and less than 100 thousand - in Baluchistan and along the northwestern border.

During the 1970s and 1980s, many Pakistanis left their homeland in search of work, and in 1984 approximately 2 million people lived and worked abroad, mainly in the UK and the Middle East. However, in the late 1980s, the chances of finding work in the oil fields of the Persian Gulf decreased and mass repatriation began. In addition, in the 1980s, the civil war in Afghanistan led to the resettlement of up to 3 million people in refugee camps in Pakistan.

In Pakistan itself there is a constant outflow rural population to the cities. In 1995, 35% of the country's population lived in cities.

Cities.

The population of large cities includes a significant proportion of refugees from India (Muhajirs) and their descendants. In 1951, in each of the six largest cities, refugees made up more than 40% of the population.

The most important of the cities is Karachi with a population of approx. 13 million people (2009). Urdu-speaking people from India predominate here. important role played by a layer of Gujarati refugees, although in significantly smaller numbers. Large communities of Sindhis, Punjabis, Pashtuns and Baluchis also formed. Karachi was the capital of the state until 1959, and is currently the administrative center of the Sindh province. The next largest city is Lahore, the capital of Punjab, with a population of more than 7 million people. Lahore, considered by many to be the center of the country's intellectual life, is home to the oldest Punjab University, founded in 1882. Faisalabad (formerly Lyallpur), which grew up during the colonial era in an area irrigated by a dense network of canals, ranks third in population (approx. . 3 million people), a center for trade in agricultural products and small industry.

The fourth largest city is Rawalpindi in northern Punjab, with more than 2 million inhabitants. Since 1959, for some time it was the capital of the country - until the new capital Islamabad (832 thousand people in 2009) was built 13 km northeast of it, where government officials were transferred in the late 1960s institutions. Other major Pakistani cities include Hyderabad, Multan, Gujranwala and Peshawar.

Ethnic composition and languages.

The official language of Pakistan and the language of international communication is Urdu. At the regional level, the most commonly used languages ​​are Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto (Pashto), Brahui and Baluchi. English is widely used in business, education and administrative activities.

Punjabi is spoken by approximately 51% of the total population. Pakistani Muslim Punjabis are ethnically identical to Hindu and Sikh Punjabis living in India. Sindhi is spoken approx. 22% Pakistanis. Pashto (15%) is the language of the Pashtuns, living mainly in the North-West Frontier Province, and is also widely spoken in neighboring Afghanistan. Balochistan is the homeland of Baluchi and Brahui speakers.

Two important languages ​​for the country were brought to Pakistan by migrants. The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs came from Indian territory, mainly from the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) after the 1947 partition, and settled primarily in the cities, especially the Sindhi cities: Karachi, Hyderabad and Sukkur. Only ok. 8% of Pakistanis consider Urdu their mother tongue, but its cultural function is extremely great. Urdu has been given the status of the state language, its speakers occupy important positions in the government apparatus and business. A smaller group of refugees, mainly from Bombay and the Kathiyawar Peninsula, speak Gujarati and are concentrated in Karachi.

President and Government of Pakistan.

According to the 1973 constitution, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is federal state. The head of state and symbol of its unity is the president. He is considered the head executive power, part of the legislative branch and supreme commander of the armed forces. The President has the right to pardon, cancel and commute the sentence of any court.

The President makes appointments to the posts of the Prime Minister, members of the government, provincial governors, members of the Supreme Court of Pakistan and provincial high courts, chairman of the Public Service Commission, Chief Election Commissioner and members of the Election Commission, senior military leaders. He convenes sessions of parliament, gives sanctions to parliamentary bills and can reject them (deputies can override a veto by a majority vote at a joint meeting of both houses of parliament). Between sessions, the president can issue decrees for up to 4 months. Previously, the head of state had the authority to dissolve the country's parliament and announce a new election campaign, but changes made to the text of the constitution in 1997 deprived him of this right. The President may call a referendum on issues of national importance. According to the constitution, he can impose a state of emergency in the event of a threat to the security of Pakistan (with the right to restrict fundamental civil rights), suspend constitutional guarantees in a particular province, declare a state of emergency in the field of finance.

Apart from the sphere of exclusive competence in which the president acts at his own discretion, in other cases he must be guided by the advice and recommendations of the prime minister and the government. However, it may require them to reconsider these recommendations.

In accordance with the constitution, the President of Pakistan is elected for a term of 5 years by an electoral college consisting of members of both houses of parliament and provincial parliaments. According to the constitution, he is not eligible for re-election for a new term. To remove the president, it was necessary that the corresponding proposal be put forward by at least half of the deputies of one of the chambers of parliament and supported by at least two-thirds of the participants in a joint meeting of both chambers.

In 2001, the military leader of the country, General Pervez Musharraf, became the president of Pakistan due to the suspension of the constitution. In 2002, the authorities held a referendum, as a result of which Musharraf was confirmed as president. The President again received the right to dissolve the country's parliament.

The highest legislative body of Pakistan is the parliament (Majlis-i-Shura), consisting of two houses: the lower (National Assembly) and the upper (Senate). The National Assembly is elected by popular vote for a term of 5 years. Since 2002, it has consisted of 342 deputies: 272 are elected from the Muslim curia, 10 from the list of religious minorities, 60 seats are reserved for women (these are representatives of the provinces, for whom other deputies of the assembly vote). The Senate consists of 100 members. They are elected for 6 years by deputies of provincial assemblies, the National Assembly, etc.; half of the members of parliament are renewed every three years.

Any bill, except financial, is discussed at a separate meeting of each chamber. In case of disagreement between the chambers, it is submitted to a joint meeting of both chambers, and a simple majority of votes of the participants is required for adoption. Bills on financial issues are discussed by the National Assembly and, after adoption, are sent to the president for signature.

The government, the executive body, must “assist” the president in carrying out his functions. The Prime Minister (necessarily a Muslim) is appointed by the President from among the members of the National Assembly; he must enjoy the confidence of the majority of his deputies. On the advice of the prime minister, the president appoints ministers. The government must receive a vote of confidence in the National Assembly and is collectively responsible to it. It develops bills and submits them for discussion in parliament.

After the elections to the National Assembly in 2002, Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali, a representative of the Pakistan Muslim League (Quaid-e-Azam faction), was appointed Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Provincial and local governments.

Pakistan is a federation consisting of four provinces (Punjab, Sindh, North-West Frontier Province, Balochistan), the Islamabad metropolitan area, the tribal areas and the centrally administered Northern Areas. The highest official in the province is the governor, appointed and removed by the president. The legislative body is the provincial assembly; a provincial government is formed from its deputies, bearing collective responsibility to it. Pakistani legislation stipulates the distribution of competencies between the center and the provinces. The exclusive prerogatives of the center include defense, foreign relations, money turnover, foreign trade, part of taxes, planning and coordination, communications, interprovincial trade, etc. The joint competence of the center and the provinces includes criminal law, legal proceedings civil cases, transfer of property (except for agricultural land), environmental problems, social security, trade union activities, labor conflicts, inland navigation, electricity production, etc. Other issues are the responsibility of the provinces.

The provinces of Pakistan are divided into regions, which consist of districts, and the latter - of districts (tahsils), which unite a group of villages. The population elects members of community councils, districts, town and municipal committees and corporations. The tribal area is divided into agencies; each of them is headed by a political agent appointed by the central government, and local issues are decided by general meeting adult male population. The Northern Territories also have authorities local government.

Azad Kashmir. Part of the territory of the former Indian principality of Jammu and Kashmir, occupied by the Pakistani authorities in 1947, has a special status. In October 1947, the independent state of “Azad (Free) Jammu and Kashmir” was proclaimed here, which has political ties with Pakistan and is bound by the 1949 agreement. Currently, Azad Kashmir occupies an area of ​​about 33 thousand square meters. km., where about 2 million people live. The capital is Muzaffarabad. Another about 50 thousand sq. m. km. administered directly by Pakistan. Pakistan has its representative in Azad Kashmir.

The governing bodies of Azad Kashmir are the Council (located in Islamabad and headed by the Pakistani authorities), the President, the Assembly and the government headed by the Prime Minister. The Constitution was adopted in 1974. President since 2001 is former General Muhammad Anwar Khan, Prime Minister is Iskander Hayat Khan. The activities of political parties that reject the connection between Kashmir and Pakistan are prohibited.

Judicial system.

The highest judicial body of Pakistan is the Supreme Court in Islamabad (with branches in Lahore and Karachi). The chairman (Chief Justice of Pakistan) and members of the court are appointed by the president. The Supreme Court hears disputes between the central and provincial governments and between provinces. In addition, it is the court of appeal in cases involving questions of law related to the interpretation of the constitution, when it comes to capital punishment, etc. The Supreme Court issues opinions on issues of law submitted to it by the president, exercises control over the observance of the fundamental rights of citizens, and makes decisions on the constitutionality of certain actions of government bodies and their competence.

The provinces have their own Superior Courts; their chairmen (chief judges) and members are appointed by the president. The lower courts (from local to district) are divided into criminal and civil. They are appointed by provincial governors. Administrative courts or tribunals may be established by law to try civil servants. During Zia's reign, the Federal Sharia Court was also created, which decided whether laws conformed to the canons of Islamic law.

Administrative apparatus.

Government agencies employ mostly professionals. Their upper stratum is formed by well-trained officials of the Pakistan Civil Service, which once included 1,000–1,500 people and was abolished in 1973 under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.

Political parties.

Pakistan Muslim League(PML) was created in 1947 from the provincial organizations of the All-India Muslim League that existed since 1906. The party led the creation of the Pakistani state and ruled it virtually unchallenged until 1955. Leading place it was played by representatives of large landowners, entrepreneurs and traders of West Pakistan. The conservatism of the PML led to a number of splits in the party, as a result of which the first significant opposition parties emerged - the Awami League (Awami League), the Free Pakistan Party, the Republican Party, etc. In 1955, the PML was forced to share power with the opposition, and then give way to it.

The revival of PML influence occurred after Ayub Khan's coup in 1958. New power reorganized it and turned it into the ruling party of the regime in 1962. As a program, the PML put forward the principle of a presidential form of government, an indirect system of elections in government bodies, maintaining the administrative unity of West Pakistan and limiting the autonomy of East Pakistan. Removed from power along with the Ayub Khan regime, the party suffered crushing defeat in the parliamentary elections of 1970, receiving only 2 out of 300 seats. The PML split into several factions, one of which was in opposition to the government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the other collaborated with him.

Between 1979 and 1984, when political activities were banned in Pakistan, the PML remained inactive. In 1986, dictator Zia-ul Haq appointed Muhammad Khan Junejo as Prime Minister, who announced the re-establishment of the party and led it.

After Junejo's removal from power in 1988, the PML again split into factions - the pro-government one led by Nawaz Sharif, the main opposition (Junejo and Pir Pagaro) and 6 others.

Nawaz Sharif's PML headed the Islamic Democratic Alliance bloc with the participation of religious and right-wing parties (Jamiat-i Islami, factions of the Jamiat-i Ulama-i Islam party, etc.). The IDA promised to protect the interests and rights of workers, improve the welfare of the people, ensure the development of education, healthcare, payment of old-age pensions, etc. The Junejo and Pira Pagaro faction, along with the Freedom Movement party and another Jamiat-e Ulama-e Pakistan faction, formed the Pakistan People's Alliance. Both alliances suffered defeat in the elections.

The 1990 elections brought the IDA victory, and Nawaz Sharif headed the government of Pakistan, which was in power until 1993. In the next elections, PML factions acted independently: Nawaz Sharif’s organization received 72 seats in the National Assembly out of 217, and Junejo’s organization – 6. The first of them went to opposition, and the second entered into a coalition with the Pakistan People's Party of the new Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. The 1997 elections brought Nawaz Sharif's PML an absolute majority in the National Assembly, but in 1999 his cabinet was overthrown in a military coup.

In the 2002 parliamentary elections, various factions of the PML acted separately from each other. The PML Quaid-i Azam (an honorary nickname for the founder of the Pakistani state M.A. Jinnah), led by Muhammad Azhar, which supported President General Pervez Musharraf, collected 26% of the votes and ultimately took 117 of the 342 seats in the National Assembly. Its representative Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali became the Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Other factions of the PML were defeated: Nawaz Sharif's PML received only 9% of the votes (19 seats), the Functional PML - 1% (5 seats), Junejo's PML - less than 1% (4 seats), and the Martyr Zia PML - ul-Haqa” – 0.3% of votes (1st place).

Pakistan People's Party(PPP; also Pakistan People's Party) established in 1967 by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. The party's program was considered to be its 1970 election manifesto, which put forward the slogan of “Islamic democratic socialism.” The goal of the PPP was to build a classless society based on social justice. The party promised to eliminate monopolies, nationalize the main industries, banks, insurance companies, transport, destroy feudalism in the countryside, develop cooperatives in the countryside, and improve the living and working conditions of hired workers. In 1970, the PPP won elections in West Pakistan and was in power in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan from 1971–1977.

In 1977, the PPP government was overthrown by the military led by Zia-ul-Haq. The party went into opposition and was subjected to severe repression by the authorities. Its activists were arrested, and its leader Z.A. Bhutto was executed. The PPP was led by his widow Nusrat and then by his daughter Benazir. In 1981, the PPP led the opposition bloc “Movement for the Restoration of Democracy,” but by 1988 it had collapsed.

After the restoration of democratic rule in 1988, the PPP won a relative majority of seats in the National Assembly elections, and Benazir Bhutto led a coalition government with the participation of the National Muhajir Movement and independent deputies.

The PPP's new election manifesto was more moderate than in the 1970s. It lacked radical slogans and the term “socialism.” The party promised workers participation in production management with the help of trust funds, democratization of trade unions, and the extension of labor legislation to agricultural workers. She also intended to encourage entrepreneurs who create jobs to continue agrarian reform and develop production and education. The PPP identifies itself with European-style social democracy and cooperates with the Socialist International.

The new PPP program, adopted in 1992, advocates a “new social contract” based on a “social market economy,” the privatization of the means of production, the decentralization of local government and the “devolution” of central government.

In 1990, the PPP government was removed from power. The party lost the 1990 elections, but in 1993 it managed to regain a relative majority of seats in the National Assembly. In 1996, Benazir Bhutto was again removed from the post of prime minister, and in 1997 the PPP lost the general elections and went into opposition. After the military coup of 1999, she initially opposed the Musharraf regime, but then supported him in the fight against Islamic fundamentalists. In the 2002 elections, the PPP collected 26% of the vote and took 81 seats in the National Assembly.

Separately from the main PPP faction was the party faction led by Sherpao. In 2002 it received 0.3% of the vote and has 2 seats in the National Assembly.

"Jamiat-e Islami"(DI; Islamic Society) is a right-wing religious party formed in 1941 and enjoying significant influence among the poor urban population. Until 1977 it was invariably in opposition (banned in 1958–1962). She demanded the Islamization of the country. Later she supported the dictatorship of Zia-ul-Haq, and her student organization actively fought against opponents of the regime. In the 1988 elections, JI acted as part of the Islamic Democratic Alliance (IDA). The party promised to fight against feudalism, capitalism, the rule of landowners, bureaucracy and exploitation, carry out agrarian reform and provide greater autonomy to the country's provinces. The main goal of the JI was to create a society based on the principles of “Islamic justice.” The elections turned out to be unsuccessful for JI - the party received only 1 seat in the National Assembly. In 1990, she again acted as part of the IDA, and this time became part of the new government. But the 1993 elections again brought defeat to the JI (4 seats). The party was unable to achieve success in 1997 either.

JI actively supported the Taliban regime in neighboring Afghanistan and sharply condemned the pro-American policy of the Musharraf government to overthrow this regime in 2001. In the 2002 elections, the movement became part of the Islamist bloc Muttahida Majlis-i Amal, which collected 11% of the votes and received 60 seats in the National Assembly.

"Jamiat-i Ulama-i Islam"(DUI; Society of Islamic Theologians) is a party of orthodox Muslim clergy, followers of the Deoband religious school, which rejects Western ideas about the state, culture, philosophy and education. Created in 1941, the religious and political movement takes a center-right position and proclaims its opposition to both capitalism and socialism.

The JUI participated in the struggle against colonial dependence on Great Britain, collaborated with the Indian National Congress and long opposed a separate Pakistani state. She was in opposition against the creation of the government of Z.A. Bhutto, later against the dictatorship of Zia-ul-Haq, and was part of the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy.

Since the 1960s, the JUI has been split into various factions that operate separately from each other. In the 1988 elections, one of them - the JUI (F) - acted independently, the other (the Dharvasti faction) joined the IDA. Subsequent elections in 1990, 1993 and 1997 did not bring significant success to the DUI. The movement supported the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. In 2002, two factions of the party acted as part of the Islamist alliance Muttahida Majlis-i Amal.

"Jamiat-i Ulama-i Pakistan"(DUP; Society of Theologians of Pakistan) is a religious and political organization focusing on the ideas of the Sunni Islamic school of Bareilly. The DUP was founded in the 1940s and advocates a “third way” of development - not capitalist, not socialist, but based on the principles of Islam. The organization is more tolerant of alternative interpretations of Islamic sacred texts and regulations, and places emphasis on the humanitarian aspects of public life. The party is supported primarily by Urdu-speaking Pakistanis, primarily by Muhajirs. The leader of the DUP, Shah Ahmad Noorani, was one of the leaders of the irreconcilable opposition against the Zia-ul-Haq regime and demanded the restoration of democracy in the country. In 1988, the DUP joined the Pakistan People's Alliance, but it performed unsuccessfully in the elections. The next decade also did not bring political success to the party. In 2002, the DUP acted as part of the Muttahida Majlis-i Amal bloc, and party leader Nurani became its head.

In addition to the DUP, JUI and JI, the Muttahida Majlis-i Amal bloc also included "Jamiat-i Ahl-i Hadith"(Hadith Covenant Society; leader - Hadit Syed Mir) and the Shia Party Islamic Movement of Pakistan(Movement for the Implementation of Jafari Fiqh, founded in 1980, leader – Allama Syed Naqvi).

Federal National Movement (FNM) established in 1984 as the National Mujujir Front (MNF), transformed from the All Pakistan student organization Muhajirs, which in 1977, together with the opposition, opposed the administration of Z.A. Bhutto. The party has a strong position in Sindh province. The main task of the NFM was to protect the interests and rights of muhajirs. He demanded a constitutional amendment recognizing them as the fifth nationality of Pakistan, guaranteeing them access to government posts And public service, limit the activities of Afghan emigration in the country. In 1988, the Muhajir Party became the third most important political force in Pakistan. Receiving about 5% of the vote in the 1988–1997 elections, it had 12–15 seats in the National Assembly. In 1988-1990, the Muhajirs entered into a coalition with the Pakistan People's Party, and in 1997-1999 - with Nawaz Sharif's PML. The renaming to the FND is intended to emphasize the party’s desire to better protect the interests of national minorities. In the 2002 elections, the movement was represented by two factions. The main one (led by Altaf Hussain) collected 3% of the vote and has 17 seats in the National Assembly; the other - FND (X) - was content with 1st place.

National Alliance- a political bloc formed before the 2002 elections. It included the Sindh Democratic Alliance, the Millat party and other organizations. The leader is Imtaz Sheikh. In the elections he collected about 5% of the vote and has 16 seats in the National Assembly.

People's National Party (PNP) – Pakistan's leading leftist party. Created in 1986 as a result of the merger of parts of the National Democratic Party, Pakistan National Party, People's Movement, Workers' and Peasants' Party, etc. The PNP was headed by the former leader of the National People's Party, banned by the government of Z. A. Bhutto, Abdul Wali Khan.

The NPP advocated the adoption of a new, more democratic constitution and the building of a society of "economic and social democracy" in Pakistan, in which citizens were guaranteed food, shelter, clothing, education, health care and employment opportunities. The NPP demands greater economic independence for Pakistan and calls for the unification of left-wing democratic forces. In the elections of 1988, 1990 and 1993, the party received 3, and in 1997 - 9 seats in the National Assembly. In 1997–1998, the NPP supported the government of Nawaz Sharif. She performed unsuccessfully in the 2002 elections: having received 1% of the votes, she did not receive representation in the National Assembly.

Pakistan Labor Party (PLP) arose in the second half of the 1990s as a result of the unification of a number of Trotskyist, former pro-Soviet or Maoist organizations. The first party congress took place in April 2000 in Lahore. The PTP advocates a workers' revolution, the liberation of Pakistan from the rule of foreign and national capital and the transition to socialism. Strongly condemns Islamic fundamentalism. The party enjoys a certain influence in the trade unions. The leader is Farooq Tariq.

In addition to the above parties and movements, the following are active in the country: Pakistan People's Movement, Republican Fatherland Party, Balochistan National Party, Pakistan Socialist Party and etc.

In Azad Kashmir the leading party is Muslim Conference of Jammu and Kashmir (JK). The party was formed in the 1940s and was in power in Azad Kashmir until 1990, in 1991–1996 and since 2001. In 1990–1991 and 1996–2001, the government formed a local branch Pakistan People's Party. The consignment Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front led by Amanullah Khan advocates the independence of Kashmir from both India and Pakistan; its activities in Azad Kashmir are limited.

Armed forces.

Thanks to assistance from the United States and several other countries, Pakistani troops are well trained and equipped with modern weapons. In 1998, the ground armed forces numbered 450 thousand, sea forces 16 thousand and air forces 17.6 thousand people. The army has always had enormous influence in the country. Generals often moved to high positions in the civil administration, actively participated in the political events of the country, declared a state of emergency and established control over the government.

Foreign policy.

In 1947, Pakistan was admitted to the UN and in the same year became a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. In 1972, when Great Britain and other Commonwealth countries recognized Bangladesh, Pakistan withdrew from its membership and returned only in 1989. Pakistan's foreign policy was determined primarily by how relations developed with its neighbors - India and Afghanistan, which was reflected in the nature of diplomatic ties even with the superpowers . Since 1970, Pakistan has been a member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, since 1979 - of the Non-Aligned Movement, since 1985 - of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

For over 50 years, Pakistan has been in conflict with India over the issue of Kashmir. In 1947–1948, these states found themselves on the brink of war because of this. In 1972, with the mediation of the UN, a demarcation line was drawn in Kashmir. The southeastern areas of Kashmir remained under Indian administration, while the rest of the former princely state, known as Azad (Free) Kashmir, was controlled by Pakistan. Called the Northern Territories, it partially integrates the mountainous areas of northern Kashmir, including Gilgit, Hunza and Baltistan, but their residents do not participate in elections to the general Pakistani government. The dispute over the division of the Indus waters clouded India-Pakistan relations until it was successfully resolved in a 1960 treaty brokered by the World Bank.

In 1990, another outbreak of unrest occurred in Kashmir, which the Indian side accused Pakistan of instigating. The latter denies any involvement, recognizing the right to diplomatic support for Kashmiri Muslims and insisting on holding a referendum in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in accordance with UN resolutions. India demands that Pakistan withdraw troops from Kashmiri territory, and explains the refusal of the referendum, which Pakistan accuses it of, by the fact that the state legislature was in favor of its full integration with India. As a result, no actions were taken to resolve the conflict. In 1998, the Indian government, led by representatives of the Bharatiya Janata Party, and the Pakistani government, led by Nawaz Sharif, agreed to discuss all controversial issues, including Kashmir, at the diplomatic level.

In the 1950s, Pakistan signed a bilateral treaty with the United States and was a member of the regional military bloc SEATO from 1954–1972, and the Baghdad Pact (later CENTO) from 1955–1979. In 1962, after armed clashes occurred between India and China, Pakistan managed to reach an agreement on border issues and strengthen good neighborly contacts with the PRC.

Throughout the 1970s, Pakistan strengthened its ties with developing countries in the Middle East and other Third World regions. In 1974 he held a conference of leaders of Muslim states. Relations with Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf emirates have been established.

The authorities in Kabul never accepted the Durand Line, with which Great Britain in 1893 separated the Pashto-speaking areas that came under its control from Afghanistan, as the official state border. Kabul also sought, first in the 1950s and then in the 1970s, to encourage the separatist aspirations of the Pashtuns in the North-West Frontier Province by proposing the creation of the state of Pashtunistan. However, Afghanistan itself, as a weak neighbor, did not cause serious concern. The uprising of conservative Islamists in 1978 against the new, left-wing government in Afghanistan and the invasion of the Soviet army in this country in 1979 radically changed the situation. Over the course of several years, 3 million Afghan refugees arrived in Pakistan. The main thing was that Afghanistan, having turned out to be a potential ally of India, would pose a real threat to the security of Pakistan. Therefore, in the 1980s, Afghan rebels received reliable shelter and the opportunity to organize military camps on its territory. Arms for the Mujahideen came from the United States and Saudi Arabia through Pakistan. Military assistance was also provided to Pakistan itself. After Soviet troops withdrew from Afghanistan in 1988–1989, resistance fighters turned to internal civil war. Pakistan tried to help end it and achieve agreement between hostile factions.

Pakistan has diplomatic relations with Russian Federation(installed in May 1948 from the USSR).

ECONOMY

Historical background.

The territories on the basis of which Pakistan was formed after the partition of British India in 1947 had a typically agricultural economy. Punjab, over 50% of which was within West Pakistan, was known as the breadbasket of the colony. During World War II, Punjab remained a major exporter of wheat and cotton, and local villages were distinguished by their material well-being compared to the rest of India. East Bengal, which became the province of East Pakistan, was the world's leading exporter of jute, used to make sacks and carpets. West Pakistan had an extensive system of irrigation canals and dams in Punjab and Sindh, and Karachi served as an important port. In the eastern part of the country, the port infrastructure was extremely weak, so foreign trade was conducted through Calcutta.

Pakistan's economy suffered seriously during the 1947 partition due to the outflow of refugees. Businessmen and entrepreneurs left the country, the loss of which could not be compensated by Muslim traders from India (especially those who arrived from Bombay and Calcutta). Only a limited number of immigrants had experience working in industry. Migration processes also had a negative impact on the agricultural sector. Many of the most skilled farmers, mainly Sikhs living in the Indus Valley, left Sindh and western Punjab.

In the first years of independence, the authorities were forced to deal mainly with the problems of resettling refugees and normalizing relations with India. Subsequently, the government was able to turn to solving purely economic issues, paying special attention to industrialization. During the Korean War in 1950–1951, a sharp rise in world commodity prices allowed Pakistan to accumulate foreign exchange reserves, which were used to import industrial equipment. This course was maintained subsequently. Factory cotton production developed especially actively in West Pakistan and jute production in East Pakistan, so that the Ayub Khan regime in the mid-1960s became associated with the “22 families”, which took control of the country’s industry.

With the separation of the Eastern Province in 1971, Pakistan lost the most important market for its industrial products. Emphasis had to be placed on finding new export opportunities for Pakistani goods, primarily cotton and rice. After Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto came to power in 1971, large enterprises, life insurance companies, and later shipping companies and the trade in petroleum products were nationalized. Bhutto also carried out a scaled-down agrarian reform, according to which 400 thousand hectares of land were distributed among 67 thousand peasant farms by 1976.

General characteristics of the economy.

Pakistan is an agrarian-industrial country in which the majority of the self-employed population is employed in agriculture. In 1991–1992, approximately 48% of the total labor force was concentrated in the agricultural sector, 20% in industry and 32% in the service sector. Unemployment and underemployment remain chronic problems. Many Pakistanis, from skilled professionals to ordinary workers, have to work abroad, especially in the Middle East.

In 2002, Pakistan's GDP was $295.3 billion, or $2,000 per capita. In 2011, per capita accounted for $2,800.

20.9% of GDP is created in agriculture, 25.8% in industry and construction, and 53.3% in trade and transport. In general, during the period of independence, undoubted economic progress was achieved: from 1947 to 1990, production increased its capacity by an average of 5% per year, but then the pace slowed down and in 1996–1997 was estimated at 2.8%. In 2011, this figure fell to 2.4%.

In 2001, the population on the verge of poverty was 35%, in 2011 about half of the population.

Decades of internal political disputes and low levels of foreign investment have led to slow growth and economic underdevelopment in Pakistan. On Agriculture accounting for more than one-fifth of output and two-fifths of employment. Textile exports account for the majority of Pakistan's income, and Pakistan's inability to expand its export base to other manufacturers makes the country vulnerable to changes in global demand.

The official unemployment rate is 6%, but this fails to tell the true story because much of the economy is uncountable.

Over the past few years, low economic growth, high inflation, and rising food prices have led to impoverishment of the population. The UN in its 2001 Report estimates the situation of almost 50% of the country's population to be below the poverty line.

Inflation worsened the situation in the country, rising from 7.7% in 2007 to over 13% in 2011, but fell to 9.3% at the end of the year. As a result of political and economic instability, the purchasing power of the Pakistani rupee has declined by more than 40% since 2007.

Remittances from workers abroad, averaging about $1 billion per month since March 2011, remain a significant source of income for Pakistan. Rising prices for imported oil and falling prices for exported cotton have pushed Pakistan into the ranks of low-income countries with high dependence on foreign investment.

Agriculture.

The country is heavily dependent on its agricultural sector to supply food and provide raw materials to industry. The main grain crop is wheat. The government buys it from farmers at a fixed price and subsidizes the sale of flour to the population. Government organizations are promoting the introduction of new high-yielding Mexican-Pakistani wheat varieties by distributing seeds among farmers across low prices, and also provide support in the purchase of pesticides to combat pests and plant diseases and mineral fertilizers.

Among commercial commercial crops, cotton is the most important. It is cultivated mainly on small farms, which supply raw materials to cotton ginning enterprises at government purchasing prices. These enterprises then sell the fiber to a government corporation, which sells it for export or to textile mills.

Leading food crops include rice, maize, chickpeas, sugarcane and millet. Rice is particularly important as an export commodity: the country's basmati variety produces an elongated, aromatic grain that is highly prized in the Middle East.

The country's agriculture relies on the most extensive irrigation network in the world. Flood filling channels, devoid of head structures that would guarantee water intake during low-water periods, already existed in the era of the early Indus Valley civilization. In the 19th and 20th centuries, under English rule, a system of permanently filled canals was created, which were fed by rivers all year round. Many peasants also build boreholes. In Pakistan, more than 80% of arable land is irrigated.

After the 1947 partition, some of the hydraulic structures that fed the canals in Pakistan ended up within India. The dispute over rights to river flow was resolved, with the participation of the World Bank as a mediator, by the signing of the Indus Water Treaty in 1960. According to this treaty, India received the right to control the flow of the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, and Pakistan - over the flow of the Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. In the 1960s, a large earthen dam, Mangla, was built on the Jhelum River bordering India, and in 1976–1977, the Tarbela Dam on the Indus River.

Mining industry.

Major gas deposits were discovered in Sui (Balochistan) in 1952, followed by discoveries in Punjab and Sindh. Oil was first discovered in Punjab's Attock district before the First World War. There are currently 7 fields in operation, but they satisfy less than 10% of Pakistan's liquid fuel needs. Other identified mineral resources include coal, chrome ores, marble, table salt, gypsum, limestone, uranium ore, phosphate rock, barite, sulfur, fluorite, precious and semi-precious stones. A large deposit of copper ore has been discovered in Balochistan.

Energy.

Energy consumption in the country is low and in coal equivalent is 254 kg per capita, i.e. about the same as in India. More than half of the electricity is generated at hydroelectric power plants, but thermal power plants are also important; the role of nuclear power plants is limited.

Manufacturing industry.

In Pakistan, the most developed textile industry (production of yarn and fabrics from domestic cotton) and the production of clothing for export.

With the help of the Soviet Union, a metallurgical plant near Karachi was built and put into operation in 1980. The capacity of the cement and sugar industries is being increased, and several oil refineries are operating. Natural gas serves as a raw material base for the chemical industry, in particular the production of fertilizers, and is used as fuel for thermal power plants.

Small-scale industries, such as sports goods (footballs and other balls, hockey sticks) and surgical instruments in Sialkot, play an important role in Pakistan's economy. There are numerous small cotton weaving enterprises operating in the informal sector of Faisalabad and other cities. In a number of Punjabi settlements, workshops sprang up for the manufacture of agricultural implements, pumps and diesel engines. Carpet weaving is developing rapidly.

Transport.

The length of railways (including narrow gauge) is 8.8 thousand km. The main highway connecting a number of cities runs along the Indus. Export cargo is delivered to the ports of Karachi and Bin Qasim mainly by rail. The length of highways is more than 100 thousand km, including the Indus Valley Expressway connecting Peshawar and Karachi. In addition to road transport, carts pulled by buffalos, donkeys and camels are widely used for transportation.

Some freight and passenger transportation is carried out along rivers.

The main seaport of the country is Karachi, the second most important is Bin Qasim, opened in 1980. Marine shipping companies were nationalized in 1974. The domestic merchant fleet is small and does not fully provide foreign trade transportation.

The state-owned aviation company of Pakistan operates successfully, which, in addition to internal connections, accounts for the majority of overseas passenger traffic. Since 1992, several private aviation companies have also been operating.

International trade.

Trade links with foreign countries are important to the modern economy of Pakistan, especially for manufacturing and commercial agricultural production.

Pakistan has been experiencing difficulties for a long time due to a negative trade balance. In the 1970s, export earnings increased rapidly, but imports were even more dynamic, partly due to the surge in oil prices in 1973–1974. In 1996, exports reached $9.3 billion and imports $11.8 billion. The deficit was partly covered by remittances from Pakistanis who went to work in other countries (more than $1.5 billion) and foreign aid. Pakistan's external debt was estimated at approximately $30 billion. In 1997, the country's foreign exchange reserves amounted to $1.8 billion.

Thousands of Pakistani citizens of varying skill levels work abroad, primarily in the Gulf states, but also in the UK, Canada and the US.

Like most third world countries, Pakistan big role played by foreign funds coming in the form of gratuitous loans and credits. In 1996, external assistance amounted to almost $1 billion. The bulk of the resources were allocated by a consortium created by the World Bank. The main donors were the USA, Germany, Canada, Japan and the UK.

Money circulation and banking system.

The Pakistani rupee is issued by the State Bank of Pakistan, located in Karachi. There are several large commercial banks operating in the country. Financial support for development projects is within the competence of the Bank of Agriculture economic development, Federal Cooperative and a number of other banks. Pakistani banks were nationalized in 1974, but some were subsequently returned to the private sector.

The state budget.

The main sources of filling the current budget are import duties and excise taxes. The largest expenditures are foreseen for the army. In second place are the costs of servicing the public debt. The capital investment budget is financed primarily by foreign loans and borrowings and is focused primarily on the development of energy, water management, transport and communications.

SOCIETY

Social structure of the population.

Pakistan has ethnolinguistic groups that are partly associated with specific geographic areas. In addition, there is division into tribes, castes and religious sects. Caste divisions are especially pronounced in Punjab and Sindh. In Pakistan, caste is a group of people with a certain social status and engaged in traditional activities. Marriages take place predominantly within castes, especially in rural areas.

Punjab.

This province is dominated by three castes: Rajputs, Jats and Arains. Muslim Rajputs belong to the local clan elite, which was converted to Islam during the period of Mughal rule. From time immemorial they were warriors, rulers, landowners and plowmen. Even today, Rajputs form a significant stratum in the Pakistani army. The Jats and Arains, who are predominantly landowners, occupy a lower social position. Members of these castes serve in the military and have prestigious professions. The next places on the social ladder belong to the Avans, Gujjars, Loharis, Tarkhans and Biluchis. Of these, the first pair forms agricultural clans in the north-west of Punjab, while the Biluchi, originally from Baluchistan, are concentrated in the south-west. By tradition, members of these groups are engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, including camel breeding. Among the Tarkhans and Loharis, artisans, carpet weavers and blacksmiths predominate. They are inferior in status to julaha (weavers), shoemakers, oil mill workers, porters, water carriers, boatmen and fishermen. Scavengers belong to the lowest caste. The landless agricultural population, employed in hard, unprestigious work, is also part of the lower castes.

Sind.

Approximately 50% of the population of this province is represented by Sindhis and 30% by Muhajirs, belonging to the relatively prosperous group of migrants who arrived from India after the 1947 partition and their descendants. Until 1947, most businessmen and white-collar workers in Sindh came from the upper Indian castes, but then they were forced to leave for India. What remained were the Hindus, who occupied a low place in the system of caste hierarchy. Sindhis belong to different territorial, tribal, occupational and caste groups. The Pirs, the descendants of Muslim missionary saints, are numerous in the province, and sometimes the followers of some of them form separate social communities. Until the early 1950s, a clear minority of wealthy landowners, lawyers and members of the liberal professions stood in opposition to the bulk of the peasant poor in Sindh. Since then it has developed middle class, which was largely the result of the spread of education. Sayyids, Soomros, Pathans, Mughals, Ansaris, Jatois, Bhuttos, Khuros, Mukhdums, Aghas - these are the most influential tribal and class-clan divisions in the province.

The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs, who fled the northern and central regions of India in 1947, live primarily in the Karachi district. Among them there is a large stratum of people who received a good education in colleges. They often pursue careers in the arts, journalism and other media, as university professors, in the military, and in industrial and shipping companies. The high standard of living of the Muhajirs created hostility among the Sindhis and some other ethnic groups, which led to inter-ethnic clashes in Karachi and other cities of Sindh. Muhajirs make up a significant portion of migrants who went to the countries of the Middle East, Europe and North America.

Gujarati-speaking refugees who arrived in 1947 from Western India - Bombay and Gujarat, together with their descendants, make up approx. 1% of Pakistan's population and is also concentrated mainly in Karachi. Some of them belong to richest people countries. Leading groups within this community include the Memons (Sunni businessmen), Bohras and followers of the Aga Khan - the Ismaili Khoja caste (Shiite businessmen), as well as the Parsi Zoroastrians.

Northwestern Frontier Province.

Pashtuns constitute the main ethnolinguistic element of the population of this province. In the so-called The “tribal strip” is home to many Pashtun tribes, isolated territorially, speaking different dialects, having different customs and traditional clothing. The peoples of all these tribes are famous for their love of freedom. A large part of the border strip is included in the so-called. “centrally-administered tribal areas” that are only loosely subject to Pakistani law.

Pashtuns are characterized by hospitality. Their code of honor (Pashtunwali) recognizes blood feud, the need to provide shelter for exiles, long-term enmity and military prowess (every Pashtun is armed). Hill tribes in the past made their living by raiding lowland villages and controlling the passes that provided easy way to South Asia. Pashtuns serve in the army, work in construction, industrial enterprises and transport throughout Pakistan. They zealously adhere to Muslim customs. The province's border with Afghanistan has long been used to smuggle watches, televisions, silk and wool fabrics, transistors and calculators from Japan, Europe and the United States.

Baluchistan.

Baloch people make up about a quarter of the province's total population. More than a dozen large tribes are known; their dialects are close to Farsi. In the east there are seven Baloch tribes (the largest are the Marris, Rinds and Bugti), in the west there are nine (the largest in number are the Rinds and Rakhshani). Cattle breeding remains the basis of the traditional nomadic economy, but some Baluchi have become cultivators, serving as soldiers, minor officials and police officers. Men have long been considered brave warriors.

Approximately a quarter of the province's population is Brahui. Their language is related to the Dravidian languages ​​of South India. The Brahuis, like the Baluchis, are primarily engaged in pastoralism and agriculture. During the warm season, the Brahuis cultivate crops, and in winter they move north, where they sell livestock and handicrafts and are hired as seasonal workers. Many Brahuis settled in the irrigated agricultural areas of Sindh and Karachi.

The northern part of Balochistan is predominantly inhabited by Pashtuns (about a fifth of Balochistan's population). The main local tribes are the Kakars, Panis and Tarins.

Minorities also include the Jats, who live in the north-central part of the province, and the Lassis, concentrated in the south. The tribal population of the mountainous and coastal regions of Makran are characterized by Negroid characteristics, and some anthropologists believe that they are descendants of African slaves. The majority of Makran residents are illiterate and include many fishermen, donkey drivers, dairy farmers and unskilled laborers.

Lifestyle.

Family plays a big role in the lives of Pakistanis. However, in Balochistan and parts of the North-West Frontier Province, tribal ties are also very important. The oldest of the men is consulted on every serious matter affecting family interests. His opinion is listened to with respect and, sometimes, even with fear. In marriage, priority is given to cousins, then second cousins, and finally girls of the same clan or tribe. Children are considered a gift from Allah. Sons are usually preferred to daughters because sons provide support to elderly parents, and the dowry of daughters when they marry often places such a heavy burden on the shoulders of the parents that they cannot pay off their debts for many years.

In all four provinces of Pakistan, male and female women's clothing consists of shalwars (harem pants) and kameezes (shirts). Villagers everywhere wear a pugri (turban) on their heads. In the Punjabi village, shalwars are usually replaced by lungis, which are similar to sarongs. Educated men in cities prefer to dress in a European style, and women wear shalwars and kameezes. City women wear silk or nylon saris to work and on formal occasions. Ghararas (loose trousers pioneered by Mughal queens and princesses) and kameezes are worn during weddings and other special ceremonies.

Religious life.

More than 75% of Muslims in Pakistan are Sunni and approx. 20% - Shiites. Less than 4% of the inhabitants, mainly Punjabis, belong to the Ahmadiyya sect and are popularly called Qadiyani. There is agreement between Sunnis and Shiites regarding the main fundamental tenets of Islam, but both fundamentally disagree with the Ahmadis. Conservative Sunnis and Shiites believe that Ahmadis do not have the right to consider themselves among the faithful, because they consider the founder of their sect, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (c. 1839–1908), to be a prophet, while, according to orthodox Islamists, Allah did not send other prophets to Earth after Muhammad.

Religious temples occupy an important place in the social life of Muslims. Each district has a mosque headed by an imam. Many mosques have madrassas - religious schools, where children are given traditional Islamic education free of charge. There are a number of dar-ul-ulums (Muslim universities) in Pakistan where students study for several years to become learned theologians - ulema.

Unions.

Only a few trade union associations operate on a national scale. Among them, the textile workers' union stands out, with more than 80 thousand members. Strong trade unions have developed in such industries as ferrous metallurgy, carpet weaving, sugar and cement industries, oil refining, and the production of mineral fertilizers.

Most labor laws date back to the colonial period. At the same time, under Ayub Khan and Bhutto, a number of important legislative acts were adopted relating to the minimum wage, child employment, relations between workers and entrepreneurs, and pensions.

The status of women.

Pakistani society is dominated by men. Girls during adolescence should prepare to be able to manage housework, sew, cook, and care for young children. Male relatives usually accompany girls when they leave the house; participation in joint parties and other meetings with young men, and especially dating, is strongly condemned. The marriage union is most often negotiated by the parents of the future couple. Love marriages take place only in big cities. Girls get married before the age of 18, and often much earlier.

After a girl is married off, the main event in her life is the birth of children. As children grow up, the status of the mother increases, especially if she has several sons. Families with marriageable daughters turn to her in search of grooms. Often mothers have a great influence on their sons. In old age, women switch to raising their grandchildren.

Social Security.

There are many public and religious organizations, some of them receive financial and other assistance from government agencies. Since motherhood without formal marriage is sharply condemned, and women’s work outside the home is also not supported, emphasis has to be placed on the establishment of shelters for women with illegitimate children, the establishment of kindergartens and antenatal clinics. These organizations are also involved in activities related to orphanages and youth centers, caring for chronically ill and disabled people. Important direction activities – fight against poverty.

CULTURE

Literature and art.

Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, has a rich literary past. Mushaira (convention and competition of poets) is a unique feature of Urdu culture: poets recited their poems in front of an audience of thousands and received immediate response and appreciation. Canonical literature was initially dominated by romantic themes. Nowadays, poets and prose writers write about democracy, freedom of speech, equality of opportunity, poverty, hunger, life in slums, the powerless situation of women, the difficulty of getting married for city women over 20, the heavy burden of dowry for the bride’s parents.

From time immemorial, the highest form of Urdu poetry has been ghazals (“talks with beautiful women”). Their main motives were to glorify the beauty of their beloved, although poets often also indulged in philosophical reflection. Apart from the admiration of women, religious subjects and descriptions of historical events were the most popular in traditional Urdu literature. The Marsiyya (elegiac poems) of Mirza Salamat Ali Dabir and Mir Anis (Mir Babar Ali), for example, were dedicated to the bloody murder of the grandchildren of the Prophet Muhammad in Karbala. Zauq (Shaikh Muhammad Ibrahim) composed classic ghazals in Urdu, using images, metaphors, similes and vocabulary almost incomprehensible to the average person.

Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib (1797–1869) was the first great writer to use colloquial Urdu in poetry and prose genres. They followed his path at the end of the 19th century. novelists Said Ahmad Khan and Khali (Altaf Hussein). Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938), recognized as the national poet of Pakistan, was a rebel in spirit, his work is full of patriotic motives and filled with pride for Islam. Collection Appeal to God and His response serves as perhaps the clearest evidence of Iqbal's literary prowess.

Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi and Eshan Danish became prominent figures in Urdu poetry in the 20th century. exponents of progressive ideas on the left spectrum of views. An example of their creative orientation is Faiz's book of poems Hands of the wind. In contrast, Habib Jaleb, Arif Mateen and Ahmad Faraz did not adhere to radical social views, but they were also characterized by avant-garde stylistic research. Among the prose writers, Ehsan Farooqi, Jamila Hashmi, Saida Sultana and Fazl Ahmad Karim Fazli stood out. Fazli's work Open up, tormented heart reflected new trends in Urdu prose.

Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Baluchi literatures also have an extensive heritage. The most famous Punjabi poet is Waris Shah (18th century), author of the great poem Heer and Ranjha. Since the 1950s, the main representatives modernist movement Punjabi literature features Sharif Kunjahi, Ahmad Rahi, Sultan Mahmood Ashufta, Safdar Mir and Munir Niazi.

The central figure in Pashto literature remains Khushkal Khan Khattak (1613 - c. 1687). From the poets of the 20th century. Amir Hamza Shinwari stands out, and among the prose writers are Master Abdulkarim and Fazlhak Shaida.

Rich in tradition, Sindhi literature has produced its own classic, Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai (1689–1752). A prominent Sufi, the poet imbued his works with philosophical ideas, love of nature and mystical thoughts. Sachal Sarmast (1739–1826) followed in his footsteps.

Famous poets of the 18th–19th centuries who wrote in baluchi are Jam Durrak Dombki, Muhammad Khan Gishkori and Fazil Rind (his Night candle considered a classic collection of poetic works). Among the leading poets of the 20th century. includes Ata Shad, Zahoor Shah Sayyad, Murad Sahir, Malik Muhammad Tauqi and Momin Bazadar. The most significant contribution to Baluchi prose was made by Said Hashmi.

The Pakistan Arts Council strives to preserve the sustainability of regional styles in dance, music, sculpture and painting. The country's folklore troupes tour around the world. Ensembles performing spiritual compositions about Allah, Muhammad, his grandchildren and Muslim saints in the cavalli style (literally - singing in chorus) have been successfully giving concerts in the Middle East, Europe and North America since 1975.

Education.

There are two education systems in Pakistan. Traditional system introduces students to Islamic disciplines and provides knowledge of Urdu, Arabic and sometimes also Persian. The most conservative teaching remains in theological schools of madrassas operating at mosques. In the higher schools of this system, dar-ul-ulumah, students receive solid theological training for 5-15 years, intensively studying classical Muslim texts. As a result, the graduate becomes a respected scientist - an ulema. The two most famous dar-ul-ulums operate in Karachi and Lahore.

The mass education system was created by the British and was initially built on a European model. It includes kindergartens and schools. After graduating from school, the opportunity to enter a college or university opens up. The universities are located in Karachi, Islamabad, Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta, Multan, Bahawalpur, Jamshoro, Khairpur and Deraismailkhana. There are polytechnic institutes in Karachi, Lahore and Nawabshah, Taxila, and agricultural universities in Faisalabad and Tandojam. There are 14 medical colleges in the country, which graduate 4,000 doctors annually, many of whom go to work abroad. The Open University operates in Islamabad. The network of educational institutions also includes more than 400 colleges that teach natural sciences and humanities, and approx. 100 vocational schools. There are private universities, such as the University of Management in Lahore.

The country's adult literacy rate is low - 49% among men and 23% among women.

Museums and scientific institutions.

A large archaeological museum is located in Mohenjodaro, south of Larkana (Sindh Province), where excavations of the ancient Indian civilization are being carried out. Another interesting archaeological museum was created in northern Pakistan in Taxila (west of Islamabad), where the ancient Gandhara culture flourished. The National Museum in Karachi has valuable archaeological and ethnographic collections that testify to the rich creative heritage of the peoples of Pakistan, and the National Museum in Lahore has magnificent historical exhibits.

Scientific research in the country is funded by the state and conducted in research centers and universities. In this regard, the Social Science Research Center of the Punjab University, the National Science Foundation, the Atomic Energy Commission and the Council of Scientific and technical research. Quaid-e Azam University in Islamabad specializes in research in the field of social, biological and several other sciences. Scientific research is financed in the form of grants by the University Research Fund.

The Pakistan Institute analyzes problems of economics and demography economic development, which publishes the Pakistan Development Review magazine in English. Agricultural Research Center and the Federal Bureau of Statistics.

Mass media.

Seal.

More than 2,700 newspapers and other periodicals. Of these, approx. 120 are published in English and approx. 2500 - in Urdu. The rest are published primarily in the languages ​​of the peoples of Pakistan, as well as in Arabic and Persian. Major daily newspapers include: Urdu - Jang, Nawa-e Waqt and Hurriet, Sindhi - Hilal-e Pakistan and Aftab, Gujarati - Millat and Watan, English - Pakistan Times, Daily News, Nation and Khyber Mail, in English and Gujarati - Doon. The Business Recorder serves as a daily source of business and other economic information in English, and the Friday Times is considered a leading political weekly. Among the monthly publications, the Herald has gained the greatest authority, and Nukush (Impressions) is considered the best literary magazine in Urdu. The weekly “Akhbar-i Khavatin” (“Newspaper for Women”) is designed for a female readership. There are two news agencies in the country: Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Press International (PPI).

Broadcasting, television and cinema.

There are radio stations in all major cities of the country. Many of them have television centers and broadcast repeaters. Comedies, musical and dramatic performances, films, folk dances, humorous sketches and cricket competitions are among the most popular programs. Many American television programs are broadcast. The satellite communication system is being developed.

Pakistanis, especially those from the lower social strata in small towns and villages, love to visit cinemas. In Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto and Sindhi films, the plot usually revolves around a love triangle. They feature a lot of music and dancing, and the nobility of the main characters is usually presented in an emphatically sublime style. The educated stratum prefers to watch American and European films.

Sport.

The most popular sport in the country is cricket, introduced from England. The Pakistan national team, one of the strongest in the world, is competing for leadership in international competitions with rivals from Great Britain, Australia, India and the West Indies. A special team has been created to guide and control the development of cricket. national committee. Other common sports are football, field hockey, tennis and table tennis, boxing, wrestling, weightlifting, swimming, golf, polo, squash and baseball.

Holidays.

The main holidays in the country are Pakistan Day (March 23, when the Lahore Resolution was adopted in 1940, which contained the demand for the creation of an independent Pakistan); Iqbal Day (April 21 is the birthday of national poet Muhammad Iqbal); Eid-ul-Fitr (the holiday of breaking the fast at the end of fasting in the month of Ramadan); Eid-i Milad (birthday of the Prophet Mohammed); Eid ul-Azkha (holiday on the occasion of the pilgrimage to Mecca); Independence Day (August 14); Birthday of Pakistan's founder Jinnah (December 25); New Year (January 1). Some Hindu festivals are also celebrated, such as Holi (Festival of Colors) or Deepavali (Festival of Lights).

STORY

Pakistan is a young state that emerged in 1947, but Muslims have lived on its territory for more than a thousand years. They first appeared in South Asia in the 8th century. as conquerors and remained influential political force up to the 19th century.

Early Muslim states in India.

In 710–716, troops under the command of the prominent Umayyad military leader Muhammad ibn Qasim captured Sindh and southern Punjab. Those who did not convert to Islam were forced by the new Arab authorities to pay a special poll tax for those of other faiths - jizia, but they were left with freedom in the practice of religious rites and in the sphere of cultural life. Hindus were not required to perform compulsory military service, but if they entered it, they were exempted from the jizya and received the required salary and reward.

Between 1000–1027, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni undertook 17 campaigns in India, penetrating through the Indus Valley into the Gangetic Plain. His empire extended from Samarkand and Isfahan to Lahore, but its western regions were lost to the heirs to the throne in the 11th century. Ghaznavid Punjab, which included the northwestern border regions and Sindh, can be considered the prototype of Pakistan. Numerous Muslim communities that settled in the Indus basin no longer considered these lands as conquered territory - it became their homeland.

The rule of the Ghaznavids turned out to be fragile, and in 1185 the Indus Valley became part of the Ghurid state. This happened under Sultan Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who managed to extend Muslim rule over the entire North-West India, as well as Bengal and Bihar. The successors of Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who was killed in 1206 in Punjab, managed to maintain control over the lands conquered in India. The period after his death until the accession of Babur, who founded the Mughal dynasty in 1526, is known as the time of the Delhi Sultanate. Over the course of more than 300 years, there were 40 sultans belonging to five Muslim dynasties: Gulyamov (1206–1290), Khilji (1290–1320), Tughlakids (1320–1414), Saids (1414–1451) and Lodi (1451–1526) . Administrative posts in the Delhi state were occupied predominantly by Muslims, but Hindus were also involved in public service. To resolve civil cases, Hindus had their own community courts (panchayats).

Islam strengthened its influence in India during this era. Conversion to it was generally done without violence, and Sufis, partly specially trained, took up the preaching of Muslim dogmas in order to bring the light of the new faith to different areas of the subcontinent. Contacts between Hindus and Muslims led to the formation of the Urdu language, which arose on the basis of one of the dialects of Northern India, enriched by Persian vocabulary. Hindi was formed on the same dialect basis, but was influenced by Sanskrit. In the 17th–18th centuries. a modern Urdu literary standard emerged, which used Persian-Arabic graphics and adopted the creative traditions of Persian and Arabic writers and the ideas of Islam; Urdu has emerged as a powerful engine of Muslim culture in South Asia.

Mughal Empire.

This state is known for its achievements in the field of culture, education and art. Created by Babur in 1526, it was consolidated by his grandson Akbar (c. 1556–1605). Akbar pursued a policy of conciliation with the Hindus, and efficient administration forms an important feature of the reign of this emperor. In 1579 the poll tax – jizia – was abolished. Hindu temples were taken under state protection. In 1580, Akbar announced the creation of a new religion - Din-i-illahi (Divine Religion), which was based on the rejection of idolatry and polytheism. The goal was to ensure the loyalty of both Hindus and Muslims, especially government employees. Under Akbar, under the leadership of the Minister of Finance, the Hindu Todar Mal, a system of land taxation was introduced, which subsequently, at the end of the 18th century, was relied upon by the English colonial authorities when developing their policies.

Pakistan during the period of independence before the separation of Bangladesh: 1947–1971.

After independence, Pakistan faced difficulties in forming stable political institutions. From 1947 to 1958, the country had a parliamentary system in accordance with the Government of India Act (1935) and the Declaration of Independence (1947), but without direct elections to the highest legislative body.

The post of Governor General was held by the “father of Pakistan” Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1947–1948), Pakistan Muslim League figures Khwaja Nazimuddin (1948–1951), Ghulam Muhammad (1951–1955) and General Iskander Ali Mirza (1955–1956), who became 1956 president of the country. Pakistan's first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, was assassinated in 1951, and the government was led by PML representative from East Pakistan Khwaja Nazimuddin (1951–1953) and then by another PML member Muhammad Ali Bogra (1953–1955).

In an effort to find funds for the development of the country, the PML government increased taxes and excise taxes in 1948–1950. In 1950–1953, partial agrarian reforms were carried out, which prohibited the collection of traditional feudal taxes and forced labor on landowners, and also reduced rents. The development of private capital was encouraged, but the rate of economic growth remained insufficient to help improve the standard of living of the population. In 1958, a military regime was established headed by General (from 1959 - Field Marshal) Ayub Khan.

The political situation became unstable in the early 1950s. In 1951, a military conspiracy was uncovered. The authorities suppressed the activities of the communists and their supporters, but were unable to contain the growth of opposition sentiments, especially in East Pakistan, where in 1954 the United Front, a coalition of opposition parties (Peasant-Laborers, People's League, etc.), won the provincial elections. In 1955, the leaders of the PML were forced to form a coalition government with the participation of the United Front (UF); it was headed by PML representative Muhammad Ali Chowdhury (1955–1956). After the split of the PF and the PML (the Republican Party emerged from it), a government was formed in 1956 from members of the People's League (Awami League) and the Republican Party; Hussain Shahid Suhrawardy (1956–1957) became prime minister. The intense struggle between factions in the ruling camp caused a series of government crises in 1957–1958; The coalition cabinet of Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar and the government of the Republican Party led by Malik Feroz Khan Noon were in power.

In February 1960, presidential elections were held, in which Ayub Khan won. A commission was created to develop the country's constitution, which was adopted in 1962. Martial law was lifted only in June 1962. In 1965, Ayub Khan was re-elected president of Pakistan through constitutional means. In 1969, martial law was reintroduced in the country, and General Yahya Khan came to power (resigned in 1971).

The partition of British India in 1947 gave rise to violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims and huge flows of refugees: approx. 6.5 million Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and approx. 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved in the opposite direction. Up to 500 thousand people died due to religious clashes and subsequent migrations.

The Kashmir conflict has become an obstacle to normalization of the situation in the subcontinent. Until 1947, there were 584 principalities in British India, which had to decide the issue of joining Muslim Pakistan or Hindu India. In October 1947, the Maharaja of Kashmir, a Hindu by religion, made a choice in favor of India. Armed clashes between the Indian and Pakistani armed forces that began in 1947 continued until the end of 1948, until a ceasefire line was established with the help of the UN. Proposals to hold a referendum among the population of Kashmir on the future of the princely state were not supported by India. In 1965, Pakistani troops resumed hostilities in Kashmir, which were stopped. Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan met in Tashkent in January 1966 and agreed to withdraw their troops to the ceasefire line.

After much debate, the Constituent Assembly in 1949, under the influence of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, approved a resolution stating that “Muslims should be guided in their personal and public lives by the teachings and requirements of Islam as laid down in the Holy Quran and Sunnah.” On February 29, 1956, the Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution, according to which the Federal Islamic Republic of Pakistan was proclaimed on March 23, 1956. The constitution stated that the president of the country must be a Muslim. This article was also preserved in the 1962 constitution, which was in force under Ayub Khan. In this regard, the Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology was formed, and the Institute for the Study of Islam was opened.

The debate over electoral curiae was of serious importance in view of the fact that ca. 20% of the population of East Pakistan were Hindus. In 1950–1952 laws were issued regarding elections to provincial legislatures. It was decided that in the presence of a clear Muslim majority, it would be advisable to identify special electoral groups: Christians and “general” in a number of areas of West Pakistan; and Christians, Buddhists, Scheduled Castes ("untouchables") and "general" in East Pakistan. Each of these groups sent its representatives to the legislative bodies using its own electoral lists. As a result, in the elections in East Pakistan in March 1954, among the 309 deputies there were 72 non-Muslims. Under Ayub Khan (1958–1969), indirect parliamentary elections were held through local governments (the so-called “foundations of democracy” system). At the lower level, there was no separate voting, which practically led to the fact that candidates from non-Muslim communities almost never got into these bodies.

The Ayub Khan administration took measures to accelerate the economic development of Pakistan. The annual growth rate of GNP reached almost 7%. Industrial production grew rapidly. Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged; it was stimulated by measures in the field of industry, trade and taxation. The new agrarian reform (since 1959) limited the size of landownership; surpluses were distributed among the peasants for ransom. The standards of education, justice and law were somewhat closer to modern ones. But economic development was accompanied by the persistence of a harsh authoritarian regime, suppression of the opposition and increasing contradictions between different parts of the country. The latter eventually led to its split.

In the year of the country's independence, West Pakistan included 4 provinces and 10 princely states. The Bengalis insisted that East Pakistan had greater rights to autonomy than the territorial administrative units of West Pakistan and, due to its superior population, should have priority in resolving state issues. To meet such demands, all 14 administrative entities that were part of it were united into one province in West Pakistan. This event took place in October 1955, then an agreement was reached on equal representation of both parts of the country in the national parliament.

East Pakistan had good reasons to express its discontent. Although more than half of the country's total population was concentrated in the province, government funds were directed primarily to West Pakistan, which received the bulk of funds received in aid from abroad. A disproportionate number of East Pakistanis were employed in the government (15%) as well as in the armed forces (17%). The central government clearly patronized the industrialists of West Pakistan in foreign exchange transactions, in issuing import licenses, loans and grants, and in providing permits for the construction of enterprises in the latest industries. Industrial development after 1953 took place largely against the backdrop of economic and military support from the United States, which was focused on protecting West Pakistan from a possible Soviet threat.

In February 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman put forward a six-point program that included: 1) the responsibility of the federal government to a parliament formed on the basis of free and fair elections, 2) limiting the functions of the center to matters of defense and foreign affairs, 3) the introduction of separate currencies (or independent financial accounts) for each of the two provinces while controlling the interprovincial movement of capital, 4) transferring the collection of all types of taxes from the center to the provinces, which support the federal government with their contributions, 5) providing both parts of the country with the opportunity to independently conclude foreign trade agreements and have in this regard their own foreign currency accounts and 6) create their own irregular army in West and East Pakistan.

In East Pakistan there was campaign launched in support of this program, and Mujibur, along with 34 like-minded people, was arrested in 1968 on charges of developing a plan to organize an uprising with the help of India. At the beginning of 1969, a nationwide protest campaign began against the regime of President Ayub Khan. In February, charges against Mujibur and his associates were dropped. Ayub Khan convened Round table for a meeting with opposition leaders, at which Mujibur proposed to develop a new constitution based on the six points listed. Ayub Khan, who resigned on March 25, was replaced by General Yahya Khan, who declared a state of emergency in the country.

Yahya Khan restored the four former provinces in West Pakistan and scheduled the first direct general elections to the national parliament for December 7, 1970. In it, the deputies from East Pakistan were virtually guaranteed a majority thanks to the adopted principle of “one voter, one vote.” The Awami League won 160 of the 162 seats meant for East Pakistan. This landslide victory was achieved as a result of a long campaign for the implementation of Mujibur's program and strong criticism of the central government for insufficient assistance to the victims of the devastating hurricane that hit East Pakistan on November 7, 1970. The Pakistan People's Party (PPP), led by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, received 81 of 138 seats from West Pakistan.

Mujibur announced that the new constitution should be based on his program. In response, Bhutto informed on February 17, 1971 that the PPP would boycott the work of the National Assembly if it did not get the opportunity to discuss constitutional reform. As a result, Yahya Khan postponed the opening of the parliamentary session scheduled for March 3. Awami League said this indicated collusion between the President and the PPP leader.

Mujibur called a general strike in East Pakistan on March 2, and the population took to the streets of Dhaka and other cities in the province. Mujibur called for refraining from paying taxes until power is transferred to the representatives of the people. Yahya Khan expressed his desire to convene a new Round Table for negotiations, but Mujibur rejected this proposal. On March 15, a parallel Awami League government was established in East Pakistan. East Bengal military formations entered into an alliance with Mujibur. On 16 March, Yahya Khan held a meeting in Dhaka on constitutional issues with Mujibur and Bhutto, but failed in his attempt to reach a compromise. On the night of March 25-26, Yahya Khan ordered the army to begin military action in East Pakistan, banned the Awami League and arrested its leader Mujibur.

A full-scale war broke out between the forces of the central government and the rebel forces of the Mukti Bahini, who entered into the struggle to create an independent state of Bangladesh in the place of East Pakistan. Millions of refugees flocked to India. By the summer of 1971, the Pakistani army managed to establish control over the territory of East Pakistan. But India supported the armed rebels, and in November took direct part in the hostilities. The Third India-Pakistan War strained international relations as the USSR supported India's position and the USA and China supported Pakistan's position. On December 16, 1971, Indian troops entered Dhaka, and Pakistani units were forced to capitulate. Bangladesh was declared an independent state. The first president of the new country was Mujibur Rahman.

Pakistan after 1971.

Yahya Khan resigned on December 20, 1971. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto became the President of Pakistan. One of his first steps was to agree with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in Shimla that the Indian army would leave Pakistani territory. Trade and transport links between both countries were also restored. Pakistan's relations with the United States have improved, and Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Libya and Iran have also begun to provide assistance.

Bhutto abolished martial law, and in April 1973 a draft of a new constitution was approved, restoring the parliamentary system of government. The powers of the provinces were expanded. Electoral curiae for religious minorities were revived while maintaining the primacy of Islam. Adhering to the idea of ​​“Islamic socialism,” Bhutto carried out the nationalization of all private banks, educational institutions, insurance companies and heavy industrial enterprises. Agrarian reform led to the transfer of a significant share of cultivated areas to landless tenants. The salaries of those employed in industry, military personnel and officials were increased. Large funds were allocated to improve living conditions in rural areas. All these events, against the backdrop of a fourfold increase in prices for imported oil, were accompanied by a doubling in 1972–1976 of prices for consumer goods in the domestic market, which reduced Bhutto’s popularity in the cities. Bhutto had difficulty interacting with Wali Khan's People's National Party (PNP) and the Jamiat-i Ulama-i Islam Party, which in 1972 formed cabinets in the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan, respectively. In February 1973, Bhutto dismissed these governments, banned the PNP and arrested its leaders.

In March 1977, elections to parliament and provincial legislative assemblies were held. The opposition refused to accept the official results of the vote and organized a protest movement, during which more than 270 people died. On July 5, 1977, the army removed Bhutto, and martial law was established in the country. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq took over the post of Chief Military Administrator, and in 1978 became President of Pakistan. Bhutto was accused of planning the murder of political enemies and was put on trial, which sentenced him to death in 1979.

Zia followed the line of Islamization and sought to bring the country's criminal legislation into line with the norms of traditional Muslim law. Some legal procedures prescribed by Islam in the areas of taxation and banking. In 1979, Zia participated in the meeting of heads of state of the Non-Aligned Movement held in Havana. But friendly relations remained between Pakistan and the United States, which became even closer after the armed intervention of the USSR in the civil war in Afghanistan.

Zia began to gradually create new political structures. In December 1981, the creation of the Federal Advisory Council was announced. On a non-partisan basis, elections were held in the fall of 1983. local authorities management. They were boycotted by opposition forces and there was serious unrest in Sindh. In December 1984, Zia organized a popular referendum that approved the Islamization strategy. In February 1985, elections to parliament and provincial legislative assemblies were held, also on a non-partisan basis, after which Zia decided to form a civilian government. Muhammad Khan Junejo, leader of the Pakistan Muslim League (Pagaro faction), which turned out to be the largest parliamentary group in the National Assembly, was appointed prime minister. In December 1985, Zia abolished martial law and reinstated the 1973 constitution with amendments that expanded the powers of the president, giving him the right to dissolve the government and legislative bodies of the country and provinces. The law on parties, adopted a few months later, allowed them to operate legally, subject to compliance with official regulations. Opposition organizations have stepped up their attacks on the Zia regime, demanding regular elections on time and the restoration of constitutional norms. The most authoritative leader was Benazir Bhutto, who headed the Pakistan People's Party (PPP).

In May 1988, Zia achieved his greatest foreign policy success when Soviet Union began the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan. The security of Pakistan's northeastern borders became noticeably stronger with the withdrawal of the Soviet army from Afghanistan completed in February 1989 and the weakening of the positions of the left.

At the end of May, Zia dismissed Junejo's government and dissolved the National Assembly due to disagreements over control of the armed forces. New elections were scheduled for November 1989.

Democratic regime 1988–1999.

On August 17, 1988, dictator Zia-ul-Haq died in a plane crash. Acting President and Senate Chairman Ghulam Ishaq Khan announced the holding of new general elections. This time political parties were allowed to participate. Elections took place in November and brought victory to the PPP, which received a relative majority of seats in the National Assembly. She also managed to achieve an absolute majority in the Sindh provincial assembly. The Islamic Democratic Alliance coalition led by the PML came in second place, but achieved a relative majority in the parliaments of Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).

In December 1988, PPP leader Benazir Bhutto headed the federal government of Pakistan, which also included some smaller parties and independents. The PPP also headed the governments in Sindh and NWFP. The new regime restored democratic rights and freedoms, lifted the state of emergency, allowed the activities of trade unions and student unions, and released political prisoners. Bhutto's cabinet sought to improve relations with India and the USSR. However, his position remained precarious: the problem of Afghan refugees worsened, the army and the opposition put constant pressure on the government, and bloody clashes broke out between communities and groups in Sindh province. In August 1990, President Ishaq Khan removed Bhutto, dissolved parliament and called new elections. The interim cabinet of opposition representatives was headed by Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, the leader of a splinter group from the PPP. Ishaq Khan strengthened nuclear cooperation with China, which displeased the United States, which announced the suspension of military assistance to Pakistan.

In early elections in October 1990, the IDA won, which managed to almost double the number of mandates in the National Assembly. The PPP was also defeated in the provincial elections. The new government of parties belonging to the IDA was headed by PML leader Nawaz Sharif. Most of the ministers held positions under Zia-ul-Haq. In May 1991, parliament voted to introduce Islamic law based on Sharia. The use of the death penalty was restored.

The government of Nawaz Sharif faced the same difficulties as the Bhutto administration. It tried to strengthen its position by receiving financial assistance from China and carrying out repression against the opposition led by the PPP. But the economic situation remained difficult. Western creditors promised the country assistance in the amount of $2.3 billion, but demanded a reduction in high government spending, primarily military. Bloody clashes continued in Sindh, and pogroms broke out against Indians. The PPP organized a massive campaign of demonstrations in 1992 against the government, which in turn was in crisis. Jamiat-i Islami left the ruling coalition; in the spring of 1993, seven ministers resigned, accusing Nawaz Sharif of corruption and tolerance of terrorists in Sindh. The Prime Minister's attempts to expand his powers at the expense of the President's failed. In April 1993, President Ishaq Khan removed Nawaz Sharif and appointed PML member Sher Mazari in his place, who formed a coalition government with the participation of the PPP. In May, the Supreme Court ordered Nawaz Sharif to be restored to power. Under pressure from the army, the parties compromised: the president and prime minister resigned, and new elections were called. The transition cabinet was headed by the former vice-president of the World Bank Moin Qureshi, the functions of the head of state were assigned to the chairman of the Senate. The Qureshi government, taking advantage of the absence of parliament, carried out a series of neoliberal economic reforms.

The October 1993 elections were held under tight security due to violent clashes. The Muhajir Party boycotted the vote. The PPP managed to overtake Nawaz Sharif's PML in the number of seats in the National Assembly, and also came to power (alone or with allies) in Sindh, Punjab, and in 1994, in the NWFP. B. Bhutto, who also managed to enlist the support of the PML faction led by Junejo, formed the new government of Pakistan. Prominent PPP figure Sardar Farooq Ahmed Leghari was elected as the new president.

B. Bhutto's cabinet pledged, in exchange for a loan from the IMF in the amount of $1.4 billion, to increase economic growth, reduce the state budget deficit and carry out tax reform. Additional taxes were imposed on large landowners. In 1996, the government obtained from Western creditors a promise of assistance for 1997 in the amount of $2.4 billion.

Political and intercommunal tensions in the country grew. The opposition held demonstrations and protest marches against the government (at least 10 people died in October 1994 alone). Yielding to pressure from Islamic fundamentalists, the government introduced Sharia law in the tribal zone. Clashes between Islamists and police constantly broke out in this area. In Karachi, a wave of violence has continuously increased since 1994; In the city, clashes continued between the Muhajirs, paramilitary forces and army-police forces, which resulted in the death of 1,400 people. At the end of 1994 the army was withdrawn from the city. In 1995, more than 2 thousand people died in Karachi, and only in 1996 the police managed to take control of the situation. From time to time there were clashes between Sunnis and Shiites. In the spring of 1996, more than 70 people were killed in bomb explosions in and around Lahore. Cabinet political difficulties

B. Bhutto grew stronger. In 1995, its coalition with PML Junejo in Punjab collapsed. The Jamiat-e Islam movement accused the government of corruption and nepotism; in 1996 it organized strikes and protests throughout the country. New unrest broke out in Sindh after the brother of Prime Minister Murtaza Bhutto, an opposition figure, was killed in a clash with police.

In June 1996, the IMF, dissatisfied with the economic situation of Pakistan, announced the suspension of payment of the next tranches of a loan in the amount of $600 million. In the fall, the Cabinet of Ministers accepted a number of IMF demands, but rising gasoline prices caused mass riots in Islamabad and Rawalpindi. In November 1996, the president removed B. Bhutto, ordered the arrest of her husband and appointed an interim government led by PPP member Malik Meraj Khalid, which cleansed the government apparatus of corrupt officials. The central and provincial parliaments were dissolved and new elections were called.

The elections held in February 1997 brought a complete victory to the PML, which now had an absolute majority of seats in the National Assembly. The PPP won only 18 seats. Having headed the government, Nawaz Sharif promised to revive the economy, limit the power of the president and the military, and resume dialogue with India on Kashmir. He also included representatives of the National Muhajir Movement and the People's National Party in his cabinet.

At the initiative of the government, parliament approved a constitutional amendment in April 1997, which deprived the president of the right to remove the prime minister and dissolve parliament; the appointment of military leadership was henceforth within the competence of the prime minister. In December 1997 Legari resigned. That same month, retired judge Rafik Tarar was elected as the new president.

However, the new cabinet was unable to cope with the difficulties. In the first half of 1997, as a result of clashes between Sunnis and Shiites, bomb explosions, etc. 230 people died. In January 1999, Sunni extremists killed 17 Shiites. Unrest continued in Punjab and among the Muhajirs. In 1998, the parliament in Sindh was dissolved and a military governor was appointed. He began investigating cases of persecution and murder of muhajirs. But already in 1999, Nawaz Sharif again appointed a civilian government he liked in Sindh.

In May 1998, Pakistan conducted atomic tests in response to similar tests in India carried out a month earlier. The United States applied sanctions against both states, which had a particularly sensitive impact on Pakistan. The IMF blocked further loans to the country in the amount of $1.4 billion, and Pakistan found itself on the brink of financial bankruptcy. About 60% of government spending was spent on paying off external debt and on military needs. Only in November 1999 did the United States ease the sanctions, after which the country managed to agree with the IMF on a new assistance program in the amount of $5.5 billion, and with Western creditors on postponing the payment of part of the external debt.

Another political crisis was caused by the government's proposed amendments to the constitution, which declared Sharia as the country's only legal system. Despite protests from the PPP and minorities, the amendments were approved by the National Assembly in 1998.

In April 1999, opposition leader B. Bhutto, who was abroad, and her husband were sentenced to 5 years in prison on charges of corruption. This was perceived primarily as the government's desire to suppress the growing opposition. Back in 1998, the People's National Party left the government. In January 1999, extremists attempted to assassinate Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. After Pakistan, at the insistence of the United States, decided to reduce its military presence in Kashmir, in July 1999, Jamiat-e Islami organized 30,000-strong demonstrations in Lahore, demanding the resignation of the head of government. New protest marches in the fall were sparked by the government's economic policies. The IMF's demands for the introduction of a 15% VAT caused a two-week protest strike, and the authorities had to cancel the collection of this tax from small traders.

The position of the ruling cabinet on the Kashmir issue was criticized by army circles. Nawaz Sharif's relations with them became increasingly tense (in 1998, the prime minister managed to remove the chief General Staff).

On October 12, 1999, Nawaz Sharif announced the removal of General Pervez Musharraf from his post as Chief of the General Staff of the Pakistani Armed Forces. On the same day, the government was overthrown in a bloodless military coup, and Nawaz Sharif was arrested.

Military in power and return to civilian rule.

The military declared a state of emergency in the country, dissolved the federal and provincial parliaments, and suspended the constitution. Power passed to the National Security Council headed by General Musharraf. Civilians entered the government.

The new authorities appointed an anti-corruption bureau, which was supposed to check the behavior of more than 3 thousand prominent politicians and officials. In 2000, Nawaz Sharif was sentenced to life imprisonment on several charges related to treason and attempted murder; on another charge related to corruption, he was sentenced to 14 years of hard labor. The authorities purged the judiciary of opponents of the military coup. They promised to gradually restore civilian rule.

IN economically The new government managed to reach an agreement with some Western creditors on restructuring Pakistan's debt. But the IMF and the World Bank announced that they were suspending all tranches and payments. They demanded that the Pakistani authorities implement tough economic policies, reduce expenses and increase revenues to the state budget. In May 2000, a general strike broke out against the government's economic measures. The military regime agreed with the IMF that it would not insist on cutting the military budget as long as the regime paid off debts, carried out privatizations, raised taxes, etc. As a result of this policy, up to 100 thousand workers were fired by the end of 2001.

Supporters of a return to democratic rule created the Union for the Restoration of Democracy in December 2000. It included activists of the PPP, PML, People's National Party, Republican Fatherland Party, leftist Pakistan Labor Party, etc. In March 2001, the opposition tried to organize protests against the military regime, but they were suppressed.

The balance of political forces changed dramatically after the terrorist attacks in September 2001 in the United States. The American government accused the Taliban regime in Afghanistan of involvement, and General Musharraf supported the US in its efforts to overthrow the Taliban. In exchange, the United States lifted all sanctions imposed on Pakistan after 1998, and the IMF resumed providing loans. Pakistan received significant foreign aid and some of its debts were written off.

The turn in Pakistani politics caused the collapse of the opposition bloc. Islamist and fundamentalist forces called for a nationwide general strike in protest in support of the Taliban and against the government's capitulation "to US imperialism." Jamiat-e Islami leader Qazi Hussain Ahmad called for a “revolution.” On the contrary, the PPP, the Muhajir Party and the People's National Party began to tend to cooperate with the military regime.

Pakistan in the 21st century

In 2002, the Musharraf regime held the parliamentary elections it had promised. The greatest success was achieved by the pro-government faction of the PML and the PPP. B. Bhutto and N. Sharif, who were in exile, were not allowed to participate in the elections, and they accused the authorities of fraud. In October 2002, a civilian government was formed in Pakistan led by Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali. Musharraf remained as President of Pakistan, which he officially assumed in 2001.

On October 6, 2007, presidential elections took place. P. Musharraf was elected president. According to the constitution, only a civilian can be president, and Musharraf continued to serve as commander-in-chief. Therefore, the Supreme Court did not confirm the legitimacy of his presidency. On November 3, 2007, by order of the president, a state of emergency was introduced in the country, which meant the suspension of the constitution. The opposition, led by B. Bhutto, demanded the lifting of the state of emergency.

The chief judge who ruled Musharraf's illegitimacy was fired. The new members of the Supreme Court recognized him as the current president. At the end of November 2007, he left his military post and the next day took the oath as a civilian.

In early September 2008, the co-chairman of the Pakistan People's Party, Asif Ali Zardari, was elected President of Pakistan.

Early presidential elections were called after former President Pervez Musharraf resigned on August 18 under threat of impeachment. According to the Pakistani Constitution, the president is elected by members of the National Assembly and the Senate (the lower and upper houses of parliament), as well as members of the assemblies of all four provinces of the country.

Asif Ali Zardari is the widower of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, who was killed by terrorists in December last year. Representatives of his party and a number of allied parties confidently control the majority in parliament, and Zardari also has great influence in the provincial assemblies.

Immediately after taking office, Zardari announced that they intended to limit presidential powers. In November 2009, he transferred part of the presidential powers to the prime minister.

Because The Taliban are partially located in the north of Pakistan; in May 2008, the United States launched airstrikes on this territory, but as a result of an error, Pakistani soldiers were killed. The country's leadership condemned the US military action, and the incident further complicated tense relations between the two countries.

The country's parliament made a statement that the United States should apologize and also demanded to stop attacks on Pakistan using drones, because airstrikes are contrary to international law and violate Pakistan's sovereignty.
As a result, Pakistan closed ground routes for NATO supplies to Afghanistan through its territory.

In November 2008, terrorist attacks occurred in Mumbai, India. Although the President of Pakistan initially denied that they were preparing on Pakistani territory, in February 2009 the country's leadership admitted this fact, and the militants involved were arrested. However, relations between Pakistan and India remain tense.

In April 2010, Zardari signed amendments to the Constitution regarding presidential powers. According to these amendments, the president does not have the right to dismiss the prime minister, dissolve parliament, independently appoint military leadership, or declare a state of emergency. Control over nuclear weapons has a prime minister.

On May 11, 2013, elections to the country's parliament, the National Assembly, took place. This is the first peaceful transfer of power through a vote. The Muslim League party (leader Nawaz Sharif) received the majority of votes (166 out of 342), followed by the Justice Movement (leader Imran Khan) in second place. Third place went to the Pakistan People's Party (co-chairs Bilawal Zardari and Asif Ali Zardari). The country's parliament elected Nawaz Sharif as prime minister.

(mid 19th – 80s of the 20th century.). M., 1998



Punjabi. Pashto. Urdu The name "Urdu" is related to the word "horde" and means "army" or "army". Its roots are in the Hindustani dialect, which since the time of the Great Mughals has absorbed Persian, Arabic, Turkic vocabulary and even Sanskrit. Urdu is identical to Hindi and legal differences arose only in 1881, when the delimitation was influenced by religious aspects. Adherents of Hinduism began to speak Hindi, and Muslims began to speak Urdu. The former preferred to use the Devanagari alphabet for writing, while the latter preferred to use the Arabic alphabet. By the way, the second state language of Pakistan significantly influenced modern Urdu and many borrowings from English appeared in it. About 60 million people in the world speak Urdu or consider it their native language, the majority of whom live in India. In Pakistan, this language is a compulsory school subject and is used by official bodies and administrative institutions. The global importance of Urdu, as the language of a large part of the Islamic population, is very high. This is confirmed by the duplication in the official language of Pakistan of most of the signs in Mecca and Medina - sacred places of pilgrimage for Muslims around the world. Source: https://www.votpusk.ru/story/article.asp?ID=15905#ixzz4Oa6OlKbs

Pakistan is a federal state (Article 1) which consists of the provinces of Budejistan, Punjab, Sindh and the North West Frontier Province and the Central Tribal Areas (UTSTP) and the capital (federal district) Islamabad. Under Pakistani control, the so-called Northern Territories and the Republic of Azad Kashmir (Free Kashmir)

The system of government in the provinces of Pakistan is largely copied from the federal system.

The head of the executive branch of the province is the governor, appointed by the president. The Governor is the governing body of the province (Article 101). The Governor convenes a session of the Provincial Legislative Assembly; appoints members of the government; has the right to suspend the veto in relation to all legislative acts, except financial ones; during the period between meetings of the Assembly, issue decrees with legal force; has the right to dissolve the legislator and form a provisional government.

Legislature - A provincial legislature elected for a five-year term, the provincial population at the polls usually coincides with the time of parliamentary elections.

Members are formed by the government; He is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly. The Governor appoints a deputy to the position of Chief Minister, who he deems in charge of the majority of the members of the Provincial Assembly. When the chief minister loses this confidence, the governor sends him into retirement. The members of the Cabinet are appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Chief Minister.

There is a division of responsibilities between the center and the provinces.

Responsibilities of the central government: defence, armed forces, intelligence, foreign policy, strategic industrial projects, citizenship, financial sector, energy (including nuclear), fisheries and other matters (Schedule 4 of the Constitution).

Common center of competence and provinces: criminal law, civil litigation, property matters (except for certain types of land), social security, ecological problems, trade unions and labor disputes, inland waterway navigation, electricity generation and others.

The regions' competencies include issues such as water, local roads, local infrastructure, basic education, etc.

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  • Pakistan before independence
  • Modern history of Pakistan
  • Constitutional foundations, features of the form of government
  • Separation and interaction of various branches of government
  • Characteristics of the Executive Branch
  • Heads of state (presidents) in 1971-2012.
  • Heads of government (prime ministers) in 1973-2012
  • Characteristics of the Legislative Branch
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  • Territorial-state structure
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  • Official ideology, ideological differences and conflicts
  • Religion and the state, the role of religion in politics
  • Features of the party system
  • Representation of political parties after the 2008 elections
  • Political role of the military/security forces
  • Non-governmental organizations, social components political system, interest groups and influence groups
  • Position and role of the media
  • Gender equality/inequality
  • National economy in the context of the global economy
  • Main indicators of the economy in 1990-2008.
  • Sources of influence on international environment and international processes
  • Weight in global economy in 1990-2008
  • Military expenditures 1990-2008
  • Participation in international organizations and regimes, main external partners and partners, relations with Russia
  • External and internal threat to state security
  • Pakistan's position in the Corruption Perceptions Index for the period 1995-2009
  • Placement of the country's territory in an area of ​​increased risk of natural disasters
  • Economic threats
  • Threats to human security

Geology of the field
Reproduced in the original spelling of the 1932 edition...

Islamabad

Islamabad

PAKISTAN Islamic Republic of Pakistan Area: 803.9 thousand km2. Population: 137 million people (1997). Official language: Urdu. Capital: Islamabad (201 thousand inhabitants, 1997). Public holiday: Independence Day (August 14, since 1947). Currency unit: Pakistani rupee. Member of the UN since 1948, OIC, etc. Pakistan (“Land of the Pure”) appeared on the world map in 1947.

After the partition of colonial India. Located in South Asia. It borders on Iran in the west, Afghanistan in the northwest, China in the north, and India in the east and northeast. In the south it is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea. The population of Pakistan consists of Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns and Balochis, as well as refugees from India, called Muhajirs in Pakistan.

Each of these national communities is in turn divided into smaller ones national communities. A significant part of the wealthy elite of the main nationalities actually formed a single all-Pakistan elite. In addition to those already mentioned, the country is also home to Zwans, Gujaratis, Dravidians, Kashmiris, Kohistanis, Persians, Sikhs, as well as Pashtun tribes, which consider belonging to a tribe to be primary compared to belonging to a nationality.

No matter how great was the power of Muslims over the local population, mainly Hindus, in terms of their numbers, Hindus always remained the overwhelming majority. When the British ruled India, Hindus and Muslims were on equal footing as subjects of the British crown. However, when the question arose about the departure of the British and granting India independence, the problem of the compatibility of two religious communities and their cohabitation in one state suddenly became extremely acute.

Both the British and the Indians supported the idea of ​​preserving the unity of India for various reasons. M. A. Jinnah, who led the Muslim party - the Muslim League, developed the so-called “two-nation theory”, according to which Muslims and Hindus are two separate nations with different cultures, traditions and worldviews.

At the session of the Muslim League in Lahore in 1940, a resolution prepared by him was adopted demanding the creation of two independent Muslim states in the northern part of British India: one in the north-west (its borders were to include Punjab, Sindh, North-West Frontier province, Baluchistan and also Kashmir); the other is in the northeast (including Bengal and Assam).

In 1946, at a conference of Muslim parliamentarians, a resolution was adopted on the creation of a single independent state of Muslims in South Asia - Pakistan.

In 1947, two dominions arose on the site of British India - the Indian Union and Pakistan. Until 1971, Pakistan included East Bengal, but after the Indian-Pakistani war, its eastern province was replaced by independent state Bangladesh. Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan, where state and government institutions are located - parliament, presidential palace, government secretariat, ministries and departments, diplomatic missions. A major center of science and education: a university, institutes of nuclear science and technology, economic development, strategic research, etc. are concentrated here.

The city was built in 1960 - 1970. near the city of Rawalpindi. Nearby is the international airport. Karachi (the capital of Pakistan in 1947 - 1959) is the largest city in the country, the main trade, economic and financial center, the sea gate, and the administrative center of the Sindh province. Originated at the beginning of the 18th century. on the site of a fishing village. Located in the Indus River delta on the coast of the Arabian Sea.

Karachi has the largest commercial banks, central offices and branches of insurance companies, stock and cotton exchanges. The international airport serves the world's largest airlines. There is also a naval base, one of the main universities, colleges and research institutions. Approximately 40% of all industrial production is concentrated in the suburbs of Karachi

Pakistan State of South Asia capital Islamabad

Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan. Peshawar is the capital of the northwestern regions of Pakistan bordering Afghanistan.

Islamabad

Islamabad

islambad

story

Geographically, Pakistan and India are close to the Hindustani Peninsula. However, religious differences and territorial disputes make it extremely difficult for countries to transfer their neighborhoods. If in India most people pronounce Hinduism, then in the region of modern Pakistan in VII. Centuries began to spread Islam.

The state of Pakistan was founded in 1947 under a division of British India. The colonial territory, populated mainly by Muslims, was divided into two countries - West and East Pakistan. In 1971, after short war, he won with the help of India, the situation in Bangladesh arose in East Pakistan.

When the territories were divided, the official undivided region of Kashmir remained, and the bone still remains between India and Pakistan. However, it is not only external factors that undermine political stability. The country is dominated by competitive family clans; Sometimes an army is captured. The last strike occurred in 1999. General Pervez Musharraf, who took power, resigned on August 18, 2008, when he lost support from military and foreign allies, especially the United States.

He was elected President of Pakistan by Asif Zardari, the man killed on the eve of the resignation of Musharraf, leader of Benazir Bhutto's Pakistan People's Party.

Autonomous country

Those who want to visit Pakistan should prepare for drastic climate change.

The northern tower, covered in snow and ice, has magnificent peaks of 8,000 m, the southern Arabian Sea stretches about 60,000 km2 of marshland, and the Baluchistan Desert is considered the driest place on Earth.

The center of Pakistani life is the Punjab Lagoon, watered by the Indus and its five tributaries. More than half of Pakistan's population lives here in the great fertile valley. It is not only the main granary of the state, but also the main region of industrial production. In the west, on the border with Afghanistan, time seemed frozen. The people here, as they did thousands of years ago, live in communities that emphasize their independence from the central government in Islamabad.

This is especially noticeable in the Swat Valley in the northwest of the country. When the area, which has unique monuments from the pre-Islamic era, which unusually combines Hellenistic and Buddhist traditions, was the main attraction of Pakistan. Today it is completely under the control of Taliban fundamentalists. Show here that there is no danger not only of tourists, but also of government officials and historical and cultural monuments being subjected to barbaric destruction.

In February 2009, Islamic law was introduced in the valley in agreement with the authorities of the northwestern province.

general information

Official name: Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
Administrative divisions: four autonomous provinces (Punjab, Sindh, North Western Province and Balochistan) and the Federal Capital Territory of Islamabad.

Form of government: Federal Republic.

Borders: with Iran, Afghanistan, China and India.
Capital: Islamabad (since 1961, population about 800 thousand inhabitants).

Languages: Urdu (official), Hindi and English.

Currency: Pakistani rupee.

Religions: Islam (97%), Christianity, Hinduism.

The most big cities- Karachi (11 million inhabitants), Lahore (5.5 million inhabitants).

The most important rivers are the Indus and its tributaries.

figures

Area: 803,946 km2.

Population: 172.8 million people.
Population density: 202 people.

Highest point: Mount Chogor (K-2) - 8611 m, this is the second highest mountain on Earth; almost 40 peaks above 7000 m.

economy

Agriculture: Growing rice, corn and cotton.
Animal husbandry.
Minerals: coal, copper.
Pakistan is forced to import the most important species raw materials.
Industry: chemical and textile industries, machinery, automobiles.

Attractions

■ Punjab ( historical capital Lahore, with the famous gardens and Badshahi Mosque).
■ City of Multan (Palace of Islam).
Deserts in Baluchistan.
■ In the southern province of Sindh, the city of Karachi and the Thar Desert.

Unusual facts

■ Almost half of the Pakistani population is under 15 years of age.
■ All new laws in Pakistan are checked against the Quran.
■ The word “Pakistan” means “land of purity” and consists of individual letters that are present in the names of four provinces.

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Full name Islamic Republic of Pakistan Region Central Asia Form of government Republic Capital Islamabad Area, km 234 in the world 803,940 Population, people 6 in the world 170,532,000 forecast

If the current rate of population growth continues, the population of Pakistan will be:

in 2020 - 199 082 372 people
in 2030 - 232 412 632 people

in 2050 - 316 747 776 people
in 2075 - 466 423 989 people

in 2100 - 686 828 303 people

Population growth, per year74 in the world 1,56% 2,660,299 people Average duration
life, years 63.8 (men 62.7, women 64.8)136 in the world
(131 - men, 140 - women) Population density, people/km 237 in the world 212.12 Official languages ​​Urdu, English Currency Pakistani rupee International dialing code 92 Internet zone.pk Time zone What time is it?

19:54 (04.07) The site does not track daylight saving time, so the data provided may not be accurate

UTC+5International organizations that include PakistanCommonwealth of NationsBorders by land Afghanistan, India, IranAccess to seas and oceansArabian Sea

Pakistan is a state in the center of Asia, washed from the south by the Arabian Sea of ​​the Indian Ocean.

The name "Pakistan" was first coined in the 20th century as an acronym for the names of the provinces: P Punjabi, A fganiya, TO Ashmir, AND wounds, WITH ind, T okharistan, A Afghanistan, Balochista N).

The resulting acronym can also be translated as “the land of the pure (impeccable),” since “pak” means “pure” in Persian.

Pakistan is a multinational state. In addition, the peoples living here strive for religious, tribal and territorial isolation, which gives rise to a huge number of dialects, many of which can be considered independent languages. And yet, seven main ones can be identified when answering the question of what is the main language in Pakistan.

Urdu

Urdu is not the mother tongue of most people in Pakistan. No more than 8% of the population considers him this way. However, it is official in Pakistan and serves. It is taught in schools throughout the country, and national media are required to broadcast in this language. Therefore, all Pakistanis at least understand it. Sometimes this situation becomes funny and sad. For example, it is not uncommon for a Pashtun to be able to write Urdu, but is illiterate in his native language environment.

Urdu is the "twin" of official Hindi. Moreover, many linguists consider Urdu and Hindi to be the same language. It’s just that the “language of the High City” (that’s how the name “Urdu” is translated; the High City is, by the way, Delhi) was once divided along religious lines. Native Muslim speakers began to use the Arabic alphabet, while Hindus remained in Devanagari Sanskrit (image below).

The division of the British colonies in this region along religious lines led to the fact that Urdu and Hindi became even more isolated, becoming the official languages ​​of the conflicting states. More Persian and Arabic words, and in Hindi, on the contrary, it has decreased. Although speakers of these two languages ​​understand each other without problems.

Urdu is very famous for its Nastaq graphics. This Persian-influenced calligraphic style transformed Arabic characters into shorter ones and the word was no longer a purely vertical line. The letters in the nastalka seem to penetrate each other, together forming an outwardly beautiful graphic combination: the word looks like some kind of symbol.

Because of this, for a long time books in Pakistan were partly handwritten. Typographic typing of such words was impossible. The book was written by hand, and then lithographs from handwritten sheets were sent to the printing press. Only the introduction of computer typing eliminated this problem. However, it is not relevant. In official printed publications, standard Arabic naskh is used, and nastalk has acquired a more decorative character. The Pakistani public is concerned about the replacement with Latin ones. The younger generation is especially guilty of this. The main reasons: computers and mobile devices are not very suitable for Arabic graphics.

In linguistic terms, Urdu is a typical Indo-Iranian language. And yet, let’s name its features: a “reverent” attitude towards pronouns - here they manage to be divided into nouns, adjectives and numerals, and directly saying “This is not me” in language is “forbidden”. You have to say something like "Someone." Urdu uses postpositions that are not very popular throughout the linguistic world. These are the same prepositions, but after the word.

English

We won't talk much about him. It is not native to any of the peoples of Pakistan. However, during the era of English rule it spread, serving as a language of international communication. It retains this function even now, being the second official language of Pakistan, although it is noticeably inferior in popularity. Therefore, it is quite possible that the country will abandon it completely.

Punjabi (Punjabi)

The most widely spoken language of Pakistan. In the eastern part of the country, eight out of ten Pakistanis speak it (that's somewhere around 76 million people). IN percentage this is 44 percent of all Pakistani languages. It is very similar to Urdu because it is related to it.

Pashto

A significant portion of Pakistan's population is Pashtun, making their language the second most spoken language (15%). The trouble with Pashto is that each tribe strives to speak in a special way, emphasizing its “self.” The huge number of dialects even makes linguists doubt the existence of a single Pashto language, which, despite being related to Urdu, acquired its own special letters in the alphabet. Even in writing, the Pashtuns tried to stand out: they invented the Tahriri calligraphic style. Simplified, but unique.

Sindhi

The language of the Indian Sindhi people. There are quite a few of them living in Pakistan, which gives the language 14% in terms of prevalence. Sindhi, like Urdu, was divided along religious lines between India and Pakistan with the same consequences. True, so far it is called both there and there the same way. Among the “eccentricities” of Sindhi, we note the absence of neuter gender and direct third-person pronouns. However, Sindhis, like all peoples of the country, are at least bilingual. They also speak English.

Shiraiki

The language of the Siraiki people living in northeastern Pakistan. There are also a lot of Siraiks (or southern Punjabis, that is, Muslim Punjabis) - almost 11% of the linguistic share of languages. The language is also divided between India and Pakistan. The Siraikis write in Arabic, and the northern Punjabis in Indian Punjab use the Hindu Gurmukhi alphabet.

Balochi

The last among the popular (4%) languages ​​of Pakistan is the language of the Iranian Baloch people. Distributed in the southwest of the country, naturally, in the province of Balochistan. This language is Iranian and therefore stands apart from other languages ​​of Pakistan. For other peoples, there are no special problems in interethnic communication due to linguistic relatedness. After all, there is also Urdu and English.

The Islamic Republic of Pakistan appeared on the world map in 1947 after the partition of British India. A fairly small state in area, more than 200 million people consider it their home, and this is the sixth highest figure among countries in the world. The British colonial past left its mark on the history of the Islamic republic and the official language of Pakistan, in addition to the national Urdu, is English.

Some statistics and facts

• Despite the state status of Urdu, less than 8% of Pakistanis consider it their native language.
• First place among prevalence national languages and dialects in the country is Punjabi. Almost 45% of residents speak it regularly. Second place for Pashto – 15.5%.
• The state language of Pakistan, Urdu, arose in the 13th century and is related to Hindi. It refers to Indo-European group. Also widespread in neighboring India, Urdu has the status of one of its 22 official languages. In India, up to 50 million people speak it.

Urdu: history and features

The name "Urdu" is related to the word "horde" and means "army" or "army". Its roots are in the Hindustani dialect, which since the time of the Great Mughals has absorbed Persian, Arabic, Turkic vocabulary and even Sanskrit.
Urdu is identical to Hindi and legal differences arose only in 1881, when the delimitation was influenced by religious aspects. Adherents of Hinduism began to speak Hindi, and Muslims began to speak Urdu. The former preferred to use the Devanagari alphabet for writing, while the latter preferred to use the Arabic alphabet.
By the way, the second state language of Pakistan significantly influenced modern Urdu and many borrowings from English appeared in it.
About 60 million people in the world speak Urdu or consider it their native language, the majority of whom live in India. In Pakistan, this language is a compulsory school subject and is used by official bodies and administrative institutions.
The global importance of Urdu, as the language of a large part of the Islamic population, is very high. This is confirmed by the duplication in the official language of Pakistan of most of the signs in Mecca and Medina - sacred places of pilgrimage for Muslims around the world.

Note to tourists

Thanks to the official status of English, tourists in Pakistan usually do not have communication problems. All maps, restaurant menus, traffic patterns and stops public transport have a translation into English. It is owned by taxi drivers, waiters, hotel workers and the vast majority of ordinary residents of the country.