How did natural and climatic conditions determine in ancient times the peculiarities of the development of economic life and the direction of socio-political ones? Great encyclopedia of oil and gas

geographical climate agriculture history

L.V. was one of the last to focus on this problem. Milov. In his opinion, in central Russia, which formed the historical core of the Russian state (after its movement from Kyiv to North-Eastern Rus'), with all the fluctuations in climate, the cycle of agricultural work was unusually short, taking only 125-130 working days.

East European Plain: the climate is sharply continental, harsh. And the soil is unfavorable - only 3% chernozem, mostly clay and other infertile soils. Soloviev said that Russian nature became a stepmother for the Russian man. What's wrong with that? Firstly, the soil quality is very poor. However, soil quality is not the most important thing. Most of us have summer cottages; we don’t like to go there. However, the yield depends not so much on the quality of the soil, but on the quality of cultivation.

The Russian people did not have time for high-quality processing. Because the agricultural year lasted on average 135 -147 days a year. From the 12th to the 18th centuries, Europe experienced the so-called Little Ice Age. The average monthly temperature was minus 37 degrees (in Moscow).

In the feudal era, the agricultural year was 140 days a year. Therefore, it was necessary to hurry, which led to a change, to a unique structure of the economy. They grew only the essentials. Therefore, cereal growing becomes the main one. Those. crops were grown that are drought-resistant and do not require care.

Vegetable gardening was not practiced. They planted only what would grow on its own: turnips, rutabaga, peas.

Cities have always been surrounded by gardens (dachas). In the summer, the townspeople were gardeners - they took care of their own food. This influenced the nature of the craft. In Rus', a gardener is a gardener in summer and a craftsman in winter.

For at least four centuries, the Russian peasant was in a situation where poor soils required careful cultivation, and he simply did not have enough time for it, as well as for preparing feed for livestock. Using primitive tools, the peasant could cultivate his arable land with only minimal intensity, and his life most often directly depended only on the fertility of the soil and the vagaries of the weather.

In reality, given the working time budget, the quality of his farming was such that he could not always return even seeds to the harvest. In practice, this meant for the peasant the inevitability of labor without sleep or rest, day and night, using all the family’s reserves. Neither in the Middle Ages nor in modern times did the peasant in Western Europe require such effort, because the work season there was much longer. The break in field work in some countries was surprisingly short (December-January). Of course, this provided a much more favorable rhythm of work. And the arable land could have been processed much more thoroughly (4-6 times). This is the fundamental difference between Russia and the West, which can be traced over centuries.

Low yields and the dependence of labor results on weather conditions have determined the extreme stability of community institutions in Russia, which are a certain social guarantor of the survival of the bulk of the population. Land redistributions and leveling, various kinds of peasant “help” were preserved in Russia until 1917. Communal egalitarian traditions were preserved after the First World War; they existed in the 20s until collectivization.

For three months of the year he was a peasant, and the rest of the time he was a craftsman. Hence the quality and character of the craft. Trade was varied. Shops appeared only at the end of the 18th century. Those. Before that, merchants went around, exchanged, and carried around. Therefore, each handicraft product was made for an abstract consumer.

In Europe, if you make a bad, low-quality product, you will disgrace your workshop and brand.

The natural and climatic factor also influenced the unprofitability of livestock farming. Spring begins, there is nothing to sow on, the peasant harnesses himself. Agriculture provided a low surplus product. That is, there was a low standard of living.

This gave rise to a peculiarity of the state structure. How does the state live? Due to taxes. If there is no surplus product, it means that taxes are difficult to take, which means there must be a strong state, which is why there was a despotic state in Rus'.

The social structure is changing. There is no surplus product, therefore, society cannot support the intelligentsia. However, there are needs in healthcare, art, and science. And since there is no intelligentsia, then these functions are performed by religion.

Therefore, in Russia, until the surplus product began to grow, there was no intelligentsia, no secular literature, no music. Russian culture until the 18th century had a religious character.

The natural and climatic factor also influenced the social structure. The countries of the first echelon left primitiveness by the 11th century, the community was eliminated, and individual farming came. In Russia, the communal system survived until the 20th century. Even Stolypin's reform could not change anything. In other words, there was a community organization in Russia. In these difficult conditions, the efforts of our reformers aimed at creating farms did not lead to anything.

Also, the natural and climatic factor influenced psychology - a community psychology is emerging in Russia. So in Russian history there is blat. This is from the times of Kievan Rus. Everyone struggled with this. There is fuel for this phenomenon - community psychology. Griboyedov expressed this well in “Woe from Wit.”

Another consequence of communal psychology is egalitarianism. She has always been there. Equalization is a lever for the self-preservation of communities. A community breaks down if a neighbor gets rich.

Since Russian people were dependent on nature and weather (it was possible to work on arable land from morning to evening, but early drought or frost could ruin all the work). That's why people believed in miracles. Belief in miracles was also manifested in folklore. All Russian fairy tale characters miraculously received the joys of life. This hope for a miracle is, in general, characteristic of the Russian character, hence the unique words that cannot be translated into other languages: perhaps, I suppose.

The natural and climatic factor largely determined the characteristics of the national character of Russians. First of all, we are talking about the Russian person’s ability to exert extreme effort, to concentrate all his physical and spiritual potential for a relatively long period of time. At the same time, the eternal lack of time, the lack of correlation for centuries between the quality of agricultural work and the yield of grain, did not develop in him a pronounced habit of thoroughness, accuracy in work, etc.

The extensive nature of agriculture, its riskiness played a significant role in the development in Russian people of ease to change places, the eternal craving for the “sub-heaven land”, for white water, etc., to which Russia owes not least its vast territory, and at the same time time increased in him a craving for traditionalism and the rooting of habits. On the other hand, difficult working conditions, the strength of community traditions, and the internal feeling of the danger of pauperization threatening society gave rise to the development in Russian people of a sense of kindness, collectivism, and readiness to help. We can say that the Russian patriarchal peasantry, not in economics, but in its mentality, did not accept capitalism.

The following geopolitical conditions are usually noted that influenced the specifics of Russian history: a vast, sparsely populated territory, a border unprotected by natural barriers, isolation (throughout almost the entire history) from the seas (and, accordingly, from maritime trade), a river network conducive to the territorial unity of the historical core of Russia, the intermediate position of Russian territories between Europe and Asia.

The weak population of the lands of the East European Plain and Siberia, which became the object of the efforts of the Russian people, had multiple consequences for its history. Extensive land reserves provided favorable conditions for the outflow of the agricultural population from the historical center of Russia. This circumstance forced the state to strengthen control over the personality of the farmer (so as not to lose sources of income). The more in the course of historical development the needs of the state and society for surplus product increased, the more stringent control became, leading in the 17th century to the enslavement of a significant mass of the Russian peasantry.

On the other hand, due to the weak population of the country, the Russians in the process of colonization did not need to win for themselves a “place in the sun” in the fight against the indigenous peoples of Central Russia (Finno-Ugrians) and Siberia: there was enough land for everyone. “The Slavic tribes spread over vast areas, along the banks of large rivers; when moving from south to north, they were supposed to meet Finnish tribes, but no legends have been preserved about hostile clashes between them: it can easily be assumed that the tribes did not quarrel very much over the land, of which there was so much and on which it was possible to settle so widely without offense each other".

The historical existence of the Russian people was extremely complicated by such a factor as the natural openness of the borders of Russian lands to foreign invasions from the West and East. Russian territories were not protected by natural barriers: they were not protected by either seas or mountain ranges. Naturally, this circumstance was used by neighboring peoples and states: Catholic Poland, Sweden, Germany (Livonian and Teutonic knightly orders in the Baltics, Germany in World Wars 1 and 2) and even France (under Napoleon I), on the one hand, the nomads of the Great Steppe , with another.

The constant threat of military invasions and the openness of border lines required colossal efforts from the Russian and other peoples of Russia to ensure their security: significant material costs, human resources (and this despite a small and sparse population). Moreover, security interests required the concentration of popular efforts: as a result, the role of the state had to increase enormously. Its location between Europe and Asia made Rus' open to influence from both the West and the East. Until the 13th century, development proceeded similarly and parallel to the European one. However, the active invasion of the West with the aim of seizing lands and introducing Catholicism, which occurred simultaneously with the Tatar-Mongol invasion, forced Rus' to turn towards the East, which seemed to be a lesser evil.

Asian despotism as a form of government in the society of the emerging Moscow principality was determined by external, military circumstances, as well as internal, natural-geographical and socio-political factors. Therefore, when choosing forms of government, such democratic options as the Novgorod Republic or a representative monarchy with Zemsky Councils were discarded in favor of autocracy.

In addition to the unfavorable ones, there were also geopolitical factors favorable for the historical development of Russia. The first of them is the specificity of the river network of the East European Plain, which the Greek historian Herodotus drew attention to: “Apart from the many huge rivers, there is nothing else of interest in this country.”

In fact, Solovyov echoes him, the vast space of ancient Scythia corresponds to gigantic systems of rivers, which almost intertwine with each other, thus forming a water network throughout the country, from which it was difficult for the population to free themselves for a special life; as everywhere, here too, rivers served as guides for the first population: tribes settled along them, and the first cities appeared on them. Since the largest of them flow to the east or southeast, this determined the preferential spread of the Russian state region in this direction; The rivers greatly contributed to the unity of the people and the state, and with all this, special river systems initially determined the special systems of regions and principalities. Thus, the river network united the country both politically and economically.

Another factor favorable for the history of Russia is that a significant part of the “Great Silk Road” from China to Europe passed through its territory. This circumstance created an objective interest of many countries and peoples in maintaining political stability along this great highway of antiquity, i.e. in the existence of the Eurasian Empire: first, the state of Genghis Khan became such an empire, then Russia.

The influence of natural and climatic conditions on architectural and planning solutions of residential buildings

Architectural and planning solutions for residential buildings should provide not only comfortable, but also healthy conditions for human life.

Sanitary requirements that are suitable in one climate may be completely unacceptable for other climatic regions, therefore, when designing buildings in general, and especially residential ones, the climatic features of the area should be carefully taken into account, using the positive aspects of its natural conditions and overcoming the negative ones.

Climatic zoning:

Region I – the coldest

Ural, Northern, Central and Eastern Siberia, Far East;

Region II – moderate

It includes the territory of the European part;

III region – warm;

IV region – hot

south-eastern coast of the Black Sea, Transcaucasia.

Construction organization must take into account climatic conditions, which are divided into four climatic regions (I, II, III and IV).Climatic regions have subregions A, B, C, D. On the territory of the Russian Federation (RF) there are I, II and III climatic regions, IV climatic region is located in Transcaucasia, Crimea and Central Asia (Table 1). Climatic regions located from north to south approximately: I- up to 70° north latitude, II- up to 60°, III- up to 45°, IV - below 45°.

Table 1. Climatic regions

“Natural and climatic factors and man-made phenomena”

swampy seismic

floodability vibration

ravines mined areas

karst landslides and screes

erosion of banks, watercourses, avalanches

and reservoirs mudflowed

These 4 climatic regions include 16 microclimatic subregions. In accordance with this zoning, the material and thickness of the fence, the depth of the foundation are assigned, structures are calculated based on wind and snow loads, and the space-planning structure is determined.

The leading climate factors are radiation-temperature conditions (INSOLATION). Insolation conditions depend on the orientation of the apartment windows to the sides of the horizon, the types of house layout, and the distance between buildings.

In relation to the cardinal directions, buildings can occupy 3 main positions:

meridional - the building with its longitudinal axis parallel to the north-south direction;

latitudinal - this axis is parallel to the “west-east” direction;

diagonal - the longitudinal axis is directed at an angle to the main directions.

Construction of buildings in special conditions.

*In northern conditions and permafrost soils.

Special construction conditions:

the duration of the winter period is 200÷305 days, with low negative temperatures;

permafrost condition of soils;

strong winds;

little development of the territory;

poor development of the construction industry;

nature of seismicity.

All this raises additional requirements for constructed buildings and structures:

planning of buildings - arrangement of a snow protection front (Fig. a), through transfer of snow (Fig. b), giving buildings a streamlined shape (Fig. c):

space-planning solutions – buildings of a simple rectangular shape without a difference in height; facades without niches, belts and other elements that retain precipitation; emergency exits in the walls are parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds; double vestibules with 3 doors; internal – heated; the coverings are flat, the external drainage is unorganized.

constructive measures - it is necessary to keep the soil in a frozen state. They use ventilated undergrounds, cooling devices, surface and buried boxes, pipes, and channels. The height of the underground under the condition of free transfer of snow under the building is at least 1 m.

The external walls are insulated, the quality of the joints is high. Windows - double-glazed windows, vent areas and transoms are sealed with elastic gaskets and tension devices.

Pneumatic structures are effective due to their lightness, compactness and speed of construction (temporary, production, warehouse, garages, etc.).

* In the southern regions of Russia.

They are characterized by high air temperatures in summer, sharp temperature fluctuations throughout the day, winds, sand and dust storms.

Protective measures are of a planning, constructive and organizational nature.

PLANNING: it is better to choose a higher place with air flow, on the northern and southern slopes, least exposed to solar radiation. The orientation of the apartments, orientation sectors, cross ventilation, more green spaces are taken into account, but not too dense, because... interfere with ventilation. Low structures on the windward side, then high ones. Reservoirs, ponds, fountains, frequent watering. Pedestrian paths are protected by green spaces.

STRUCTURAL: foundations with shallow depth, walls with high heat resistance in air gaps ventilated by air. The outer surface of the walls is painted in cool light colors that reflect solar radiation; inside too. In areas with a hot and dry climate, the area of the side light openings is reduced and they are arranged on top. They are filled with special heat-protective or light-diffusing glass, double-glazed windows, and fiberglass. Coverings - insulated with ventilated air layers, a protective layer of mica chips, light-colored roofing.

"Organizational events"

Sun protection devices are effective means of combating overheating; they can be permanent or temporary, in configuration - horizontal, inclined, combined (screens, canopies, boxes, loggias, awnings, fast-growing climbing plants).

* In seismic areas (15% S Russia)

Seismicity is assessed on a 12-point scale, in Russia the maximum is 8 points.

All seismic areas have large reserves of minerals and therefore construction problems there are very relevant.

Principles of design, earthquake-resistant buildings and structures:

reducing the weight of structures;

selection of a structural system with optimal rigidity;

ensuring solidity, etc.;

use of high-strength and reliable materials, high quality of construction and installation work;

areas with calm topography are selected;

low-rise buildings are preferred;

the shape of the building in plan is more developed than at height;

anti-seismic joints in the form of a paired row of columns in frame buildings or walls in frameless buildings.

The walls have floor-by-floor anti-seismic belts made of monolithic reinforced concrete, reinforcement in places between floors. In building panels, the seams are filled with elastic linings. The staircases up to the 5th floor are ordinary, and above there is a monolithic rigidity core. Strengthening a brick wall with reinforcement or introducing reinforced concrete sections with insulation.

*In mining areas

These are the areas under which underground mining of coal or other minerals is being conducted or planned.

They are characterized by:

subsidence;

deflections;

bends;

horizontal displacements and other deformations causing significant damage or destruction of buildings or structures located on them.

Strength, stability, and operational reliability are ensured by special measures:

reduction of foundation deformations by mining measures - full or partial backfilling of mined-out space with material delivered from outside, incomplete extraction of minerals, leaving safety locks of the required size, etc.

planning – a small area of the building, without projections and extensions; Long buildings are divided into compartments, which reduces the effort on the structure. Expansion joints in foundations; walls are the same as in seismic areas. High-quality connection of elements in frame buildings (welding of embedded parts, connection of reinforcement loops, embedding of seams, Ø of the reinforcement used is 4 – 6 mm); Long floors are made with expansion joints every 6 m.

Natural and climatic conditions. The main natural and climatic factors are climate, landscape and engineering and geological conditions. Natural and climatic conditions have a significant impact on the architecture of residential buildings, on their spatial and functional organization, on the choice of building materials and structures, etc.

Temperature and humidity conditions are taken into account when designing residential buildings, protecting them from sudden seasonal and daily changes in outside air temperature, from hypothermia in the northern regions and overheating in the southern regions. In coastal areas, residential buildings are protected from humid air and in continental areas from dry air. The main means for creating a comfortable temperature and humidity regime are the shape and structure of the building envelope (material and thickness of the outer wall of the building) and ventilation of residential premises, as well as the shape of the building itself - the compactness of its plan, the width of the building, the perimeter of the external walls, etc. .

The material, design and thickness of the boundary wall are of great importance in cold climates. Ventilation is most important in hot, humid climates. In single-family houses, corner, through and vertical ventilation are effective.

When developing master plans for residential buildings and residential settlements, it is important to take into account the wind regime. Wind speeds of 5 m/s or more have an adverse effect on humans. Residential buildings are protected from the effects of unfavorable winds, while at the same time aeration is provided, i.e. organized and controlled natural air exchange in the built-up area and natural ventilation of residential premises.

The means of ensuring aeration are the orientation of residential buildings in relation to the prevailing winds in a given area, the shape and structure of its boundary wall - the distribution and size of openings on the outer wall.

To create the sanitary and hygienic comfort a person needs, residential premises are insulated. Insolation - irradiation of residential premises and adjacent areas with direct sunlight; characterized by duration and measured in hours. For northern regions, insolation of residential premises should be provided for 3 hours, for the middle zone - 2.5 hours, for southern regions - 2 hours. Under reconstruction conditions, insolation can be reduced by 0.5 hours.

Insolation is taken into account when designing residential premises and placing a house on a site. To ensure normal sanitary and hygienic conditions in 2-3-room houses, at least one living room must be insulated, in 4 or more room houses - at least two living rooms.

The means of ensuring insolation are the orientation of residential buildings and their shape - the configuration of plans, gaps between buildings and their height.

The orientation of a living space is considered favorable if it ensures insolation. Favorable orientation for residential premises is provided by the southern and eastern sides of the horizon (from 40 to 200°), as well as the northwestern (from 290 to 320°). Accordingly, an unfavorable orientation is given by the north (320-40°) for all climatic regions due to the lack of insolation and the southwest (200-290°) for the southern regions due to overheating. Overheating is eliminated with the help of sun protection: on the southern façade the most effective is horizontal, on the eastern and western - vertical.

There are latitudinal, meridional and diagonal types of orientation of residential buildings. With a latitudinal orientation, residential buildings are located along the latitude and its premises are facing south and north; with a meridional orientation, a residential building is oriented along the meridian, and its premises are oriented to the east and west, and in the case of a diagonal orientation - in the directions SW - NE and SE - NW. In areas with a cold and temperate climate, residential buildings are oriented meridionally and diagonally in any direction, in areas with a warm and hot climate - latitude and diagonally in the direction SE - NW (Fig. 1).

Natural illumination of residential premises creates the necessary sanitary and hygienic comfort of living and depends on the level of external illumination (brightness of the sky); amount of reflected light; the size of light openings; depth of the rooms. The means of ensuring the required natural light are the shape and size of the openings, and the orientation of the residential building. They regulate the level of natural light by drawing up plans for the living spaces of the house and developing its facades.

The formation of residential development, namely the choice of the type of residential building and construction methods, is closely related to the terrain. The need to take into account the terrain is especially relevant during construction in mountainous areas and foothills, as well as in connection with the development of the slopes of ravines, hills, coastal zones, etc. With an increase in the angle of inclination to 10-15°, the terrain affects the layout of the first floor of a residential building , with a slope of more than 15-20°, special types of residential buildings should be used - terraced houses.

Rice. 1. Sectors of unfavorable orientation of residential premises: a - north of 58 ° N; b - in the range of 48-58 ° N; c - south of 48°N; d - in climatic regions I and II with the predominance of northern winds

The conditions for visual perception of an individual building or complex are determined by the peculiarities of the physiology of human vision, on the one hand, and the place of the site in the spatial structure of the surrounding buildings, on the other. It is known that the zone of clear perception in the horizontal plane is 42 °, and in the vertical plane - 27 V. Therefore, a person can perceive the designed object in a real situation in a completely different way than the architect would like. Architects have taken these features into account for a long time.

Taking into account the conditions of visual perception means giving the external form of a residential building - silhouette, large plastic - such qualities that express its belonging to a given place of settlement. The nature of perception changes depending on the type of person’s movement: moving on foot or by transport, a person will perceive the shape of a residential building differently. Different perception times dictate different ways of organizing the information potential of a home. In addition, they take into account the direction of human movement, i.e. the direction of perception of the composition, emphasizing the planning axes with the axes of visual perception, organizing the “framing” of perception, closing the perspectives with expressive frontal compositions. It is especially important to take into account the conditions of visual perception when designing a residential building in the conditions of existing buildings.

The conditions of visual perception are taken into account when deciding on the master plan for the development of the site.

	Introduction........................................................ ........................................................
	Architectural part................................................... ........................
1.1	General information........................................................ ...................................
1.2	Natural and climatic conditions.................................................... ......
1.3	General plan decision......................................................... .............
1.4	Space-planning solution................................................................... ......
	Architectural structures................................................... .........
2.1	Structural diagram........................................................ ........................
2.2	Construction Materials................................................ ...................
	Architectural physics................................................... ....................
3.1	Lighting part................................................... ......................
3.2	Acoustic calculation................................................... ...........................
	Economics of construction........................................................ ...............
4.1	Consolidated construction estimate ............................................................
	Safety and security there................................................... ................
5.1	Occupational Safety and Health................................................ .........................................
5.2	Fire safety................................................ .......................
	Conclusion................................................. ........................................
	List of used literature.........................................................

Introduction

Architecture or architecture is the art of designing and constructing various buildings, structures, complexes necessary for the life and various activities of people. They must also embody the tastes and main artistic trends of society, that is, they must also perform aesthetic functions.

The development of architectural traditions took place over several millennia - the first buildings discovered by archaeologists date back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. At first they were as simple as possible, intended for housing. Over the centuries, buildings became more and more complex. Builders began to use their knowledge to build tombs - mounds, mastabas, and finally giant tombs appeared, which have no analogues in the whole world - pyramids.

New centers of culture were formed in northern Africa, in Mesopotamia, on the coast and islands of the Mediterranean Sea, and in America. In different parts of the planet, architecture developed according to its own rules, but some similarities can be found. For example, the ziggurats of the peoples of the East were somewhat reminiscent of the pyramids of Ancient Egypt, as well as the religious buildings of the Toltecs, Aztecs, Mayans and other peoples who inhabited the American continent.

With the development of civilization, a new stage in the development of architectural traditions began - the construction of cities, which was later identified as a separate field of art. People living in cities sought to make their lives as easier and more convenient as possible. They tried to make the houses not only comfortable, but also beautiful. It was possible to determine by the housing what social status a particular city dweller occupied: the poor continued to live in miserable houses, and representatives of the city nobility built entire palaces, which often occupied an area equal to the entire city.

It is this ancient period in the development of architecture that is most interesting. However, studying the history of architectural traditions is associated with certain difficulties. Many grandiose ancient structures and complexes that amaze contemporaries are today partially or completely destroyed, so it is quite difficult to imagine what they looked like. As for the buildings and ensembles built in a later period, there are so many of them that it is almost impossible to study them all. Therefore, this book examines only the most significant, grandiose buildings, impressive in their size, layout, facade decoration and interior decoration, not only of contemporaries, but also of descendants.

Architectural part

General information

Blocked low-rise buildings consist of several isolated apartment blocks adjacent to each other with a separate exit from each apartment to the apartment area. The number of blocks included in the house depends on various conditions (nature of the site, terrain, degree of fire resistance of the house, etc.) and can include from 4 to 16 apartments with linear blocking, and with complex blocking - much more.
Blocked houses, as a rule, are built with one or two floors. In two-story houses, apartments are located on two levels (cottage type) or on one level on each floor (floor-by-floor arrangement). There may be options with a half-floor offset.
To increase the building density, three-story block houses can also be used. In our country, such houses have recently begun to gain some popularity, since under certain conditions they combine economic, social and aesthetic effects.
A block house, while retaining all the amenities of one- and two-apartment houses, is much more economical than them. This. is explained by a reduction in the perimeter of external walls and a sharp increase in building density. The profitability of a blocked house increases with the number of apartments in the house.
Blocking apartments can be done in different ways (Fig. 1). The simplest and most common method is to connect apartment blocks with side walls and form a house of a simple rectangular shape. In such a house, all apartments have a two-way orientation and cross ventilation.
The same simple house configuration and even greater building density are achieved by double-row blocking. However, this technique, with a large number of apartment blocks in the house, worsens the sanitary and hygienic qualities of the apartments, which receive a one-way orientation and are deprived of cross ventilation. Therefore, double-row blocking is used, as a rule, in four-apartment buildings, in which the apartments receive a two-way orientation and corner ventilation. This type of blocking is called cross-shaped. In some cases, in order to better isolate individual blocks or improve orientation conditions, blocking is used to shift the blocks relative to each other.

Figure 1 Examples of blocking apartments in apartment buildings:
1 - house plan; 2 - apartment area

In areas with a hot climate, to better protect premises from overheating, blocking from L-shaped blocks in plan, forming semi-open or enclosed courtyards, is used. It is possible to block such apartments closely. In the case of steep terrain, blocking is carried out by moving the blocks vertically. In some cases, a vertical shift is combined with a horizontal and block shift, which creates a rich spatial composition that is organically connected with the terrain. Various combinations of these techniques can create complex, interesting building compositions.
A peculiarity of the layout of apartments in blocked houses is the mandatory presence of 2 entrances. This is explained by the fact that the site is cut by the house into 2 isolated parts - one located in front of the house, and the second behind it, which can only be accessed through the apartment. In addition, unlike an individual apartment, apartments in a blocked house have a limited light front (depending on the nature of the blocking), which determines the location of the premises. When blocking apartments, sanitary facilities must be located adjacently, for which the blocks in most cases are placed mirrored to each other.

One-story blocked houses are built with small one-, two- and three-room apartments. Their layout is built according to two main schemes: the front room and kitchen are located on the street side, and the common room and bedroom are facing the opposite side of the house and access to the site is from these rooms through a balcony door or terrace; The front and common rooms face the street, and the kitchen faces the plot.
The first technique creates better conditions for a greater connection between the apartment and nature, however, if the area behind the house is used only as a utility yard, the second layout option is preferable.
In Fig. Figure 3 shows layout plans for apartments in one-story blocks.
It is advisable to build two-story blocked cottage-type houses with apartments from three to five rooms with a living area of at least 40 m2. Such houses are much more economical than one-story ones, since with the same area they have a shorter length along the street front, which reduces the length of roads and utilities.

Figure 2 Example of complex blocking of buildings on steep terrain

Figure 3 Layout schemes for apartments in one-story blocked houses

Zoning of premises in apartments of two-story blocked houses is carried out vertically, and the first floor is planned by analogy with one-story houses. Just as in individual houses, the location of the apartment staircase plays a big role in the organization of the apartment.
In Fig. 4 shows examples of apartment layouts in two-story blocks.
In the construction practice of our country, two-story blocked cottage-type houses have become widespread due to their relative efficiency and wide compositional capabilities - by using various combinations of standard blocks, many options for volumetric-spatial solutions can be obtained.
Two-story blocked houses with floor-by-floor apartments are used much less frequently. Such houses are rational for placing small apartments with maximum building density. In this case, each block is not one apartment, as in cottage-type houses, but two located one above the other. Moreover, each apartment has an isolated entrance from its own site. A staircase leads to the second floor, closed in cold and average climate regions and open in the southern regions.

Figure 4 Examples of apartment layouts in blocked cottage-type houses: a-three-room apartment; b, c-four-room apartments

The disadvantage of such blocking is the difficulty of dividing apartment areas and the inevitability of their poor isolation from each other. Therefore, houses with floor-to-floor apartments are designed with only four apartments (two apartments on the first floor and two on the second). This simplifies the division of areas and access to the entrances to each apartment.

Figure 5 Blocked residential building, composed of block apartments: a-facade; b-plans of block apartments (competition project)

Three- and four-story buildings are intended primarily for high-density urban development, which involves complex blocking of apartments and the creation of a building of great depth (the wider the building, the more rational the use of the territory). In this case, it is possible to use multi-story buildings of 2, 3 and 4 floors with the construction of apartment courtyards and terraces on the roofs of the underlying volumes.
Such space-planning structures of residential buildings, reducing the territory of residential buildings and helping to increase the density of the housing stock, create favorable conditions for creating expressive architecture of residential buildings, individualizing the appearance of residential buildings and residential areas, and connecting people with nature.
The plots of all types of blocked houses are made small, since their width is limited by the width of the block apartment. For rural areas, the norms allow a plot area of 600 m2, and in other settlements - up to 300 m2. The plots have a narrow, elongated shape and are most often separated from each other by hedges - rows of bushes or trees.
The house is located on a plot indented from the red line. Flower beds are arranged in front of the facade, and behind the house, depending on the family’s lifestyle, there is a garden, a vegetable garden, a utility yard, while the sheds and garbage bin are located at the rear side of the site in the utility driveway. On very small plots there are no outbuildings, but where they are needed, a common outbuilding is provided for the entire house, and sometimes a group of houses.

Figure 6 Four-apartment building with floor-by-floor arrangement of apartments:
a - ground floor plan; b - plan of the second floor; c - first floor apartment; d - site plan; d - second floor apartment

The southern regions are characterized by blocking with internal closed or semi-enclosed courtyards, which are like a continuation of the apartment and represent a “green room” (Fig. 5.24). Using this blocking technique, a very economical dense so-called “carpet” building is created.
The orientation of the house according to the cardinal directions is of great importance, on which the correct insolation of the site and premises depends. It is desirable that kitchens in all climatic regions be oriented to the north, the remaining rooms - to the south, east and southeast. As for the site, in cases of simple linear blocking of apartments with a latitudinal location of the house, the part of the site oriented to the south of the house is in a more favorable position, so it should be made larger. If the house is located in a meridian direction, most of the site should be left on the western side. The most successful location for such a house would be at an angle of 30...45° to the meridian.

Figure 7 Three-story blocked houses. Level plans:
a - on the first level there are utility rooms, on the second and third - an apartment; b - cottage-type apartments are located on the first and second levels, on the third - on one level; c - on the first floor there are apartments on one level, on the second and third - cottage-type apartments on two levels

Natural and climatic conditions

The natural conditions of the Almaty region include 5 climatic zones - from deserts to eternal snow. The climate is sharply continental, the average January temperature in the plains is -15 C, in the foothills - 6-8 C; July - +16 C and +24+25 C, respectively. Annual precipitation on the plains is up to 300 mm, in the foothills and mountains - from 500-700 to 1000 mm per year.

The city of Almaty is located at the foot of the Tien Shan mountain system in the southeast of the Republic of Kazakhstan at an altitude of 600-900m above sea level.

The climate of Almaty is continental and is characterized by the influence of mountain-valley circulation, which is especially evident in the northern part of the city, located directly in the zone of transition of mountain slopes to the plain.

The average long-term air temperature is 10 °C, the coldest month (January) is −4.7 °C, the warmest month (July) is 23.8 °C. Frosts on average begin on October 14 and end on April 18. Stable frosts last an average of 67 days - from December 19 to February 23. Weather with temperatures above 30 °C occurs on average 36 days a year.

In the center of Almaty, like any large city, there is a “heat island” - the contrast in average daily temperature between the northern and southern outskirts of the city is 3.8% and 0.8 °C at the coldest and 2.2% and 2 .6 °C on the hottest five-day period. Therefore, frosts in the city center begin on average 7 days later and end 3 days earlier than on the northern outskirts.

Almaty is located at different altitudes above sea level - from 600 to 1650 meters. Geographic coordinates are 77° east longitude and 43° north latitude.

At the foot of the mountains there is a flat strip of loose boulder-pebble deposits covered with loess-like loams. To the north of the city, the sloping terrain gradually levels out; The flat strip is crossed by several rivers. The natural relief within the city has changed significantly. In the mountains, with an altitude of 600 m, the semi-desert gives way to a belt of dry wormwood-feather grass-fescue steppes on chestnut soils; at altitudes of 800-1700 m, meadows on chernozem-like mountain soils and deciduous park-type forests; with an altitude of 1500−1700 m - a belt of subalpine meadows in combination with coniferous forests (Tian Shan spruce, fir, juniper) on mountain meadow soils; above 2800 m - low-grass alpine meadows and shrubs on mountain-tundra soils.

In Kazakhstan, the most seismically dangerous territory is the Northern Tien Shan, at the foot of which is the city of Almaty. According to seismic microzoning, this zone belongs to the seismicity zone of 7-9 points.

The terrain of the site is calm, with a slope to the north. The elevations of the building are taken into account the elevations of adjacent sidewalks, the roadway and assume drainage from the building and the site.

Engineering-geological conditions

The construction site is characterized by a thick thickness of pebble soils with sandy (rarely sandy or loamy) filler, covered with a thin (1.0 - 4.8 m) layer of cover formations, represented by bulk soils and often interlayered and quickly wedging out loams, sandy loams, and sands of various sizes. Groundwater lies at depths from 15 – 20 to 120 m.

The site of the proposed construction is seismically unfavorable in accordance with clause 3.5. SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006 “Construction in seismic areas” in the zone of possible manifestation of tectonic faults on the daytime soil surface.

Taking into account the depth of the foundations and the presence of a thick thickness of pebbles in the lower part of the section, the engineering and seismic conditions within the construction site will correspond to the conditions of the seismic section II-A-1 with a seismicity of 9 points and the I category of soils in terms of seismic properties. The updated value of the seismicity of the site in the Almaty region is equal to 9 points for the first category of soils in terms of seismic properties (taking into account the depth of the foundations).

Groundwater in the survey area has not been penetrated by workings 21.0 m deep.

The base of the foundations is based on engineering-geological element 6 - pebble soil with sand filling, according to SNiP RK 5.01-01-2002,

According to compression tests, clayey soils exhibit subsidence properties under additional loads. The relative subsidence coefficient at a specific pressure of 0.05 MPa is 0.003; at a specific pressure of 0.1 MPa – 0.011; at a specific pressure of 0.2 MPa - 0.022 at a specific pressure of 0.3 MPa - 0.023. Soil conditions belong to the first type in terms of subsidence.

The standard depth of seasonal soil freezing according to SNiP RK 5.01-01-2002 and SNiP RK 2.04-01-2004 for loams is 92 cm, for coarse soils - 136 cm. The maximum penetration of 0 degrees into the soil is 170 cm.

1.3 Master plan solution

The store is located in a sharply continental zone, with sharp temperature changes, characterized by a maximum summer temperature of 40-42 during the day and 16-18 at night.

Figure 8 Master plan solution

The proposed construction site has a rectangular plan. The territory is located in a seismic zone.

The site plan extends from south to north, with residential buildings bordering the area from the north. The building meets all sanitary and hygienic requirements. Plot size - 142x142m. The area of the plot is 0.24 hectares. The entrance is oriented from west to east.

Soils – planting soils with solid and semi-solid carbonate inclusions. Groundwater lies at a depth of up to 50.0 m from the surface of the earth. The depth of soil freezing is 1.2 m.

The climate of Almaty is sharply continental with all the features inherent in a semi-desert zone:

Excess insolation and thermal resources against the background of a sharp lack of moisture in the summer;

Moderately low air temperatures in winter; with large seasonal and daily fluctuations in weather elements.

The climate is included in the 3rd climatic region.

The average duration of the hot period is 90 days. During the summer months there is high solar radiation. The average temperature in July is +30˚C. Average maximum temperature for June – August +36˚C; absolute maximum temperature = 40˚C.

The average temperature in January is -21˚C, the maximum temperature is -25˚C.

The average annual precipitation is 220m. The average of the largest h of snow cover = 15 cm. The standard snow load on 1 m² of horizontal surface is 100 kg/m².

Annual and seasonal wind roses have a pronounced predominance of northwestern directions throughout the year. High frequency of western and eastern winds. The standard wind load on 1 m² of horizontal surface is 38 kg/m². ,

Table 1 Wind rose

Figure 9 Compass rose

Table 2 Environmental protection measures

№	Event name	Event effectiveness factors
1.	Timely and high-quality construction of permanent and temporary access site and on-site roads	Reducing the area of the destroyed surface with vegetation. Preventing air and water erosion. Reducing environmental dust
	Transportation of concrete and mortar centrally in closed dump trucks	Elimination of soil pollution, reduction of material losses, reduction of loading and unloading costs
	Use of electricity for heating temporary domestic premises.	Reducing environmental pollution
	The inclusion of temporary household premises in the permanent designed water supply and sewerage networks should be carried out during the preparatory period	Reducing environmental pollution, reducing the estimated cost of buildings and structures
	Reducing the time required for excavation work	Reducing the processes of air and water erosion. Reducing the cost of excavation work.
	Transportation of construction equipment to the site during the daytime	Reducing noise at night and in the evening
	Maximum preservation of green spaces at the construction site	Reducing environmental dust. Reducing the estimated cost of construction
	Completion of construction with high-quality cleaning and landscaping of the construction area with restoration of vegetation cover	Reducing air and water soil erosion. Improving the quality of development
	Installation of temporary fencing at a construction site	Reducing environmental dust

1.3 Volumetric planning solution

Blocked residential buildings located in the city of Almaty The project provides for landscaping of the territory with the organization of parking lots and a mini garden.

Figure 10 1st floor plan

Figure 11 Plan of the 2nd floor

Figure 12 Plan of the 2nd floor

The architectural and planning solution is based on a clear technological relationship between the premises.

In plan, the building has a round shape, with dimensions of 50x43 m. The floors are connected vertically with each other by stairs.

The height of the building is three floors 10.6 m. The height of the first floor is 3,200 mm. ,

Figure 13 Section

Compositional solution for building facades

The solution of the facades is based on the combination of the main volume. The use and combination of modern finishing materials: small-piece elements, cladding with colored polished glass, the use of aluminum stained glass windows give the building the necessary

The building is equipped with domestic drinking water supply, sewerage, heating, ventilation, electric lighting and low-current devices (radio, telephone, television).

Figure 14 Compositional solution for building facades

The climate of Russia has a special differentiation, incomparable to any other country in the world. This is explained by the wide extent of the country across Eurasia, the heterogeneity of the location of water bodies and the wide variety of relief: from high mountain peaks to plains lying below sea level.

Russia is predominantly located in middle and high latitudes. Due to this, the weather conditions in most of the country are harsh, the seasons change clearly, and winters are long and frosty. The Atlantic Ocean has a significant influence on the climate of Russia. Despite the fact that its waters do not touch the territory of the country, it controls the transport of air masses in temperate latitudes, where most of the country is located. Since there are no high mountains in the western part, air masses pass unhindered all the way to the Verkhoyansk Range. In winter they help mitigate frosts, and in summer they provoke colder temperatures and precipitation.

Climatic zones and regions of Russia

(Schematic map of climatic zones of Russia)

There are 4 climatic zones on the territory of Russia:

Arctic climate

(Islands of the Arctic Ocean, coastal regions of Siberia)

Arctic air masses that prevail year-round, combined with extremely low exposure to the sun, cause severe weather conditions. In winter, during the polar night, the average daily temperature does not exceed -30°C. In summer, most of the sun's rays are reflected from the surface of the snow. Therefore, the atmosphere does not warm up above 0°C...

Subarctic climate

(Region along the Arctic Circle)

In winter, weather conditions are close to Arctic ones, but summers are warmer (in the southern parts the air temperature can rise to +10°C). The amount of precipitation exceeds the amount of evaporation...

Temperate climate

Continental(West Siberian Plain in the south and central part). The climate is characterized by low precipitation and a wide range of temperatures in winter and summer.
Moderate continental(European part). Western air transport brings air from the Atlantic Ocean. In this regard, winter temperatures rarely drop to -25°C, and thaws occur. Summer is warm: in the south up to +25°C, in the northern part up to +18°C. Precipitation falls unevenly from 800 mm per year in the northwest to 250 mm in the south.
Sharply continental(Eastern Siberia). The inland location and the lack of influence of the oceans explains the strong heating of the air during the short summer (up to +20°C) and the sharp cooling in winter (down to -48°C). The annual precipitation does not exceed 520 mm.
Monsoon continental(Southern part of the Far East). With the onset of winter, dry and cold continental air comes, causing the air temperature to drop to -30°C, but there is little precipitation. In summer, under the influence of air masses from the Pacific Ocean, the temperature cannot rise above +20°C.

Subtropical climate

(Black Sea coast, Caucasus)

A narrow strip of subtropical climate is protected by the Caucasus Mountains from the passage of cold air masses. This is the only corner of the country where the air temperature is positive in the winter months, and the duration of summer is significantly longer than in the rest of the country. The humid sea air produces up to 1000 mm of precipitation per year...

Climatic zones of Russia

(Map of climatic zones of Russia)

Zoning occurs in 4 conditional areas:

First- tropical ( Southern parts of Russia);
Second- subtropical ( Primorye, western and northwestern regions);
Third- moderate ( Siberia, Far East);
Fourth- polar ( Yakutia, more northern regions of Siberia, the Urals and the Far East).

In addition to the four main zones, there is a so-called “special” zone, which includes areas beyond the Arctic Circle, as well as Chukotka. The division into areas with approximately similar climates occurs due to uneven heating of the earth's surface by the Sun. In Russia, this division coincides with meridians that are multiples of 20: 20, 40, 60 and 80.

Climate of Russian regions

Each region of the country is characterized by special climatic conditions. In the northern regions of Siberia and Yakutia, negative average annual temperatures and short summers are observed.

A distinctive feature of the Far Eastern climate is its contrast. Traveling towards the ocean there is a noticeable change from continental to monsoon climate.

In Central Russia, the division into seasons occurs clearly: hot summer gives way to a short autumn, and after a cool winter comes spring with increased levels of precipitation.

The climate of the South of Russia is ideal for recreation: the sea does not have time to cool down much during the warm winter, and the tourist season begins at the end of April.

Climate and seasons of Russian regions:

The diversity of Russia's climate is due to its vast territory and openness to the Arctic Ocean. The large extent explains the significant difference in average annual temperatures, uneven exposure to solar radiation and heating of the country. Most of the region experiences severe weather conditions with a pronounced continental character and a clear change in temperature regimes and precipitation between seasons.

2 Natural and climatic factors influencing the history of Russia

One of the last to focus on this problem was L.V. Milov. In his opinion, in central Russia, which formed the historical core of the Russian state (after its movement from Kyiv to North-Eastern Rus'), with all the fluctuations in climate, the cycle of agricultural work was unusually short, taking only 125-130 working days.

Vegetable gardening was not practiced. They planted only what would grow on its own: turnips, rutabaga, peas.

Low yields and the dependence of labor results on weather conditions have determined the extreme stability of community institutions in Russia, which are a certain social guarantor of the survival of the bulk of the population. Land redistributions and equalizations, various kinds of peasant “help” were preserved in Russia until 1917. Communal egalitarian traditions were preserved after the First World War; they existed in the 20s until collectivization.

In Europe, if you make a bad, low-quality product, you will disgrace your workshop and brand.

Therefore, in Russia, until the surplus product began to grow, there was no intelligentsia, no secular literature, no music. Russian culture until the 18th century had a religious character.

The extensive nature of agriculture, its riskiness played a significant role in developing in Russian people the ease of changing places, the eternal craving for the “sub-heaven land”, for white water, etc., to which Russia owes not least its vast territory, and at the same time time increased in him a craving for traditionalism and the rooting of habits. On the other hand, difficult working conditions, the strength of community traditions, and the internal feeling of the danger of pauperization threatening society gave rise to the development in Russian people of a sense of kindness, collectivism, and readiness to help. We can say that the Russian patriarchal peasantry, not in economics, but in its mentality, did not accept capitalism.

On the other hand, due to the weak population of the country, the Russians in the process of colonization did not need to win for themselves a “place in the sun” in the fight against the indigenous peoples of Central Russia (Finno-Ugric peoples) and Siberia: there was enough land for everyone. “The Slavic tribes spread over vast areas, along the banks of large rivers; when moving from south to north, they were supposed to meet Finnish tribes, but no legends have been preserved about hostile clashes between them: it can easily be assumed that the tribes did not quarrel very much over the land that there was so much and on which one could spread out so spaciously without offending each other.”

Conclusion

Russia is the owner of a unique geopolitical space that connects it with all world civilizations, geostrategic regions, and major powers of the world. Due to these circumstances, Russia is forever embedded in the global political process and cannot be excluded from it.

At the same time, for more than three centuries the country has been unable to develop this space, populate it more evenly, reduce the gap in the level of development between the center of Russia and its Siberian territories, and create civilized living conditions there.

The vast expanses of Russia predetermined the predominantly extensive nature of the economy, the focus on self-sufficiency and the priority development of heavy industry, and weak participation in the international division of labor.

The problems of ensuring the country's security and public order over a vast area determined such features of Russian statehood as strong centralized power, the presence of a powerful military force, hypertrophy of the country's first personality and the principle of unity of command, and the weakness of democratic institutions.

The great dependence of the economic results of the economy and the well-being of the population on natural and climatic conditions predetermined the low productivity of peasant labor, the poverty of the bulk of the population, and the poverty of the state. The serfdom system generated by these circumstances further inhibited the peasants' interest in increasing the efficiency of their farms and fettered their initiative and enterprise. In conditions of poverty, frequent shortages and famine in Russia, a traditionally large state sector of the economy has formed, and a significant regulatory role of the state in the economic sphere has emerged. On the other hand, the hardships of a harsh life were easier to overcome with a communal way of life.

Russia's geopolitical position on two continents and the influence of two civilized worlds on it have led to a constant struggle between two currents in the political elite: 6 supporters of rapprochement with the West and adherents of national identity. Undertaken since the beginning of the 18th century. attempts to modernize the country according to the European model, as a rule, led to serious political and social crises, a deepening division of society, deformation of transformations, and rejection of European values by the majority of the population.

The most important historical lesson for politicians and citizens of the country: modern reform of Russia is impossible without taking into account the geopolitical position of the Russian state, its characteristics and traditions. World experience must be adapted to national conditions. Understanding the historical features of Russia's geopolitical development is the most important source of shaping the national consciousness of the country's population. “Being born Russian is not enough. They need to be, they need to become.” (I. Severyanin).

STATE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS AND MATHEMATICS (Technical University) Department of History and Political Science Methodological recommendations for students on preparing practical and test papers for the course “Russia in World History” Moscow 1998. Compiled by: Professor Popova T.G., Oganesyan M.N. Practical work. Test./Guidelines for preparing for practical and...

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